L o n d o n I n s t i t u t e - I n t e r n a t i o n a l H o u s e

L I T T I 2
Content - based instruction course

scieNce BooKLei

phillipmattin.into

T e a c h e r s : P a t r i c i a Carabeili M a r i
A w d r e a G a r c i a Peleteiro
 Contents

L a ensenanza de las ciencias naturales en el nivel primario de educacion formal.

Argumentos a su favor p. 1.

Que ensenan los maestros cuando ensenan ciencias naturales, y que dicen querer
ensefiar p. 11.

Making sense of National Curriuculum science p. 26.

Looking at Science in your school p. 28.

Teaching and learning issues p. 31.

Evaluation p. 5.

\\"hat does science :eacinizg v.i-.i-in a National curriculum imply? p. 55.

Problems encountered during science teaching p. 56.

Scientific method p. 57.

Diagram showing how scientific investigation takes place p. 58.

Sidlls to develop during science classes p. 58.

Cross-curricular activities p. 62.

Hacia un aprendizaje significativo p. 63.

^Como planillcamos una unidad didactica? p. 65.

<^Que es una unidad didactica? '. p. 66.

Developing investigation skills in primary schools p. 70.

Observing P- 76.

Asking questions, predicting and hypothesising p. 82.

Fair testing. Manipulating variables p. 88.

Measuring, selecting equipment and carrying out investigations p. 93.

Recording and communicating results p. 97.

Sample activities p. 103.

 •A

GAPI'TULO I

LA E N S E N A N Z A D E L A S C I E N C I A S N A T U R A L E S E N

• E L N I V E L P R I M A R I O D E E D U C A C I O N F O R M A L .

A R G U M E N T O S A S U F A V O R

• L a u r a Fumagalli

: E L PORQUE DE ESTE CAPI'TULO

1:.

A p o c o s anos del siglo X X I , parece a lm e n o s anacronico a r g u m e n t a r

a f a v o r d e l a e n s e n a n z a d e las c i e n c i a s n a t u r a l e s , e n e l n i v e l p r i m a r i o d e
la educacion f o r m a l . S o b r e t o d o si t e n e m o s e n cuenta q u e m a sd e l a
m i t a d d e l o s c o n o c i m i e n t o s q u e i n t e g r a n e l cor^u5 d e l s a b e r c i e n t i f i c o
My a c t u a l se p r o d u j e r o n d u r a n t e l a s e g u n d a m i t a d d e l siglo X X , y q u e d e l
t o t a l d e c i e n t i T i c o s q u e e n l a h i s t o r i a d e l h o m b r e se h a n d e d i c a d o a l a
investigacion, el 9 0 % vive o vivio e n igual periodo (Weissmann, 1993).
S i n e m b a r g o , existe u n a s e r i e d e razones q u e t o m a n actual esta argu-
. mentacion y que justifican su tratamiento.

•.'r a ) L a v e r d g i n o s a p r o d u c c i o n d e c o n o c i m i e n t o s c i e n t i f i c o s o p e r a d a
e n l a s e g u n d a m i t a d d e este siglo c o i n c i d i o t e m p o r a l m e n t e c o n e l debate
teorico e n e l area d e l a didactica d e las ciencias naturales, pues la
ensenanza d e dichas ciencias paso a ser objeto d e r e f l e x i o n del c a m p o
teorico educativo d e los paises centrales solo a partir d e los afios 50. Esto
'nos p e r m i t e pensar q u e es u n area teorica r e l a d v a m e n t e j o v e n y que, e n
virtud d e ello, presenta m u l u p l e s problemadcas que se.hallan, a u n hoy,
e n p r o c e s o d e d e b a t e . U n a d e estas es l a r e f e r i d a a l a e n s e n a n z a d elas
ciencias e n el nivel p r i m a r i o d e la educacion, y el debate gira e n t o r n o
d e m u l u p l e s aspectos. E n t x e estos, r e s u l t a c e n t r a l e l r e l a c i o n a d o c o n l a
posibilidad d e ensenar ciencias e n edades tempranas.
 |l IC LA ENSENANZA D E LAS C I E N C I A S NATUR,-\LES • DIDACTICA D E LAS CIENCIAS N A T U R A L E S 17

b) Tambien en el ciudo periodo se produjeron teorias psicologicas implementacion y evaluacion de p r o y e c t o s p r o p i o s de renovacion de

que brindaron nuevos marco^ expiicativos del desanollo cognitivo ensefianza de las ciencias en el nivel primario de la educacion. Nuestfa
infandl y del proceso de aprendizaje. En pardcular resultan rclevantes t r a d i c i o n e s hoy escasa y p u n t u a l m e n t e referida a algunas e x p e n e n c i a s
I los aportes de las psicologias cognitiva y genetica.' surgidas m a s d e l a p r e o c u p a c i o n p a r t i c u l a r de a l g u n o s gioipos de
Los pcdagogos dcdicados a la ensenanza de las ciencias tomaron los educadores que de poll ticas publicas dc renovacion de ensenanza de las
aportes provenientes de la psicologi'a, aunque no siempre de modo feliz. ciencias.
En algunos casos, los conocimientos producidos desde la psicologia
fucron capitalizados para claborar estrategias de ensenanza de las d) Asistimos hoy, en nuestro pais, a u n h e c h o paradqjico. Si b i e n en
I ciencias, acordes con el modo de entender la construccion del conoci- t e r m i n o s de d i s c u r s o p e d a g o g i c o p r a c u c a m e n t e n a d i e n i e g a la i m p o i -
miento por parte de los ninos. Pero, en otros, actuaron como legiuma- tancia social de acceder e n el nivel basico de e d u c a c i o n al c o n o c i m i e n - .
dorcs de la imposibilidad de ensefiar ciencias en cdadcs tempranas. En Lo c i e j T t i f l c D - y - t e e n o t e g i c o , e n l a p r a c t i c a e&HdHHva-de-nue^Lcas c s c u e l a s
.este segundo caso, y segiin pienso, debido a interpretaciones erroneas primariaseste a p a r e c c c o m o _ e l ^ r a n a u s e n t e , pucs sc^sigue p r i o r i z a n d o
de csas teorias psicologicas, adujeron que la complejidad del conoci- ensenanza d e l a s l l a m a d a s ' m a t e r i a s i n s t r u m p n r a l e s " ( n i a t e m a t i c a y
la
miento cientifico estaba muy lejos de la capacidad de comprension de lengua). l^or io t a n t o , el c o n o c i m i e n t o cienuTico y t e c n o l p p c o es
los ninos, y que por este motivo no seria'posible el aprendizaje de las m i n u s v a l o r a d o ae h e c h o en nuestra escuela p r i m a r i a , y su ensenanza
ciencias en edades tempranas. ocupa u n li]gar residual, s o b r e todo en el p r i m e r o y el segundo ciclo, en
los q u e Ilega ajser Inddental. Si b i e n n o h e a g o t a d o las r a z o n e s n i t r a t a d o
c) El debate teorico y la irnplcmentacion de numerosos proyectos de p r o f u n d a m e n t e c a d a una d e las e x p u c s t a s , c o n s i d e r o q u e la e n u n c i a -
innovacion dc ensenanza dc las ciencias,-' que se produjeron en los cion realizada justifica que d e d i q u e algunas paginas a argumentar a
p a i s e s centrales en los ultimos treinta anos, se constiluycion en marcos f a v o r de la e n s e n a n z a d c l a s c i e n c i a s e n e l n i v e l p r i m a r i o d e e d u c a c i o n
dc referenda desde los cuales rcpcnsar l a problemauca de la ensenanza formal.
dc las ciencias en nuestro pais. Sin embargo, s u influencia en la pracuca
d c la ensenanza ha sido cscasa y ha quedado circunscrita a circulos
rcstringidos de educadores preocupados por el t e m a "^rticularmente (jPOR Q U E E N S E N A R C I E N , ' C I / \ S E N L A E S C U E L - V PRIMAIUA?
e n el caso dc la educacion primaria, son escasos los pro^ramas tendien-
tps al mejoramiento de la ensenanza de las ciencias; los nocos^que. I-Labria diferentes lineas que permitirian responder a esta cuestion;
exTsten en la dretnt ofrcnrt ' CCTTSTililyeh expenencias recicntesy relativa- nd'obstante, he elegido tres que considero centrales: a) el derecho de los
yrijCJiicJltsLaclasen el panorama nacional. No contamos, por lo tanto,con ninos a aprender ciencias: b) el deber social includible de la escuela
u n cuerpo de conocimientos que h a y a s u r g i d o c o m o rcsultado dc l a primaria. en tnnrn sisitMnn csroinr, dr distribuir conociniicnios cicniifi-
cns en e\o de la poblacion, y c) el valor social del conocimiento
cientifico.
• n
I . V r i i s r AiiMil>cl y otros (l'.)7H), N<n-.ick (1088), I n l i c l d c r (1975), fCnrmilolT Smith
) (• l i i h r U l r i ( I ' l H l ) , ri.i|;rl (I'tVO.iyl., I T / H , 1981).
a) El derecho de los nmos a apreiider rienrids
I'.ntli- el los < .ilir (liM.ii ,11 •,\fnur\>lr; Niitt(i<-|(l)' .S< iciicr .')/ 1 '.\l Rciiio Uiiiclo
y I'.'.t : < ( : l w i i i .Study, I'l o)i'i t r i i , en I I ' 1II), Si algo (lebciiios a la p s i t o l o ) ; ! . ! t o i ' n i i i v . i .it lii.il, y ( " . p c i M J i i i c i i i f .i la
't I r i t i r rMo\ |iii>'il('ii i It.ii i l I ' l o y i c l u dc M<'|i>i .iiiiiciiln di- I'liscii.ui/;! d r l.is l)si<ol()gia g < ' i H ' M i ( a, es ( | i i < ' n o ' , li,m n i . i i l d . i l i c, f d i n e s i i i l o i iii.i
( Kill n i el Nivw'l r i i i i i , l l l o d r I'dlli .ii Ion, I j i o i d l l l . i i ion dc Ai livid.idcs I liciilllli
I ion sdbic I'l i i K IIII I I m i l l I l i r , i i i i n r , i i i i c l i i i y r i i i m i n i i i i i i r i i h r , \nili
II, I nil III .1 V I' dm ,i> Ion, Miiiin || i.dnl.id di- l.i t ind.nl dr Uinno', ,'\ii c ,
18 l A KNSKNANZA D E LAS C I E N C I A S N A T U R A L E S
can el mundo. Gracias a esto, hoy sabemos que los ninos no son adultos
en miniatura sino sujetos que denen un modo pardcular de significar el
mundo que los rodea. .
Cada vez que escucho que los nifios pequefios no pueden aprender
ciencias, endendo que tal afirmacion comporta no solo la incompren-
sion de las caracteristicas psicologicas del pensamiento infandl sino
tambien la desvalorizacion del nino como sujelo social. En este sen tido, parece
olvidarse que los ninos no son solo "el futurosino que son "hoy" sujetos -
integrantes del cuerpo social y que, por lo tanto, tienen el mismo derecho que los
adullos de apropiarse de la cultura elaborada por el conjunto de la sociedad^ara
utilizarla en la expRcaaon y • la transformadon del mundo. que loi lodea.. Y
/ apropiarse de la cuftuni elaborada es apropiarse tambien del conoci-
miento cienufico en tanto este es parte consdtudva de dicha cultura.
No enseriar ciencias en edades tempranas invocando una supuesta
incapacidad intelectual de los nirios es una (ormgjle discriminarlos romo
sujetos sociales. Y este es un primer argumento para sostener el debet/
includible de la escuela primaria de transmiur conocimiento cientifico.
b) La escuela primaria y la distribucion social de conocimiento cientifico
' I .escuela es por ahora el ambito_que podria posibilitar de manera
Este otro eje de argumentacion reside en el papel social asignado a
i^-*r El corpus
la escuela primaria en tanto sistema escolar de ensenanza. En el contex-
C tilutiva de la cultura elaborada; por lo tanto, es licito considerarlo como
to actual, y debido al marcado caracter asistencial que asume nuesu-a
educacion primaria, hoy mas que nunca es necesario barer im replanteo
r.ritico del papel social de la ensefianza escolar.
Respecto de esta temadca, considero relevante el aporte efectuado al
campo teorico educadvo en la decada del 80. En dicho periodo se
formularon, tanto en los paises centrales como en America ladna,
nuevos modos de conceptualizar el papel social de la ensefianza escolar.
Estos nuevos marcos teoricos,'' en su conjunto, isualnrizaron elpapel de la
escuela en la distribucion social deun corpus de contenidos culturales socialmen-
It significativos.
Luego de las cridcas reproducdvistas* efectuadas en la decada del 70
4. Veanse Saviani (1981), T e d e s c o y otros (1983). Snyders (1978), Apple (1986),
Braslavsky (1985), L i b a n e o (1984).
5. ."ara ello vcasc B a u d e l o t y E s u b l e t (1975), B o r d i e u y Passeron (1977), l l l i c h
•' ' / 1 n»7,«\
' DIDACTICA D E LAS C I E N C I A S NATURAIJ-:S I'l
al sistema escolar, las teorias de los arios 80 significaron un inoviiniriuo
de "retomo a la escuela", pues sostuvieron que
la educacion escolar dene un papel insusutuible en la provision dc conoci-
mientos de base y habilidades cogniuvas y operativas necesariiis pani la par-
dcipacion en la vida social, y en lo que significa el acceso a la cultura, al
trabajo, al progreso y a la ciudadani'a (Libaneo, 1984).
La escuela volvio a considerarse como la insdtucion social encargada
de distribuir en la poblacion un conjunto de contenidos culturales que no
son capaces de transmiur ni generar los grupos primarios, tales como la
familia, ni los medios de comunicacion social ni el desarrollo esponta-
'r- neo del nino en la vida colectiva (Perez Gomez, A., 1992).
Ese conjunto de contenidos culturales que consdtuyen el corpus Ae\
conocimiento escolar es publico,* en el senddo de que ha sido elaborado
y sistemadzado socialmente. Asignarle a la escuela el papel social de
distribuir dichos contenidos supone reconocer que el lugar social de
pertenencia, aunque fuente de produccion cultural, no garandza el
iy: acceso al conocimiento de la cultura elaborada por el cuerpo social. La
^••tadecuada este acceso.
conocimientos de las ciencias naturales es parte cons-
contenido del conocimiento escolar.
^: V Por otra parte, todos los sistemas escolares poseen niveles encargados
de brindar educacion basica. En nuestro pais, es la escuela primaria
(nivel primario de educacion) la responsable de distribuir socialmente
lbs contenidos de la cuUura elaborada que formaran parte del capital
cultural basico de ja poblacion. Como ya hemos dicho, lapresencia de
las rien^il^ p n n i n l p i - pn p<:r.-> n i v i " ) AP- . - n s p n n n y n p^-j^rfirampntf
inexistente.
,. ijPuede decirse que nuestro sistema escolar hace una distribucion
democratica_de conocimientos cuando los niiposque acceden a nuestias
escuelas primarias denen una es(;asa i n t p m r r i n n r o n l a s r i f > n r i j i s ^ r Q , " ^
capital cultural basico estamos formando cuando en el e,s prarfirame.nte
nuTo el lugar asignado al conocimiento de las ciencias natuialos?
6. Vease Stenhouse {198.'")).
 20 LA ENSENANZA D E L A S C I E N C I A S N A T U R A L E S . . D I D A C T I C A D E LAS C I E N C I A S N A T U R A L E S 21
Si volvemos la mirada a nuestra escuela desde estos interrogantes, siendo la mayorfa supuestamente cientificos pero en todo caso contenien-
mm
parece cada vez mas legirima la preocupacion que algunos educadores do datos y problemas que a menudo lo preocupan y angusuan.
tenemos sobre la situacion que hoy atraviesa la ensefianza de las ciencias .•v-r-\.. •
en el nivel primario. Y, simultaneamente, se toma necesario apelar auna La decision de responder a esta demanda supone valorizar la practica
revalorizacion del papel social de la escuela primaria en el proceso de social presente de los nifios. Sostengo que cuando ensenamos ciencias
distribucion de contenidos de la cultura elaborada, enu-e los cuales no a ninos en edades tempranas no estamos formando solo "futuros ciuda-
pueden quedar excluidas las ciencias naturales. danos", pues los ninos, en tanto integrantes del cuerpo social actual,
pueden ser hoy tambien responsables del cuidado del medio ambiente,
pueden hoy actuar de modo consciente y solidario respecto de temad-
-<:) El valor social del conocimiento cientifico
cas vinculadas al bienestar de la sociedad de la que forman parte.
Ninos, jovenes y adultos construimos en nuestra pracuca social Resalto el valor del conocimiento cienufico en la pracuca social
cotidiana un conocimiento delmundo que nos rodea. Este conocimien- presente de los ninos, porque considero que este es un aspecto triste-
to cotidiano o d e l sentido_cpjTiun_nos permiteinteractuar d e u n modo mente ofvidado en el momento dejusdficar la ensefianza de las ciencias
b a s t a n t e eficiente con nuestra realidad natural y social. en edades tempranas. En general, se suek cecurrir a argumentosjjaido-
I Se podria argumentar q u e n o e s necesa'no acceder a u n conocimien- centricos, de sesgo fuertemente individualista, por los que el nifio qufida
to cienufico de l a realidad para interactuar con ella. Sin embargo, de lo - reducido a""un sujetb psicologico ahistorico y asocial. Cuando esto
que se trata es de l a r a l i d a d d p l a inreraccion. ocurre, se contribuye a la marginacion de los nifios en el entramado
Parto de una valoraci6n_positiva del conocimiento cientifico, pues social.
entiendo, como Fourez, G. (1987), que dicho conocimiento puede Finalmente, esta valoracion de los nifios como sujetos sociales actua-
posibilitar una pardcipacion activa v con senddo critico en una sociedad' . les no excluye el reconocimiento de que ellos seran los adultos de la
como la actual, en la que eljiecho cienufico esta en la base de gran partq sociedad futura. Por ello pienso que formando a los ninos contribuimos
le las opciones personales que la practica social reclama. tafnbien a la formacion de futuros ciudadanos adultos responsables y
ST Bien es poco probable que alguien niegue hoy el valor del ciiucos.
conocimiento cienufico en la pracuca social de los ciudadanos adultos, Enestesenddo, coincide con Hilda Weissmann (1993) cuando resal-
pienso que la controversia surge cuando se u-ata de conceptualizar ta que la formacion cienuTica de los chicos yjovenes debe conuribuir a
dicho valor en relacion con la pracuca social de los nifios. ^Cabe definir la formacion de futuros ciudadanos que sean responsables de sus actos,
entonces en que senddo el conocimiento de las ciencias naturales es tanto individuales como colecdvos, conscientes y conocedores de los
valioso desde el punto de vista social para un nino? fiesgos, pero activos y solidarios para conquistar el bienestar de la
Al respecto dice Juan Manuel Guderrez Vazquez (1984): sociedad, y cridcos y exigentes frente a quienes toman las decisiones.
. Derecho de los ninos a aprender ciencias, deber social de la escuela
{.OS ninos (Icinaiidan el conocimiento d e l a s ciencias naturales porque primaria de transmiurlas y valor social del conocimiento cientifico
v i v c i i e n im imiiuio e n e l ( | u e ocurren u n a enorme canudad d e fenomenos parecen ser razones que jusdfican la ensefianza de las ciencias naturales
n;iMiiaic.s paia los i\\\r e l i i i f i o m i s m o esta deseoso d e encontrar una a ninos en edades tempranas. Podria uno concluir entonces que es
cxpiic a ( i o n , u n m e d i o e n e l ( | n c t o d o s e s t a m o s rodeados d e u n a infinidad necesario ensenar ciencias naturales en dichas edades; sin embargo, ^;es
dc | ) i ( ) < l i i i los tic 1.1 ( i c i i i i . i y (Ic l a i c d i o l o f j i a q u e e ! n i n e mismo usa posible que los ninos las aprendan? Esta .serii la .segunda curstiiiii a ti aiar.
d i a l i ; i m c n i c y s o i ) i c los i i i . i l c s sc | i i c | ' , i i n t ; i tin s i i u i t ' i t i i c i o < i e cuestioncs; un
i m i i u l o c n c l i|iic los i n c i l i o s i l c i i i t o i i n . n i o n s o c i a l lo l ) o m l ) a i ( l c a i i con
r-- n o l i c i a s y ( o n o i i i n i c n i o s , .il|;iiiios d c los c n.tics son r c . i l n i c i i i r c i c i u i l i c o s ,
22 LA ENSENANZA D E LAS CIENCIAS N A T U R A L E S
^PUEDEN L O S N I N O S Q U E C U R S A N L A E S C U E L A P I U M A R L \ " ' '
APRENDER QENCIAS NATURALES?^ ' •• • •
Los ninos ingresan en la escuela primaria aliededor de los (> aiios y
se espera que egresen aproximadamente a los 12. Mas de un ensenante
de ciencias estaria tentado de afirmar que es muy poco j)!ohable que ni-
fios de esa edad puedan aprender conceptos cieiuiflcos y, en el mejor de
los casos, dejarian la ensenanza de dichos conceptos para los iikimos
grados de ensefianza primaria (nifios de 11 y 12 anos aproximada-
mente).
Evidentemente, la posibilidad de ensenar debe eslar acompafiada de
la posibilidad de aprender; si esta ukiina no exisic, (jucda drsvirtuada la
ensefianza. En la introduccion deciainos (pie algunos pcdagogos sosde-
nen la imposibilidad de ensefiar ciencias a chi(os <-n edades tempranas
basandose en las caracterisdcas del desanollo cognitivo infantil estudia-
das y difundidas por la psicologia gciieiica. I'onen en duda (jue un nifio
que no ha construido aun una estructura formal tic jx-nsamiento pueda
acceder a la comprension de las teorias cientilicas.
Si bien este argumento parece consistcntc, considero que encubre
dos cuesuones sobre las que ba.sare mi contraarguineniacion.
La primera de ellas se refiere a la caractcrizacion del objeto de
estudio, esto es, a la ciencia. Cuando se sosti(Mie (pie los ninos no pueden
aprender ciencia se esta idendficando la d e n c u i escolar con la ciencia de
los cienuficos.
Yla ciencia escolar no es la ciencia de los cienuficos, pues existe un
proceso de uansformacion o Irasposicion didactica del conocimiento
cientifico al ser u-ansmiddo en el contexto escolar de ensefianza
(Chevallard, 1985).
Alhablarde ciencia escolar intentodiscriminarun conodrniento escolar
que, si bien toma como referencia el conocimiento cientifico, no se
idendfica sin mas con el.
La segunda cuesdon se refiere al lugar que se les asigna a las
estructuras cognoscitivas en el proceso de aprendizaje escolar. Cuando
los pcdagogos senalan imposibilidades asociadas con la falta de pensa-
miento formal, suelen quedar atrapados en lo que Eleanor Duckworth
(1978) formulo como un falso dilema, y que dio nombre al conoci-
do artfculo: "O se lo ensenamos demasiado pronto y no pueden apren-
D I D A C T I C A D E LAS C I E N C I A S N A T U R A L E S •2i
derlo o demasiado tarde y ya lo conocen: el dilema de aplicar a Piaget".
'' - Considero que lo que aparece tergiversado aqui es el contenido del
conocimiento escolar. L a ensefianza escolar no debe estar dirigida a la
consUTiccion de estructuras cognoscitivas, pues, tal como lo ha mostra-
do la psicologia genedca, ellas se construyen espontaneamente en la
interaccion del sujeto con un medio social culturalmente organizado y
.feSCR
sin que sea necesaria la intervencion de la escuela. Estas estructuras
marcan ciertas posibilidades de razonamiento y de aprendizaje; por lo
tanto encuadran el trabajo escolar.
En el marco de sus estructuras de pensamiento, los chicos pueden
adquirir saberes amplios y profundos sobre el mundo que los rodea. Se
trata, pues, de lograr que construyan esquemas de conodrniento ^ que les
permitan adquirir una vision del mundo que supere los limites de su
saber coddiano y los acerque al conocimiento elaborado en la comuni-
dad cientifica.
En el nivel primario de educacion, es posible ampliar y enriquecer o,
en el mejor de los casos, reladvizar las ideas espontaneas de los nifios, de
modo de lograr una aproximacion a la ciencia escolar, todavia muy
alejajda de la .ciencia de los cientiTicos (Weissmann, 1993).
( : Q U E P U E D E N A P R E N D E R L O S N I N O S D E L A C I E N C L \?
:.v *.'• • • -'••3-
Esta pregunta nos remite a los contenidos de ensenanza. Cabe pregun-
tarse entonces que ensenamos al ensenar ciencia. : -~
Este interrogante se responde, en parte, desde la concepcion de
ciencia que adoptemos. Cuando digo "ciencia" me refiero a u-es de sus
acepciones integradas y complementarias que son:
a) ciencia como cuerpo conceptual de conodmientos; como sistema con-
ceptual organizado de modo logico,
b) ciencia como modo de producdon de conocimientos, y
c) ciencia como modalidad de vinculo con Q1 saber y su produccion.
7. C o l l (1986) llama "esquema de c o n o c i m i e n t o " a la r e p r e s c n i a c i u n que posee u n a
persona en u n m o m e n t o dado de su historia sobre una parcela d c la realidad. Esta
representacion puede ser mas o menos rica en informaciones y detallcs, poseer u n grado
- .dc organizacion y c o h c r c n c i a i n t e r n a variables v s c r mas o m e n o s valida.
•24 LA ENSENANZA D E LAS C I E N C I A S N A T U R A L E S
Las tres acepciones presentan a la ciencia como un cuerpo de
conocimientos conceptuales, procedimentales y acdtudinales.
Este cuerpo de conocimientos actiia como referente en el momento
de elaborar el objeto a ensenar, esto es, el momento de seleccionar los
contenidos de la ciencia escolar.
La ciencia escolar, por lo tanto, esta consdtuida por un cuerpo de
contenidos conceptuales, procedimentales y acdtudinales" selecciona-
dos a partir del cuerpo cientifico erudito. Tomamos como referente este
conocimiento erudito y nos proponemos que los ninos, a u-aves de la
ensenanza escolar, lleguen a obtener una vision conceptual, procedi-
mental y acdtudinal coherente con la cientifica.
La categoria de contenidos conceptuales engloba diferentes tipos: datos,
hechos, conceptos y principios (Coll, 1987; Coll, Pozo y otros, 1992).
En la escuela primaria, a traves de la ensenanza de estos contenidos,
no esperamos ni nos proponemos lograr cambios conceptuales profun-
dos, pero si sabemos que es posible enriquecer los esquemas de conoci-
miento de nuestros alumnos en una direccion coherente con la cien-
tifica.
La categoria de contenidos jmcedimenlales engloba tambien diferentes
tipos. Sin embargo, todos ellos consdtuyen cursos de accion ordenados
y orientados a la consecucion de metas (Coll, Pozo y ou-os, 1992). Estos
cursos de accion no consisten solo en accciones corporales efectivas sino
Uimbien en acciones de naturaleza interna, esto es, acciones psico-
logicas.
La ensefianza de los contenidos procedimentales en el area de las
ciencias naturales dene una tradicion que se remonta a la decada del 60,
periodo en el que surgen numerosos proyectos de innovacion didacdca.
Estos proyectos, en su conjunto, proponian centrar la ensenanza en
los procesosde investigacion. El objetivo central era aprender a invesdgar,
y sc sostenia que la uulizacion de procedimientos de invesugacion era
la via adecuada para el "descubrimiento" de los contenidos concep-
tuales.
Son numeiosas las cridcas que se han efectuado a estos proyectos
basados en el de.scid)i iniien to; sin embargo, hay una que resulta relevan-
8, F.si.T c:atcgoriz.i(:i<')ii d r r n n i n i i d o ' . :r l)as:> r i i la rlal)<)iada por Cesar C o l l (1987).
^ D I D A C T I C A D E LAS C I E N C I A S N A T U R A L E S 25
te tratar aqui: la que se refiere al dpo de contenidos procedimentales
que dichos proyectos transmiuan.
: En la pracdca de la ensenanza, la muldplicidad de procedimientos
propios de las ciencias quedo reducida a la transmision de un unico
metodo cientifico consistente en un conjunto de pasos' perfectamente
definidos, y a aplicarlos de modo mecanico.
Cuando hablo de contenidos procedimentales no aludo a la ensenan-
za de un unico metodo cienufico (por otra parte, inexistente en la
pracuca cienufica real) sino a la ensenanza de un conjunto de procedi-
mientos que aproximen a los ninos a formas de trabajar mas rigurosas y
creadvas, mas coherentes con el modo de produccion del conocimien-
to cientifico.
La ensenanza de contenidos procedimentales deben'a conducir a la
superacion de lo que Gil Perez (1986) ha dado en llamar "metodologfa
de la superficialidad". Los contenidos procedimentales, entonces, per-
midrian modificar la tendencia a generalizar acridcamente a pardr de
observaciones cualitadvas, presente en esta metodologfa espontanea de
los alumnos.
Finalmente, la categoria de contenidos actitudinales engloba un conjunto
de normasy valores (Coll, C , 1987) a traves de los cuales nos propone-
mos formar en los nifios una acdtud cienufica, esto es, una modalidad de
vinculocon el saberysu produccion. La curiosidad, la biisquedaconstan-
te, el deseo de conocer por el placer de conocer, la cridca libre en
oposicion al criterio de autoridad, la comunicacion y la cooperacion en
la produccion colectiva de conocimientos son algunos de los rasgos que
caracterizan la acdtud que nos proponemos formar (Fumagalli y La-
creu, 1992; Fumagalli, 1993).
La formacion de una acdtud cientifica (contenidos acdtudinales)
esta esu-echamente vinculada al modo como se construye el conocimien-
to fcontenidos metodologicos), y este modo se gesta en la interaccion
con un pardcular objeto de conocimiento (contenido conceptual) (Fu-
magalli, L., 1993). Esta likima afirmacion nos ubica frente a una nueva
cuestion, la estructuracion de la estrategia de ensenanza, que tratare en
el proximo punto. • .i, ,
9. Esos pa.sos (observncion, piaiitco del p r o h l c m a , rormiiiai inn d r hipulcsis, desa-
rrollo de c x p r r i i n c n i o s , analisis dc daKi',, foi i n i i i . K i(m dr- ( CIIK liuionr.s) coiisliluyeii la
v m n i n /•srohinzml/i <\f \o c\pci irnciil.d dc invc',n^;.i< i n n .
 I A ENSENANZA D E L A S C I E N C I A S N A T U R A L E S
^ ( / J M O E N S E N A R CIENCL^LS N A T U R A L E S A L O S N I N O S ?
La cuestion central es la de encontrar un esdlo de trabajo a traves del
cual los ninos puedan apropiarse de contenidos conceptuales, procedi-
menulesy acdtudinales.
Si bien las estrategias de ensenanza son configuraciones complejas
que resultan de la ardculacion de diferentes concepciones te6ricas,"'en
la busqueda de una respuesta a como ensefiar dene pardcular importan-
cia la concepcion de ajirendizaje q,ue se sostenga.
Si algo se puede decir respecto de esta concepcion es que en la
actualidad no existen teorias generales que den cuenta del proceso de
aprendizaje escolar. En este senddo, dice Coll (1987):
E n el m o m e n t o actual, l a p s i c o l o g i a d e l a e d u c a c i o n n o d i s p o n e todavia
d e u n m a r c o teorico u n i f i c a d o y c o h e r e n t e q u e permita dar c u e n t a de los
m u l t i p l e s y c o m p l e j o s a s p e c t o s i m p l i c a d o s e n los p r o c e s o s d e
p e r s o n a l y d e l a i n f l u e n c i a q u e s o b r e e l l o s e j e r c e n las a c t i v i d a d e s e d u c a t i v a s
escolares. N o d i s p o n e m o s aiin de u n a teon'a comprerisiva d e la i n s t r u c c i o n
con a p o p t u r a e m p i r i c a y teorica suficiente para utilizarla c o m o
I'mica d e informacion. Tenemos, eso si, multiples datos y teorias
proporcionan informaciones parciales perunentes.
Tal como expresa Cesar Coll, contamos con informacion aportada
por diferentes invesdgaciones realizadas desde otros tantos marcos
teoricos.
Por otra parte, es el aprendizaje de contenidos conceptuales el
campo mas indagado en el conjunto de invesdgaciones sobre el apren-
dizaje de las ciencias naturales. Es poco aun lo investigado sobre el
aprendizaje de contenidos procedimentales o acdtudinales.
Frente a este panorama parece licito integrar aportes de diferentes
invesdgaciones, aquellos que puedan serlo sin caer en una postura
eclecdca y, en este senddo, poco consistente desde el punto de vista
teorico.
10. E n las estrategias cle enseiianza sc articuian: a) u n a concepcion sobre el objeto de
c o n o c i m i e n t o — f u n d a m e n t o cientifico y epistcinologico—; b) u n a c o n c e p c i o n sobre el
modo como el sujeto aprende ese objeto de c o n o c i m i e n t o — f u n d a m e n t o psicologi-
c o — , y c) u n a c o n c e p c i o n sobre la relcvancia social de la transmision y adquisicion de
' •• ,.^„r,r\rr,i^ntr,—fundaiTicnto sociologico—.
D I D A C T I C A D E LAS C I E N C I A S N A T U R A U : S 27
•• ' ••• . - • L a propuesta de trabajo que sostengo se fundamenta en. la tesis
constructivista del aprendizaje. Numerosas invesdgaciones referidas al
aprendizaje de conceptos cientificos y hechas desde marcos construcdvistas
plantean puntosde contacto que resultarelevante tener en cuenta para
la elaboracion de una estrategia de ensefianza. Ellos son:
a) Lugar asignado a los conocimientos previos del alumna - * ^
en el proceso de aprendizaje escolar
En los uldmos veinte afios, a o-aves de la invesugacion se ha legidma-
do y probado que los alumnos no llegan en bianco a cada nueva situa-
-cion de aprendizaje escolar, sino que portan esquemas de conocimien-
tos previos. Estos esquemas consdtuyen representaciones de la realidad,
y en ellos se ardculan tanto conceptos construidos en el ambito escolar
como otros" construidos espontaneamente en la pracdca extraescolar
crecimiento coddiana.
Sabemos hoy que las concepciones espontaneas son persistehtes y
que no bastan algunas pocas acdvidades de aprendizaje para modifi-
fuente
carlas.
que
Probablemente, esta persistencia se deba a que estas concepciones re-
sultan coherentes para los sujetos que las sosdenen, y consdtuyen instru-
mentos eficaces para la prediccion y la explicacion de los fenomenos
coudianos.
Sabemos tambien que las concepciones de los alumnos son de
.'caracter implicito, que aparecen como "teorias en accion" (Karmiloff
SmittLeJnheld£r^l981) en el senddo de que no pueden ser verbalizadas
por los mismos sujetos cjue las sostienen en acto.
Los estudios realizados han permiddo, ademas, saber sobre el origen
de las concepciones alternativas y, en virtud de ello, agniparlas en dis-
dntos tipos.
11. Estos conceptos construidos espontaneamente h a n sido objeto d c numerosas
investigacioncs y sc los d e n o m i n a de distinto m o d o : c o n c e p c i o n e s alternativas, ideas
iniuitivai, preconccpciones, teorias ingenuas, etc. (Driver, 1989).
12. C o l l , Pozo y otros (1992) dclimitan u-cs tipos de c o n c e p c i o n e s scgiin su origen:
concepciones espontaneas, concepciones transmitidas socialmente y concepciones ana-
logicas. •
 28 LA ENSENANZA D E LAS CIENCIAS NATURALES
Las investigacioncs que han tornado como objeto de estudio los
conocimientos previos de los nin9s han aportado informacion relevante
para repensar el proceso de aprendizaje escolar.
Se sosdene que los conocimientos previos consdtuyen sistemas de
in terpretacion y de lectura desde los cuales los niiios otorgan significado
a las si tuacionesde aprendizaje escolar (Coll, 1987; Driver y otros, 1989).
Por lo tanto, estructurar la ensefianza a pardr de dichos conocimientos
es una condicion necesaria para que los alumnos logren un aprendizaje
significativo.
b) Lu^ar asignado al conllicto tm el cambio conceptual
La D£cesidad de partir de los conocimientos previos d t los alumnos
es sostenida desde diferentes posturas didacdcas basadas en otras tantas
teorias del aprendizaje.
Este consenso es aparente, y las diferencias se ponen de manifiesto
cuando se analiza el tratamiento que los conocimientos previos denen
en el proceso de aprendizaje escolar.
En todos los casos se trata de modificar esos conocimientos previos
para acercarlos a los conocimientos cientificos que se pretejide ensenar;
sin embargo, existen diferentes estrategias didacdcas para lograrto.
Estas estrategias didacdcas tienen supuestos epistemologicos y psicolo-
gicos diferentesy, en virtud de ellos, es que se retrabajan los conocimien-
tos previos.
Desdeja postura constructi\ista e interaccionista del conocimi^to,
yen pardcular del aprendizaje sostenida por la psicologia genedca, para
qtie los conocimientos previos se modifiquen es necesario ponerlosj
prucba e n diversas sjniaciones que los contradigan.
Al respecto Castorina y otros (1986) sosdenen:
l„iLiiiciiir (Ic losprogresos en los conocimientos se h a l l a e n los desequi-
Ubiiosque los siijcios siciiien como conflictos e incluso c o m o c o n t r a d i c c i o -
iics. Kii su csruci/o poi' icsolvcrlos, se producen niievas coordinacioncs
ciuic csquciii.is (iiic les |)ri luiicn siiperar las limitaciones de los conceptos
aiilci ioies.
rO l'.u.Min<'cM()',( onllii ili;uli< rioncssc piodu/can es neccsar l O
' D I D A C T I C A D E LAS C I E N C I A S NATURAUES / 29
que los nifios tomen conciencia de las teorias ^ue scrsdenen en accion,
esto es, que las puedanlTacer explicitas.
• Por este motivo, exisTe entre diferentes autores consenso en afirmar
que la exploracion de ideas previas no solo es lidl para que el docente
conozca como piensan sus alumnos sino que resulta una instancia desde
la que estos pueden comenzar a tomar conciencia de sus teorias impli-
citas mediante la reflexion sobre sus_prDpias.ideas.
Lo expresado hasta aqui supone que aprender conceptos cienuficos
consiste en cambiar las tepria? prppias ya evistentes por ofras-
"meiores'^'^ mas cercanas a las de los cienuficos.
Esta tesis, que se limita al campo de los contenidos conceptuales,
resulta un modelo ferdl para cpnsiderar la ensefianza de las ciencias en
la universidad, e incluso con adolescen tes; sin embargo, cabe replantear-
la para la ensenanza primaria.
Como he sostenido, en la escuela primaria se hace una aproximacion
a una ciencia escolar que todavfa esta lejos de la ciencia de los cientificos.
No esperamos cambios conceptuales profundos y no es frecuente poder
suscitar confiictos cognoscidvos. Ello se debe, en gran medida, al hecho
de que existen limitaciones a la toma de conciencia de las teorias
implicitas por parte de los alumnos.
Por este modvo, coincido con Hilda Weissmann (1993) cuando
sosdene que en edades tempranas no se dan cambios conceptuales (en
el sentido en que se han descrito) sino que, en la mayoria de los casos,
se amplian, enriquecen y, a lo sumo, reladvizan las teorias espontaneas
de los ninos.
,c) Lugar asignado a la accion en el aprendizaje de las ciencias
; Ya desde el movimiento deja "escuela activa", que se rempnta ajohn
.Dewey, la actividad del aJumno aparece como un rasgo relevante en toda
propuesta de p n s p n ^ p ^ ; ^ g u p p r p t p n d a innovadora.
Sin embargo, u^as el supuesto acuerdo se encubren tambien diferen-
tes concepciones de actividad que delimitan otras tantas estrategias de
ensefianza y posibilidades de aprendizaje.
La propuesta de ensefianza de las ciencias poi descubrimiento
13. E n c l sentido (|ue I n i i c L i k . i l o s li.t ,\i c x p i c s i u n ,
30 I A I - . N S K N A N / A D E LAS C 1 E A > . . < A . J N A T U R A L E S
|)toinovio la titili/.acion de guias orientadoras de los trabajos pracdcos a
dcsanoilarse en el aula. . • •T
Dc este modo, en las clases de ciencias mas actualizadas es frecuente
vcf a alumoiis qjue manipulan materialeide.laboralCli9-.que observan,
mezclan, fdtran, miden temperaturas, comoletan cua(icQS,_sacan pro-
incdios. Sin emhargo^podn'a uno preguntarse si son realmente alumnos
activos desde el punto de vista cognoscitivo.
Cuando se habla de acdvidad cognoscitiva en la tradicion de
psicologia genedca no se alude a una accion fisica efecliva sino a una
accion de caracter psicologico tendi^n^te a otorgar significados (Casto
nna y ouros, 1988). . ,
En este senddo, una propuesta de ensenanza es activa cuando
favorece la construccion de nuevos si^nificadosxn Ins alnrooos Si esto
no ocurre, estaremos en j)i csencia de acciones fisicas, meros movimien-
tos carentes de contenidos; a esto lo denominamos activismp.
La accion que aparece hoyJerarquizada desde diferentes invesdga-
ciones es, entonces, la accion cognoscidva. Para promoverla, resulta
imprescindible urabajar a parur d e l o F conocimientos previos de los
alumnos en tanto marcos interpretativos, desde los cuales se construyen
los nuevos significados.
d) Lugar asignado a la informacion y sus implicaciones
Finalmente, un rasgo que tambien aparecejerarquizado en estudios
actuales es el lugar de la informacion en el aprendizaje de las ciencias.
Durante las decadas de los anos 60 y 70, por influencia de propuestas
de ensenanza de las ciencias orientadas preponderantemehte a la
u-ansmision de contenidos procedimentales (ensenanza basada en pro-
cesos), los contenidos conceptuales cajieron^n descredito.
Sin embargo, la ilusion de la ensenanza basada en procesos se
enfrento, a pardr de los 80, con dos situaciones cridcas: no se aprendian
los procedimjenlos tal como sejgspeiaba y rrienos aun se accedia a los
contenidos conceptuales.
En la actualidad contamos con invesdgaciones que han comenza-
do a demostrar que existe una estrecha relacion entre el moda cnmo
se construye eTconocirnT5nto~y ei objetocle conocimiento que secop^-
Esto nos aporta nuevos elementos para sostener la tesis de que no es
gi' DIDACnCA DE I A S C I l - . N C I A . S N A I I I K A M ' S ||
posible aprender contenidos procedimentales cscindidos de los < („iir
j^^nidos conceptuales. .; •
'|; ^\-:;Sin embargo, la revalorizacion de los contenidos concepUiales no
^ ? proviene solo del.fracaso de la ensefianza basada en procesos. Ksia
revalorizacion se apoya tambien en una nueva eonceptualizacion acerca
^ ' j del proposito de la ensefianza escolar, en virtud de la cual se resaka la
^ ' l ^ ' intencionalidad de la escuela de promover en los alumnos la construc-
1^/ cion de "esquemas de conodmiiento".
La transmision de contenidos conceptuales desempefia un rol impor-
tante en dicho proceso de consuruccion. Yresalto la paiabra "transmi-
,^rv- "sion" porque considero que existe un cuerpo conceptual que el alumno
no descubre ni construye espontaneamente:
yt;_^ , Este cuerpo conceptual debe ser u-ansmiddo por la escuela, pero de
un modo tal que garandce su apropiacion acdva (significadva) por parte
W^;' de los alumnos.
^ES P O S I B L E E N S E N A R CIENCL^LS E N U N C O N T E X T O D E C R I S I S E D U C A T I V A ?
^n la "Introduccion" hacia referencia al caracter asistencialista que
asume nuesura escuela primaria en vastos sectores de la poblacion; No se
diddcticas trata solo de circuitos de calidad educadva diferenciada ni de la segmen-
tacion (Braslavsky, C , 1985) presente en nuestro sistema escolar. El.
problema se h a agudiza^o porque nuestra^fiscuela primaria esta de[an->
do de ensefiar para ocuparse de alimentar (comedores escolares),,
promover salud; en definitiva^ para ocu_parse de asistencia_sdclai.
El descfiLujamiento del papel social de la escuela primaria como
distribuidora de r r . n n r i m J p n r o g -agnirli?^ 1^ rn^|-£rjnQ,-i-An de los s e c C o r r s -
popnlares respecto del accescLalconocimiento, pues la escuela piiblica
es el linico canal del que^or el momento,, disponenpara elTo.
Algunos de los docentes que adenden a sectores populares denun-
cian esta situacion, y muchos de ellos ban comenzado a asumir las tareas
asistenciales como propias de su rol. ,
Y e n este contexto se restringe aun mas el poco espacio q u e se le
otorga a la ensenanza de las ciencias naturales.
A la falta de recursos didacdcosy de equipamiento minimo e indis-
pensable sesuma la escasaJormacion que los-docentes tfenen en el area.
Es muy dificil, en este senddo, cumplir con el deber social de ensenar
 LA ENSENANZA D E LAS C I E N C I A S N A T U R A L E S DIDACTICA D E LAS CIENCL\ N A T U R A L E S 33
32
ciencias naturales y, comDlementariamente, respetar el derecho de los Baudelot, G. y Establet: L a escuela capitalista, Mexico, Siglo XXI, 1975.
Benlloch, M.: Por un aprendizaje constructivista de las ciencias, Barcelona, Visor
niiios a aprenderias. , ' ,
.'..(Aprendizaje), 1984.
Reconocer esta realidad no significa que necesariamente se adhiera
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a una concepcion reproducdvista en la que la realidad de la enseiianza • ensenanza, Barcelona, Laia, 1977.
aparezca absolutamente determinadajor el contexto polidco educa-
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dvo. Sin embargo, b^salncioruio deberia estar orientada hacia esfuerzos Grupo Editor Launoamericano, 1985.
individuales. ni basarse en el voluntarismo. Brown, H.: La nueva filosofia de la denda, Madrid, Tecnos, 1983.
Los educadores, en tanto mtegrantes^e la sociedad civil, tenemos la Carr, W. y Kemmis, S. T.: Teoria critica de la ensenanza, Barcelona, Martinez Roca,
posibilidad de articular propuestas e jmplementarlas tanto en nuestras 1988.
escuelas como a traves dejas asociaciones^remiales o profesionales, o Castorina, J. A. y ou-os: Psicologia genelica, Buenos Aires, Miiio y Davila, 1986.
: Temas de psicologia y epistemologia genelica, Buenos Aires, Tekne, 1988.
generando esgacios colectivos de produccion de conocimientos peda-
Chalmers, A.: i Q u e es esa cosa Uamada denda?, Madrid, Siglo XXI, 1984.
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Coll, C : Psicologia genelica y aprendizajes escolares, Mexico, Siglo XXI, 1986.
jQue podemos hacer en nuestras escuelas? En principio, abrirlas a la : Psicologia y curriculum, Barcelona, Laia, 1987.
comunidad yestablecervinculos de trabajo con otras insdtuciones tanto , Pozo, I. y otros: Los contenidos en la reforma, Madrid, Sandllana, 1992.
de la orbita del Estado (otras escuelas, salas de salud, hospitales, Chevallard, Y.: "La transposicion didacdca: de las matemadcas eruditas a las
bibliotecas, museos, centros de invesugacion) como de la orbita de la matemadcas enseiiadas", mimeografiado, 1980.
sociedad civil (organizaciones no gubernamentales, clubes, fundacio- De Posada y Prieto, T.: "Ideas y representaciones de los alumnos sobre la
nes, etcetera). radiacuvidad", Revista de Educadon, N" 289, Madrid, 1989.
Driver, R.: "Un enfoque construcuvista para el desarrollo del curriculo de
Esta estrategia podria posibilitar un mayor aprovechamiento de los
^ ciencias", Revista Enseiianza de las Ciendas, Vol. 6 (2), Barcelona, 1988.
recursos de que disponemos, liberaria a la escuela de tareas que no le I'll^jp y otros: Ideas dentificas en la infanday la adolescenda, Madrid, Morata, 1989.
competen y, por sobre todo, permidria reconstruir vinculos societales "''I^^t; Dockworth, E.: Como tener ideas maravillosas, Madrid,Visor (Aprendizaje), 1988.
solidarios. |pVFourez, G.: "Enseignement de Sciences et Societe", Extrait de VallonU, n" 8,1987
^J^. r. • (mimeografiado).
.. El trabajo intra e interinstiuicional es hoy una condicion necesaria
Fumagalli, L.: E l desajio de ensenar dendas naturales. Una propuesta didactica para
para que podamos ardcular nuestras demandas y propuestas alternati-
- - la escuela media, Buenos Aires, Troquel, 1993.
vas; en definidva, para que podamos insdtuir pracdcas pedagogicas que,
: y Lacreu, L.: L a enseiianza de las dendas naturales en el nivel primario, Buenos
il p£5ar de^rodo, prnmuevan ^1 uprendizqje de las ciencias naturales en Aires, FLACSO, 1992.
el nivel primario. .Garcia, R.: "La epistemologia genedca y los problemas fundamcntales cn la
teoria del conocimiento", en Construcdony validadon de las teorias dentificas,
Buenos Aires, Paidos, 1988.
BlllLKXiKAFiA Gil Perez, D.: "Las metodologfa cienufica y la ensefianza dc Las ciencias. Unas
i> Te:\2icionescont[0\CTUd:is', Revista E n s e n a n z a de las C i e n d a s , ' \, Barcelona,
Apple, M.: IdmlofUi y nirnadurn, Madrid, Akal, 1986. .1986.
; Eduiaiiiin y fxuln, Harccloiia, I'aidos, 1986. Gimeno Sacristan, J.: El curriculum: una reflexion sobre la practica, Madi iil, Morata,
: Mdfsttm y Irxlns, H.ui rlona, i'aidos, 1989. 1988.
AiiMihel, I), I'.: Id nliiiiuioii y Id /•sinirlimi drl lonociviirnto, Buenos Aires, El y Perez Gomez, A.: Qimprendery Iransfonnar la nisniania, M.idiid, Morata,
Alenro, 197'(. 1992
) AiiMiliel, I). I'. yolKi', l\i(i>l(ii'iii riludilivtl, Mexi( o, Ti illas, 197H. Giordan, A.: La rmnimiui dr Ins tinuuis, M.uir id, .Si|-Io XXI, \'.)H2.
lllllllllliiiiiilllVVVVlVVVVlllVlVWIllllllllll

CAPiTULO II

Q U E ENSENAN LOS MAESTROS CUANDO ENSENAN

CIENCIAS NATURALES, Y Q U E DICEN Q U E R E R ENSENAR

Hilda Weissmann

El intento de sintetizar las principales cuesuones reladvas a la en-

'sj- -senanza de las ciencias naturales en la escuela primaria nos remite
|?rnecesariamente a reconocer una amplia gama de problemadcas.
Por una parte, aquellas que derivan de decisiones polidcas en rela-
.cion con el papel de la educacion en el proyecto que se tenga segiin el
pais; el lugar que ocupen la ciencia y la investigacion cienufica en dicho
Iproyecto, y la importancia que se asigne a la apropiacion por parte de los
?^ciudadanos de este sector del conocimiento.
^ ; En otro piano, la ensenanza de las ciencias naturales en nuestro pais
^fembien se ve afectadapor la modalidad_y la calidad de la formacion^
^'inicial de los maestros^ por el lugar que ocupa en la escuela en relacion
|*con otras areas de aprendizaje —en partTcuIarlengua y matemadca, no
l^casualmente llamadas materias instrumentales—, la escasa jerarquiza-
licion que en terminos generales se observa y que se traduce, entre otros
l^aspectos, en el reducido dempo que se le asigna eji el horario escolar y
l^en su irrelevancia en el momento de tomar decisiones para la promp-
•cTon de un aluinnQw »
^ l ' ' Entre los problemas planteados en relacion con la enseiianza de las
*'|ciencias naturales en la escuela primaria, este trabajo abordara uno de
los que consideramos mas inquietantes.
*•'Se n-ata de reflexionar acerca de Iq que los maestros enseiian; rnas
xoncretamente, acerca de cual es la naturaleza y la congruencia cirQ-e lo
38 Q U E ENSENAN L O S MAESTROS
\que algunos maestros dicen ensefiar, dicen querer ensefiarj finalmente
lenserTan.'
Si"Bien en la teoria y en la pi;acdca docente las concepciones respecto
de que significa enseiiary apr^nderjiiiicrer),dando lugar a un amplio
abanico de teorias explicitas o implicitas, es de esperar que en todas ellas
exista un comun denominador. Se trata de reconocer que todo acto de
ensenanza debe contener el proposito de transmitir un conocimiento,
de intentar que alguien se apropie de un saber que inicialmente no
poseia.
A lo largo de la historia de la educacion, y en pardcular de la educa-
cion cientifica, la importancia, el significado y el alcance que se asigna-
ron al conocimiento escolar han sufrido transformaciones. Podriamos
asegurar que no existe en la actualidad pleno consenso al respecto, y ello
consdtuye, sin duda, uno de los temas en debate.
En relacion con la ensenanza de las ciencias naturales, igual que con
otros campos del conocimiento escolar, se advierte cada vez mas que
uno de los principales obstaculos, en el momento de querer ensefiar, es
la falta de dominio y actualizarinn ck 'ns maestros con j-e.specto' a
contenidos escolares. No hay propuesta didacdca innovadora_y even-
tualmente exltosa que pueda superar Iafalta_cle conocimientos del maes-
tro. Esta parece ser una reflexion obviay sensata, ya que no es posible que
\n docente se comprometa en una relacion ensenante, actuando como
mediador entre un sujeto y un sabej^ sin que haya irrprWdn a la
apropiacion adecuada de ese ."saber".
Sin embargo, es muy frecuente enfrentarnos con situaciones de clase
idonde:
no es claro para el observador. e incluso para los propios alumnos,
que es lo que el docente pretende ensenar, o
aquello qvi£ se ensefia conforma un eniramadn.de ideas incorrectas,
de dudosa validez cientifica, pocQ precisas y con omisiones, que
dificultan su comprension o son mas propias del senddo comun que
del saber cientifico.
1. A u n q u e este trabajo esta c c n t r a d o e n dcscribir dificuliades muy generalizadas
entre los docentes, la a u i o r a no d c s c o n o c e ni desvaloriza los esfuerzos y aportes de los
maestros que no se ajustan a estas d c s c r i p c i o n e s .
DIDACmCA D E LAS CIENCIAS N A T U R A L E S 39
•. Hay cierto consenso en la comunidad cientifica y educativa en res-
' ponsabilizar al docente por no garandzar el aprendizaje de las ciencias
por parte de sus alumnos. Pero, desde mi punto de vista, no siempre el
problema esta en idennficarque es Ip que no se ensefia,..sino tambien e a
cuesdonar la naturaleza de lo que sise ensena.
Frente a lapro^bleniatica de que se ensena y que se deberia ensefiar,
debemos diferenciar varios pianos de anarfsfs.
<:AQUE NOS REFERJMOS CUANDO DECIMOS "CONOCIMIENTO"o
"CONTENIDOS ESCOIARES"? (JCUAL ES SU ALCANCE?
Tradicionalmente, hablar de contenidos escolares implicaba el
corpus conceptual de las diferentes disciplinas que componen un cu-
.rriculo. En algunos autores p clasicos, sin embargo, es posible inferir
una idea mas amplia de con tenido, que abarcajiasolamen te el nivel con-
ceptual sino tambien los procedimientos que emplean los estudiantes
para "traTar efcon tenido". aquello que en algun momento llaxnamos ha-
kiilidades, rudnas o mecanismas. En un caso se trata de aprender hechos,
conceptos, cosas de las personas, de la naturaleza^de los objetos. En
relacion con fos pTocedimienTos, se trata de "aprender a actuar de una
^ determinada manera"", de *Sabcr T a t e r ^
^ ^. En nuestro pars tra teiiidu ^ran influencia en los uldmos anos la
posicion de los autores espanoles vinculados a la Reforma Educadva de
ifcV su pais, quienes amplian la concepcion de "contenido" al considerar
•^t^'como tal a "cualquier elemento de la cultura de un grupo social que este
^'•'"considere debe ser asimilado por sus miembros".
^ f Este enfoque incluye, en cada una de las disciplinas, no solo hechos,
•'^^ conceptos, generalizaciones y teorias sino tambien los procedimientos
S i r - T ^ ' o r e s que forman parte de ellas.
-t— i- Si bien esta forma de definir los contenidos escolares ha sido objeto
r,;. <Je interesantes discusiones en ciertos ambitos academicos, esta ausente
5 " 1^ mayoria de los Disefios Curriculares de reciente elaboracion cn el
-I-L pais, y mas aiin en el espiritu de los formadores de docentes y en la
f -mayoria de maestros y profesores.
rTT'" L a importancia de este enfoque es liaber elevado a categoria de
-con los procedimientos, v.ilores, at litudes, n r . , lo cual implica
 Q U E E N S E N A N LOS ^ U E S T R O S
•10
pi «;<)cupaisc por como y cuando se los va a ensenar, y por como se los va
a evaluar. Implica tambien la necesidad de reflexionar acerca de como
se aprenden los procedimientos o los valores, y cuales podrian ser las
estrategias de ensenanza mas adecuadas en cada caso.
Veamos un ejemplo. M. es docente de S'' grado y ha decidido aue sus
alumnos aprendan algunas propiedades del aire. Para ello les propone
que se dividan en grupos y que busquen informacion en libros y revistas
sobre los siguientes puntos: ^que es el aire?, <:el aire pesa?, jocupa lugar?,
jdene olor, color, forma?, ^que caracterisdcas dene el aire caliente?
Los alumnos se organizan libremente y la maesura le asigna una fecha
a cada grupo para su "clase especial". Algunos grupos reparten los temas
entre sus miembros. Otros deciden que los que denen material en su
casa sean los que "invesdguen" y los demas hagan las laminas o provean
frascos o mecheros para la exposicion.
Dias mas tarde, desolada, la maestra resume los resultados de la
experiencia:
No saben trabajar en gnipo. Cada uno hizo su parte con mayor o menor
exito pero no hubo intercambio. Los textos se reiteraban, se repedan. Hasta
hubo en un mismo gnipo conclusiones contradictorias... Lo que me hace
senur peor es que ni siquiera se daban cuenta... Algunos (los de siempre)
no hieron nada...; se limitaban a sostener las laminas... La mayoria recitaba
de memoria las definiciones del Manual...
Lo que M. no pudo reconocer en aquel momento es que sus alumnos
se organizaron y estudiaron del modo mas eficaz que encontraron.
Durante los afios de escolaridad que habian cursado, nadie les habia
ensefiado otra manera de interactuar con los compafieros ni tampoco
otros procedimientos para la busqueda y utilizacion de la informacion,
ni siquiera M. • ,-!,V La tendencia de los especialistas que intervinieron en la elaboracion
Solo entonces M. tomo conciencia de que, para poder dialogar,
intercambiar ideas, trabajar cooperativamente, encontrar el material
adecuado y realizar una sintesis comprensiva se requeria un consecuen-
te proceso de aprendizaje. Comprendio que, en tanto se tratara de que
sus alumnos aprendiesen algo y de que fuera ella quien deberia
ensenarlo,.estaba frente a contenidos que merecian ser planificados con
t.-^.nto cuidado y rigurosidad como cuando habia seleccionado las pre-
guntas relativas al aire.
O l O A C n C A l)i;. LAS C I K N C I A . S N A I U I t A I I
:, Por eso, mas alia de las definiciones, es importante (|ue los doc enirj
reconozcan en su pracdca que siempre han .estado y esian ensenaiido
procedimientos^^habilidades, acdtudes, normas o valores, pero, fiiiida-
mentalmente, se_ trata Je diferenciar la naturaleza de unos y otros
aprendizajes.
Cuando los chicos levantan la tapa del libro para que su compaiiei o
no copie; cuando saben que las respuestas a las preguntas del maestro
siempre estan en el Manual en el orden en que fueron formuladas;
cuando no son capaces de decidir por su cuenta si corresponde o no
subrayar, o con que color hacerlo; cuando estan firmemente convenci-
dos de que los libros y los maestros jamas se equivocan, debemos
reconocer que se trata de actitudes y procedimientos que alguna vez
fueron aprendidos en la escuela.
iQyt PIENSAN LOS D O C E N T E S R E S P E C T O D E LA IMPORTANCIA
DE L O S C O N T E N I D O S ? ({QUE D I C E N Q U E R E R ENSEN,\R?
. V Si bien los maestros, en terminos generales, reconocen la importan-
' cia de ensenar contenidos curriculares de matemadca y lengua, el
Ipanorama no es tan homogeneo en relacion con las ciencias naturales.
A -J Por una parte, se observa con frecuencia que la seleccion, secuencia-^
.Vcion y profundidad de los contenidos estan orientadas —acridcamen-
fte— por los libros de texto escolar y, en consecuencia, i'n la pracdca son
*las editoriales las que indireciaxQenle toman decisiones arerm He g^ie y
''^cuando ensenar.
,:Por que el libro de texto es una guia mas eficaz para el docente que
^1 propio Diseno Curricular?
*de Disefios Curriculares en los uldmos aiios ha sufrido cambios en
^relacion con los de los anos 70.
J Plantean un amplio desarrollo del encuadre teorico, donde se expli-
(cita el enfoque didacdco y cientffiiic adofLtado y se formulan objedvos
ioaerales para el nivel, el ciclo o el grado. Losxontenidos estan presen-
* tados de manera rnuy.sintedca;.se trata mas bien de. macrocontenidosy no
'hay propuestas de actividades.
 Q U E ENSENAN L O S MAESTROS
•12
La razon de este cambio es la idea de que cada insdtucion y cada
docente, en funcion de las.j::aract£ri5dca,s jpropias de la escuela y del
gmpo de alumnosj sean quienes deban desagregar los contenidos* y
decidir sobre la seleccion. la secuenciacion y los criterios de organiza-
c i o n de lo que se ensene (unidad didacdca, proyecto, integracion con
otras areas, eies unificadores, etcetera).
Si bien concordamos con este enfoque que parece coincidir con una
tendencia muy generalizada de los Disenos Curriculares, en los hechos
supone que el docente domina los contenidos implicitos en esas formu-
laciones tan generales.
Cuando el maestro se pregunta que contenidos podrian desprender-
se de un macrocontenido, como por ejemplo la relacion "preservacion-
calidad de vida", encuentra que el Manual le ofrece una respuesta.
Por lo general, sus limitados conocimientos sobre las ciencias natu-
rales tampoco lo ayudan a discriminar los posibles "errores" que pudo
haber deslizado el autor del texto, ya sea por su propio desconocimien to
del tema o pot un Intento de simplificar conceptos muy complejos.
Salvo algunos textos escolares publicados en arios lecientes, los
manuales mas tradicionales en el mercado editorial repiten saberes o
propuestas de actividades muy parecidos a las que el maestro aprendio
en sus anos de formacion. Esos contenidos le resultan "familiares"; por
lo pronto no lo desestructuran y siente que el texto escolar, a diferencia
del Disefio Curricular, lo ayuda, lo organiza.
Ahora bien, con mayor frecuencia de lo esperable, al observar las
clases de ciencias naturales no resulta evidente —para el observador ni
aun para los propios alumnos— que es lo que el docente pretende
ensenar.
Pero cuando preguntamos a los maesU"os, tratando de comprender
que importancia asignan a los contenidos, con que criterios los seleccio-
iian, cual e s su rol en este proceso, si se apoyan e n efcuriTculo o en
los libros d<; texto, encontramos que su planteoesambiguo, puesadopta
direienles formas que no coinciden con lb que observamos en sus
clases.
I'.ii pi imer lu|',ar, hay un recli:izo bastante generalizado de la idea de
(|ue el d o ( c i i l e <-s ( | i i i e i i d e b e seleccionar los contenidos a ensefiar en las
( h i ' . e s de ( i e i K i.is n . U i i i . d e s . Asimisino, sr eiitiende q^ue su roLcoo*i*t€-eii
a< i n . i i ( O H I O un "la( ililador" dr ln';r\|)ei i e i u iasde aprendizaje, pero en
' I'll iiaiiMnilii ( o i K u uiuenlos.
D I D A C T I C A D E LAS C I E N C I A S N A T U R A L E S , 43
!. Estas dos concepciones implican una despreocupacion por los con-
tenidos, que se jusdfica con argymentos del dpo de "Lo importante es
tomar en cuenta los intereses de los alumnos".
Respecto de ese interes, los docentes suelen confundir entre lo que
constituye las preocupaciones y motivaciones propias de la edad, sexo o
contexto sociocultural de sus alumnos con sus demandas explicitas y
coyunturales.
-. A., maestra de 6° grado, ha propuesto a sus alumnos la construccion
de un paracaidas. Esta sadsfecha con los resultados y comenta: "Con la
experiencia del paracaidas estudiamos el aire, el viento; luego salio sola
la respiracion".
-: Para esta maestra, el hecho de que "aparezca sola" la inquietud
respecto de la respiracion es relevante, y solo asi jusdfica su inclusion.
Ella plantea reparos ante la idea altemativa de proponer el aprendizaje
de contenidos que no surjan "espontaneamente" del grupo. Supone que
su funcion es tomar en cuenta solo los "emergentes" grupales.
Al observar las clases de ciencias naturales de los maestros, este
criterio respecto de la seleccion de los contenidos no aparece como tan
evidente.
En ciertos casos es posible que el docente favorezca la aparicion de
estos "emergentes", al proponer determinadas actividadeso ladiscusion
.de algunos problemas. Pensamos que crear las condiciones para que los
^;alumnos demuestren explicitamente necesidad o interes por el U-ata-
•jmiento de un determinado tema es una estrategia plausible. Tambien lo
lies tomar en cuenta aquellas cuestiones que les interesan y que el docente
;;ha establecido a pardr de sus conocimientos cientificos, psicologicos y
pedagogicos, asi como de los objetivos que se planted para ese grupo en
^particular.
, E l problema surge cuando el docente piensa que no es parte de su
funcion enseiiante plantear el tratamiento de determinados conteni-
dos, independientemente de los intereses explicitos de sus alumnos, y
asume una aciitud pasiva que promueye aprendizajes poco relevantes,
sin criterios de secuenciacion claramente j u s d f i c a d o S j desarrolla'm
modelo de ensenanza "rasiia]"j.no intencional..4'dcidcfi;i la inclusion de
aquellos contenidos que no f u e r o n expresamenie " d e i n a n d a d o s " por
"las •alumnos.
,,; Ofrade lasopiniones de los maestros respecto de la iiii|)ortancia que
les asignan a los contenidos .se relieie a la jei;u(|ui/a( ion de la ensenan-
II Q U K KNSENAN I.OS MAESTROS
/.I (le |)i<)< cdimicntos, por sobre la ensenanza de los llamados conteni-
dos (oiiceptuales. Una de las docaaies ki resume asi: "Lo que importa
no e s la informacion sino formarlos, que aprendan el metodo cien-
ufico"^.
Frente a argumentos de este dpo, que pretenden jerarquizar el
aprendizaje de procedimientos cientificos en detrimento del aprendiza-
je de conceptos, existe una amplia produccion teorica e investigacioncs
que han demostrado que no es posible el aprendizaje de procedimien-,
tos cienuficos sin el aprendizaje de conceptos.
Sin entrar en esta polemica, es fnteresante observar que, al igual que
con la centralizacion del interes del alumno, estas ideas de los maesu-os
solamente se han revelado en el discurso, es decir, cuando les pregun-
u i m o s "que enseiian en las clases de ciencias naturales".-'
Si la intencion del docente es ensefiar, sobre todo, "el metodo cien-
ufico", el observador esperaria encontrar propuestas de ensenanza casi
' exclusivamente experimentales. (planteamiento de problemas-formu-
'acion de hipotesis-observacion-experimentacion-registro de datos-
conclusiones-radficacion o recdficacion de las hipotesis, etcetera).
Sin erribargb, estas estrategias son poco frecuentes en las clases de
ciencias naturales.
De los pasos o procedimientos citados, el que se propone con mayor
frecuencia a los alumnos es la observacion de fenomenos, con la idea de
que si "aprenden a mirar bien" asimilaran el concepto involucrado
en ellos. A este aspecto en pardcular nos referiremos mas adelante,
cuando veamos los compromises epistemologicos que subyacen a
muchas de las "teorias" didacdcas implicitas en las pracdcas de los
docentes.
Existen, pues, conuradicciones entre la pracdca y el discurso de los
docentes. ^Cual podra ser su origen?
Creemos que, por una parte, se trata de la ausencia de una "cultura
refiexiva" que favorezca el analisis de su pracdca, es decir, comprender
el significado de su accionar y tomar conciencia de las implicaciones
teoricas que subyacen a cada una de sus decisiones.
En ocasiones, un docente espera que sus alumnos solo "recuerden"
los nombres de los organos del aparato digesdvo, o bien centra la ense-
2. E n otros capitulos d c este libro sc explica la frecuente confusion entre metodo
cientifico y metodo experimental, que para muchos docentes son sinonimos.
niDACnCA D E I A S C I E N C I A S N A l tJKAI.K.S
fianza en las relaciones entre la estructura de los organos del .ip.ii.iit)
digestive y sus funciones.
Estas dos actividades involucran dos enfoques didacdcos diferentes y
a menudo opuestos, pero con frecuencia el docente opta por una u otra
acdvidad sin tener necesariamente conciencia de ello.
Una lectura cridca de su pracdca implica no solo analizar que y como
ensena, sino tanahien_reconocer bsjeorias didacdcas que estan en juego
y asi poder interpretar mas acertadarpente muchos de sus exitos y
fracases.
Sobre la ausencia y las consecuencias de una sistemadca refiexion
sobre la pracdca se ha escrito muche.
Podriamos decir que hay cada vez mayor conciencia entre los docen-
tes acerca de la necesidad de contar con espacios insdtucionales e
institucionalizados para su desarrollo.
Por otra parte, su propia formacion inicial y los programas de
capacitacion que apuntan casi exclusivamente al aprendizaje de estrate-
gias de ensenanza, pero desadenden la formacion teorica tanto didacti-
ca como psicologica o pedagogica, atentan conura su capacidad de
reflexion.
Ou-a de las hipotesis es que algunas perspecdvas psicologicas y pe-
dagogicas han sufrido una importante distorsion al ser transmitidas a los
docentes, lo cual influyo en esta formulacion de plantees teoricos que se
contradicen en la pracdca.
i- En relacion con este aspecto, por ejemplo, los maestros opinan que
brindar informacion a les alumnos. oa solo forma parte de mndns de
ensefiar ya superados^que rorresponden a 'a que llaman "la escuela
^tradicional", sino que estas estrate^as son francamente opuestas a todo
intento de ensenanza activa^
Dicen por ejemplo:
• Se aprende haciendo, y endenden por "hacer" s.Qla 'as-actividades-
efectivas, manuales.
• TJn "buen" maesuro es construj:tiidsia;.un "mal" maesu-o es conduc-
usta.
• Ser constructivista significa dejar hacer a los chicos lo que quieran, ya
que "ahora" se respeta lo que saben, lo que traen a la escuela.
Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)
48 Q U E ENSENAN L O S MAESTROS
D I D A C n O V D E I A S CIENCIAS N A T U R A L E S
G: <;Les parece que a estas verduras les podemos sacar el color? v
MA: (jQue pasara con la piedra, flotara?
i4/umnor. Si'..., S I . . . , un poquito...
A: No, se va a hundir.
G: ^Ycomo les sacarian e l color?
MA: (?or que?
A: Con agua.
A: Porque es pesada.
A: Aplastando.
MA: ^Ylas maderas? '
G: cQue pasara si cortamos las verduras y las ponemos en frascos con
A: La grande se va a hundir.
alcohol?
MA: ,;Porque? ~ .
A: Va a salir el color.
A: Porque es mas pesada.
G: Y o los voy a dividir en tres grupos, a c a d a uno le voy a dar un'
MA: (jYla chiquita? ^
cuadro y ustedes van a anticipar (pic c o l o r c r c e n que sacaran de
A: Va a flotar.
cada verdura.
MA: ^Por que? ,
La docente enU-ega acelga a un gi u f i o , /analioria al otro y al tercero, A: Porque es mas chiquita y liviana. .
remolacha.
En su cronica, G. escribe: " L a nnlidfxicwn cscrita en los cuadros nos Asi condnua el dialogo con cada uno de los materiales. Los argumen-
tos giran alrededor del "peso" y del "tamaiio".
permido recordar las hipotesis y compai a r c o n l o s colores que resulta-
ron, que en este caso coincidicron c o n l a s ideas previas d t los chicos". MA. enu-ega un balde a cada grupo y los chicos van colocando uno a
Mas alia de la confusion c i i t r c hii)(')t<;sis y anticipacion de las jdeas uno cada objeto y registran por escrito que es lo que sucede.
previas, este ejemplo muestra tina ( V e c i K U i t e iiiterpretacion respecto de
MA: cQue paso con el frasco?
l o que significa para algunos d o c e n t e s iiidagar dichas ideas. Suelen
A: FlotcS.
pensar que basta con que l o s a l u m n o s <'xpliciten sus predicciones y
luegolasverifiquen.Tambi<-n i l u s t i a e l "eiicanto"quedespiertanciertas MA: ^Ypor que algunas cosas flotan y otras no?
A: Por el peso. ^ :.
acdvidades_y la dificultad en aprovecluirlaspara la ensenanza de conte-
nidos- A: Porque algunas son duras. j ^,1'
En este caso, los nifios solamente comprobaron que sus predicciones A: Las cosas livianas o blandas flotan. :
MA: (jLa madera es dura o blanda? . . •, ,^
respecto de los colores que se podian exlraer de las verduras eran
A: Dura.
correctas. Pero no aprendieron nada nuevo y se desaprovecho la
MA: ^Se hundio?
oportunidad de que exploraran, por ejemplo, que solventes o a traves de
A: No..., no.
que procedimientos se podrian extraer mejor los pigmentos.
Otra de las situaciones frecuentes es la que ilustra el siguiente MA: Entonces, ^todas las cosa duras se hunden?
A: iiNo!! Las cosas pesadas.
ejemplo..;

MA. es tambien docente de primer ciclo. EI tema de la clase es
"Flotacion". Divide al grado en cuatro grupos y entrega los mismos
materiales a cada uno de ellos y un cuadro donde tendran que andci-
par, antes de probar, que sucedera con cada objeto al ser colocado en
agua. Una vez que los grupos completan los cuadros se desarrolla el
sijjuiente dialogo:
Si bien en la docente hay un intento por averiguar que ideas denen
los ninos respecto de la flotacion, da la impresion de que dicha indaga-
cion dene unfinen si misma: loj[rarsu explicitacirSn, yesta esjustamente
nuestra cridca. No por^ser i n a d c c u a d a u S i n o mas bien desaproyecliada.
La indagacion de las teorias infantiles dene como objetivo, en el
marco deJas.tesis construcdvistas dglaprendiaaje) desarrollar sccueagias
didacdcas.oue fivoreTnn-
5Q Q U E ENSENAN L O S M A E S T R O S
• La t()n">a de conciencia por parte de l o s ninos de dichas teorias.
• La confrontacion y discusion entre diferentes puntos de vista.
• La presentacion de situaciones anomalas que promuevan la apari-
cioii del conflicto. E n este caso, objetos grandes que floten y chicos
que se hundan, u objetos grandes y con poco peso relative y,
viccversa, objetos chicos y "pesados".
• El desarrollo de diversas acdvidades, n o solo experimentales, que
f-ivdiezcan avanzar en la construccion del concepto.
Poi ejemplo, si la docente hubiera entendido que el conflicto estaba
en la rlificultad de comprender la relacion entre el peso y el volumen,
podriA haber enuxgado un o b j e t o qjip^sf hundiera cuando tiene forma
ie bolii (ejemplo. la plasdlina) pero que, al cambiar su forma, trans-
fornii^oclola en un cupnco. flotara. El peso no v a r i o , pero si el volumen.
"/\ cenuarse simplemente en la mdagacion como mecanismo de
i n i c r r t C C i o n , lo aue observamos es que se desdibuja la intencion del
docci>te de ensenar. Probabfemente, tampoco a los niiios fes resulte
chu•(^ ^j^ue erlo que se espera de ellos, mas alia dc; la venticacion o no de
h e ( : i i . ' ' S puntuales: J a maderajQopJb piedra se hunde., etcetera,
"y.;,^ algunos casos, como en el ejemplo de los pigmentos, parece que
esia A c d v i d a d indagatoria ha remplazado a "la motivacion", como se
soliadenominar tradicionalmente al momento inicial de u n a clase cuyo
objc(i.vo, se suponia, era despertar en los niiios l a curiosidad por u n
tem;^-
,;Ql ENSENAN LOS M A E S T R O S E N L \ CLASES D E CIENCIAS NATURALES
Y(;(")\10L0HACEN?
"iVntro del abanico muldfacedco de lo que los maestros ensenan,
deiVinos inencionar algunas modalidades de enseiianza que llevan
l m ) ' l K ' ' a s concepciones muy pardculares de "contenido" o contenidos
df i/i/ituiale/a cuestionable.
\earn()S ( ualcs s o n las propuestas de intervencion mas frecuentes.
\h\ dc ellas r s iiiviiar a los alumnos a que "invesdguen" sobre un
tc«r>.'''> paitictilar.
. ti„ ba p l . i i i i f i c a d o « o n i < ) tenia del nuts "El Sol como fuente de luz y
. . i.ut.'.' .V.'"
> D I D A C T I C A D E LAS C I E N C I A S N A T U R A L E S ' ol
calor"y propone a sus alumnos que "invesdguen en el ManuaZ o en otros
materiales".
A condnuacion, les dicta una serie de preguntas que corresponden
a la secuencia informativa del texto y plantea un problema sobre la
"conduccion del calor", cuya solucion tambien esta pautada en el libro
a manera de una acdvidad verificadora.
Los alumnos responden al cuesdonario transcribiendo los conteni-
dos del Manual y describen la actividad tal como consta en el libro.
Despues de unos dias, leen el producto de sus "invesdgaciones".
Cabe serialar, por una parte, que este dpo de actividades encubre un
modo de intervencion transmitiva (la paiabra del texto reemplaza a la
paiabra del docente) que habia sido rechazado por tradicional, memo-
risdco y" pasivo.
Pero, ique aprendieron los alumnos? En relacion con el aprendizaje
de procedimientos y acdtudes, este dpo de acdvidades supondria, sobre
todo, desarrollar habilidades para enco.turar lajnforrpaoon requerida^ .
) L. pregunta: "jQut es La temperatV^ra/^ que es lo que indica?". Loi •
' lumnos extraen del libro: "La temperamra es una propiedad que
j e n e n Ins r n e r p n - ; pnrn i n d i r a r la pvUr^nrJ?! d f C I I I T " ,
Lejos de aprender procedimientos referidos a una lectura compren-
siva, a la busqueda de informacion relevante, de ejemplos, de relaciones
entre fenomenos, hechos, etc., los alumnos, con ayuda de las palabras
I
1 clave (en este caso temperatura /indica), que aparecen tanto en la pregun-
1i - ta del maestro como en la informacion del texto, contestan sin dificul- "
tad, y la respuesta se califica como correcta.
Como comentabamos en parrafos anteriores, ni el docente ni los
alumnos advierten que la informacion es erronea (la temperamra no
indifa la existencia de calor), en particular porque ambos han aprendi-
do que los libros no se equivocan. Este aprendizaje de "respeto incondi-
cional a la paiabra escrita" es un contenido referido a actitudes que, si
bien no esta expiicitado en los disenos curriculares, forma parte del
curriculo oculto de las escuelas y profesorados.
Tambien resultaobvio que este dpo de actividades ayuda a teigiver.sar »
'
el concepto mismo de "investigacion".
Otro de los modos cfe plantear la ensenaiiz;i e s ; i H a v e s de i i n
mecanismo de preguntas y respuestas ( j i i e r e e m | ) l a / a a la cxijosicion. Se
. .
(
 Q U E ENSENAN L O S MAESTROS .
DIDACTICA D E LAS C I E N C I A S N A T U K A I K S
ii.iia (!<• una dc las estrategias mas frecuentes en las clases de ciencias
iQue le pasa a l bovino? {Nadie contesta).
naluiaics.
iQue otra cosa? L a tala indiscriminada de bo.S(|ucs, i p i e . s e
Hay dilerentes maneras de preguntar; una de ellas consiste en
planta siempre el mismo dpo de cultivo, los animales, el p a s U )
hilwuiar un enuramado de preguntas y respuestas a la manera de un
reo. Despues, ique otro problema? _.
juego de adivinanzas, a u-aves del cual se espera que el alumno aprenda.
La contaminacion del aire. ^ ^-^
Esta "ilusion interrogativa" supone, obviamente, que el saber esta
Zonas inundables. • '
dentro del alumno y que Ta habilidad del docente consiste en poder
iQue quiere decir "inundable"?
destejer y volver a tejer una nueva trama. Esta estrategia dene la
Zonas que se inundan. * - •
particularidad de que, siendo la interaccion docente/alumno radial, es- Por las represas.
decir, al no haber pracucamente interaccion alguna entre los saberes de
'los alumnos, quien finalmente puede organizar ese tejido es el propio Por las zonas bajas, cuando sube el rio se inundan.
Si.
docente, pero ninguno de los alumnos en pardcular.
Tambien cuando llueve se inunda.
Este es un modo de intervencion valorado por los maestros, ya que
encuentran que con pocos recursos (es decir, sin materiales ni labora- Si, cuando se talan los arboles para hacer las represas, ique pasa?
La mala ubicacion de los pueblos riberenos, ique otros proble-
torios para poder proponer una actividad experimental) puedeji desa-
mas? L a sobreexplotacion de los recursos hidricos. iQuien me
rrollar una clase iguaLmente "activa". Es obvio que el concepto de explica?
actividad esta \inculado a una accion efecdva, en este caso, verbal. Por la contaminacion.
La estrategia se explica con expresiones de este tipo: "Lo que hay que No.
hacer es sacar afuera lo que esta adentro"-
Las turbinas, que se mueven por el agua.
Frente al rechazo y la desvalorizacion de la clase exposiuva, que
Las fabricas que dran residues.
queda encuadrada bajo el rotulo "escuela tradicional", intentan presen-
Que se aprovecha el rio. -
tar los contenidos de manera "activa y pardcipadvaT
Para garantizar que los chicos respondan, el docente les pregunta iSe acuerdan de que leimos en el diario, cuando Subprefectura
denuncia que se pesca donde no se debe, lo del salmon que lo
casi con exclusividad sobre lo que ellos saben — por lo menos algunos,
pescan en una epoca que no se debe, o de mas, o para pescar
si no todos, los alumnos. dinamitan? Eso de la sobreexplotacion. iQue mas?
Veamos un ejemplo. M. (maestra) anuncia que, a raiz de la Conferen- Incendios.
cia de Rio (ECO 92), va a dar. "Los principales problemas 'ecologicos' iPor que se producen?
del pais". Se desarrolla el siguiente dialogo: Por el sol.
Por la gente que enciende fogatas.
M: Uno de los problemas es la deserdficacion, ique significa?
A: Tala de arboles. Si, por ejemplo en Bariloche hay muchos incendios por esa
causa, es un problema, se queman arboles centenaries. Sobre
A: Lo de las represas.
todo en la zona del Amazonas, en Brasil. iQue pasa al quemarse?
. M: iQue mas? Levanten la mano. iQue significa "deserdficacion"? Se secan les rios.
A: Que quedo desierto.
yVf: iSe acuerdan de que yo les habia dicho lo de los animales, que Cuando un arbol se quema, queda lo de abajo y alii no se puede
plantar mas.
hacian los animales? ^Las ovejas, con las padtas, y que arrancan
iQue mas?
los pastos?
Mueren les animales.
El 50 % por el ganado bovino. Se contamina el aire.
 QUE E N S E N A N L O S MAESTROS D I D A C T I C A D E LAS C I E N C I A S N A T U R A L E S 55
54

M: Se G a m b i a el ecosistema. E l bosque hace que el lugar sea . Es por eso que, al no escuchar la respuesta esperada, repite la pre-
humedo y despues seco. iQue otros problemas? gunta, o da la respuesta descartando, a veces implicitamente, las demas.
A: Los barcos de petroleo que ensucian los rios. Enu-e todas las respuestas "descartadas" hay algunas tan correctas como
M: Los rios, bueno, ique mas? Los barcos cistema, que los limpian la aceptada; tambien hay errores o conceptos ambiguos. iQue pensaran
en el mar...; que debian hacerlo en alta mary lo hacen cercade sobre su saber los alumnos a quienes no se les acepto explicitamente la
las costas, y trae como consecuencia la contaminacion del mar respuesta? iLa contaminacion del aire no es un problema ambiental? iEl
y otros probleinas, tales como... iQuien me puede hablar de sol no provoca incendios en los bosques? iNo es un problema que
eso? (Nadie contesta). mueran animales por causa de los incendios?
M: iCual es el siguiente problema ecologico en la Argentina? Pero, volviendo al tema que nos ocupa, es decir que saber circula en
iComo se produce la contaminacion hidrica, sobre todo en el ese preguntar y contestar, podemos decir que fundamentalmente circu-
sur de la provincia de Buenos Aires? lan palabras, expresiones gue "suenan" a cienuficas, pero sin demasia-
A: Porque las oficinas de las petroleras se ponen ahi y echan los das garantias respecto del grado de apropiacion de ese saber por parte
de los alumnos, ni de su calidad.
residues al agua.
M: iQue otro? Es como si el docente se preguntara: "iComo se si alguien sabe?". Y
su respuesta fuera: "Saber implica usar la paiabra correcta". El maesu-o
A: Envaramiento de las ballenas.
pregunta y verifica. Si la paiabra esta, avanza; si no, la elude o corrige y
M: iQue significa? continiia preguntando.
/\ Las ballenas Ilegan a la costa y hay tantas que no pueden salir. Dentro de estos modos de intervencion centrados en la "interroga-
/\ Al guia le falla el radar. cion" encontramos otro tipo de clases. En ellas no queda claro para que
A: Quedan encalladas. ' ~ la docente pregunta y que vinculacion podran establecer los chicos
A: Medio que se estan suicidando. enu-e sus propias ideas y la conclusion de la docente.
M: iCual es el ultimo? E. es maestra de 2° grado. Divide a sus alumnos en cuatro grupos e
A: Lo del agujero en la capa de ozono. inicia la clase preguntando:
M: iDonde esta el agujero?
A: En los polos.
m E: iQue es la luz? iDonde esta?
- I^
M: En los dos polos, pero mas, en el Sur.
Los alumnos deben discutir entre ellos la respuesta. AI cabo de
La maestra senala que va a "dar" el tema y en un par de ocasiones algunos minutos dicen:
solicita que "me" expliguen Q "me" digan.
i'.stas son frecuentes expresiones de los docentes que, a nuestro Onipo 1: En el sol.
ciitcndc'r, simbolizan parte de las representaciones del profesorado Grupo 2: En el fuego o en una vela.
rcspccic) (!<: la funcion de ensenar y del rol que le cabe al alumno: Grupo 3: En el tubo del techo.
"rcril)ir" y ofrcccr evidencias al docente, que es quien ostenta el saber Grupo 4: En la lamparita del velador.
y IK) (|uicn ariiia como iiuermediario entre el alumno y el saber. E: Muy bien, entonces podemos decir que la luz es i m ; i f o r m a dt;
Sin <'mbarj;(), salvo < ' t i algunas ocasiones, la docente no "da saberes", energia y el lugar donde se produce se Ibima fiienie de hi/.
\ phiiUciiuliI |.)t'.;^i.'i:is orI'.ani/adas cn funcion de las ce^uestas
puiuualcs (|nc i;,|)ci4 di: sir, .iliimnos, como siguiendo su propio hilo Solici tamos a la maestra una evahia( i o n <le s u < l.ise; <ll,i l o t m a [)ai te
coiiducloi. ' del taller de educadores a l ( p i e s<- i n c o i p o r o h.n e pot o .
 (..)! Ilv I ' . N M ' . N A N 1 . ( ) . ' ; M A l ' . S I K O S
"(',\Cl> (|iir I l i e u n a huciia i la.sc, duidmicayparticipaliva. Pienso que nii
I III ( n c < i i iciiiadoi p a r a la con^triLcadn delconoc\m\cn\.o. Por momentos
( c i r c ( O I K lusioiies a las que los niiios no hubicran podido
l l ( i ; a r . . . f l i i e i U e la mc^prlnlnarn cn l^^Jnrmulncinji de hipotesis..."
Ksle ejemplo vuclve a rcinidrnos a la "uaduccion" realizada de
algunos conccplos didacdcos (pardcipadva / dinamica / construccion
/ t'ormulacion de hipotesis) considerados, scguramcnte, como vigentes
y de amplio consenso. Sin embargo, la actividad que describe no. sc
compadecc con sus expresiones.
Asi fue intcrpretada por ella la actividad, por el hecho dc preguntar
y dc hacerlo en gmpo.
Cuando al terrninar la clase pieguntamos a algunos nirios que
perisaban que era la energia, las respuestas fucron del siguiente
dpo:
A: Que tienc fuer/.a..., cjue cs fucrle.
Enlrevistador. por que crces que la seriorita dijo que la luz es una
forma dc energia?
A: Porque cs fuerte; si la miro, me molesta los ojo.s.
Mis alia de las rcfle.xiones respecto de estos modos en enseiiary de las
ideas dc aprendizaje que llevan implicitas, pienso que lo comiin a todos
ellos cs la despreocupaciciiijoor garandzar la calidad dc los saberes que
circulan en la ciase.
C , maestra de P grado, fue en nuestros talleres una dc las docentes
que mas sc oponia a la idea dc que parte importante dc su responsabi-
Udad como docente era sclcccionar adecuada y [ustificadamente los
conocimientos a impailir y qiie. p:u:a poder hacerlo, sc requeria un
amplio yprofundo flnminio conceptual de su parte. Pensaba que uno dc
sus principales valores era ser capaz de "confesar" a sus alumnos su
ignorancia ante aquellas preguntas que no sabia responder. Considcra-
ba que cn tanto ella trabajaba con niiios pequeiios, no saber no era un
obstaculo. l-^Ua podia "investigar" junto con sus alumno.Sj
C. comcnzo a dudar de sus ideas cuando, a partir dc las discusiones
cn cl taller, sus coleg;i5 la desafiaron a evaluar cuanto y que clase dc
saberes habian iiicoi[)Oiado sus alumnos al fmalizar la unidad.
" — i T - i r n areolar que los nirios no srilo no
D I D A C M C A n r . I A S C I K N C I A . S N A M I K A I .K,.S
habian asimilado lo que suponia sino (pie habian " . i p r endido" i u i i i i rii
dos cuya naturaleza o calidad ahora sc cucsdonaba.
Hacia f i n de aiio pone a considcracion del giiqio parte dc i i n . i
secuencia didacdca que esta desanollando con sus alumncjs.
Para trabajar contenidos vinculados a "Mi c u e r p o " enircgue a cada uno dc los •
^lumnos una silucui dc figura l u i m a n a y les pcdi que dibujasen como eran ellos por
tlcntro. Analicc los dibujos y coniprobe que los alumnos tcni'an m u c h a nias informa-
cion que lo que suponia. T o d o s habi'an dibiijndo el csqueleto, pero las configuracio-
nes, si bien eran diversas, Ionian un c o m u n d e n o m i n a d o r . E n el lugar dc las
articulaciones se obsci^i-viba u n a espccic d c correxs que rapidamcnle iiucrprcK-:
provenian de l.is iniagenes d c las T o r t u g a s N i n j a . D e c i d i que era un b u c n c a m i n o
para comenzar. Me propuse (juc los chicos a p r e n d i e r a n a:
• R e c o n o c e r las diversas form.a.s dc los hucsos (largos, pianos, etc.) y (|uc los
ubicaran.
• Establecer relaciones de forma, tamano, aspecto, estructura y funcic'jn de los
huesos cn su cuerpo y en el dc los oiros (iiinos/nin.xs, b e b c s / n i i i o s / a d u k o s ,
animales/personas).
• Idcntificar las diferentes articulaciciiies y percibir los moviniiciuos que eran
capaces dc realizar.
- AsiinisniG queria que los chicos a p r e n d i e r a n el significado de nuevas palabras, •
que las utilizaran a d c c u a d a m c m e y que p u d i e r a n reflexionar con sus pares y .'
c o m u n i c a r el rcsultado dc sus indagaciones.
E n t r e las actividades programad.-is para esia eiapa, les propuse:
• A r m a r una figura h u m a n a , de pie, con plastilina. D e b i a n tratar de respetar las "
proporciones y formas reales. Sc ayudarian c o n cspejos para poder mirarsc, mirar
a los conipaneros, uiilizar fotografias.
• Ante las dificuliades para n i a n l e n e r el mui'ieco dc pic, introduje la i d c a d c uiilizar
palillos.
• C o m p a r a r o n y disculicron los resultados e n i r c el p r i m e r o y el segundo iiuento.
Rcgislraron las conclusiones.
• Por parcjas exploraron las formas, la consistencia y" los movimienios de sus
cucrpos. Intcrcambiaron roles.
Observaron sinietrias, similitu<Jcs, diferenci.as. articulaciones c n sus pro|ii()s
cucrpos; los idcntificaron c n radiografi.as, con ayuda dc algunos hucsos reales y
con un csqueleto dc plasiico.
• R c c o n o c i c r o n los niovimienios de las dilercnles'articulacioncs.
• Observaron laminas y libros con c s q u e l e l o s d c animales. R c c o n o c i c r o n la coluni-
na vertebral.
• Organizamos una visita al Museo de C i e n c i a s NaUirales p.u.i istndi.u los .csfinc-
lelos dc animales aciualcs y prchisKii iios.
 Q U E ENSENAN L O S MAESTROS
Sus cionicasesL-in plenas de anecdotas en las que pone de manifiesto
cuaiuo cs lo que los chicos aprendieron y como sc comprometio ella en
dicho proceso, detectando las dificulcades y proponiendo acdvidades
(|iic claramente intcntaban a)aidar a su superacion.
Dc la evaluacion rescato este coinentario: "Creo que ahora si tuve en
cuenta el interes de los chicos; tienen interes por saber".
Di: I N F L U I R , \JN 1.0S I N I T . N T O S POR M I ' J O I U R LA r.NSEN.\NZ.\E LAS C I E N C I A S ,
I'F.NSAR D E O T R A N U N E R A L O S C O N T E N I D O S E S C O L A R E S ?
. Q u i . l N I P I J C A C I O N E S T I E N E luSTA N U E V A C O N C E P C I O N D E C O N T E N I D O ?
La idea de incluir en cada campo disciplinar la ensenanza no solo de
b.cchos, conceptos, generalizaciones o teon'ns sino tambien procedi-
mientos y actitudes o valores significa u n avancc respecto de concepcio-
nes que atomizan o paicializan el saber o, en su defecto, solamente se
preocupan por la ensenanza de conceptos.
Pero, en la medida en que no se u^ata de u n cainbio de terminologia,
es importante alertar nuevamente sobre los ricigOi de una adopcion
acritica, no refiexiva, de las producciones teoricas.
Debemos entender, por ejemplo, que esta retormulacion de los
contenidos escolares no garandza necesariamente cambios en las estra-
tegias de ensei'ianza. Es preciso avanzar en la invesugacion acerca de
romo se aprenden j cuales porli um scr las estrategias rle enseiianza m.as
adecuadas para el aprendizaje rle procedimientos y actitudes. Como
tambien sera prcciso entender que de la naturaleza propia de los
contenidos conceptuales no se deriva univocamente el aprendizaje de
algiin tipo de procedimiento o actitud.
Esto significa que si cl alumno debe aprender la relacion existente
eiure temperatura y ciuibio u^tado., no podemos intenr que esto
implique que deba aprender a volcar datos en un grafico y ser capaz de
inieipr(;tarlos. Es posible que el docente endenda que este procedi-
inicfiio favorece mejor que otros el aprendizaje conceptual, y que, en
laiiio <'sle es III) procedimiento desconocido por los alumnos, requiere
'iC! apiendido.
Oil (I', (lot rule', (()m|)icnderan (jiie hay ouos procedimientos mas
III i\( I', pai ,1 .liIIII (lai e.'ile ionicpto.
Del mismo modo, tambien es un riesgo pensar que del aprendizaje de
un procedimiento podremos garandzar el aprendizaje de un concepto.
Otro tanto sucede con las actitudes, valores o normas. Por ejemplo, en
el aprendizaje de actitudes de respeto y preseivacion del entorno
natural, de actitudes cooperativas enu-e los miembros de un gi-upo o de
lit valoraci(in de la rigurosirlad m eJ trataniiento de un problema...
Aunque dichas actitudes o valores esten rinculados al conocimieiito
cientifico o los objetos de estudio de este campo disciplinar, el docente
debera, ademas, tener en cuenta que el aprendiz.aje de los conocimien-
tos del mundo fisico difierc del modo de apropiacion de una norma o
actitud que corresponde a un conocimiento social.
En el aprendiz;ije de normas, actitudes v valores el niiio es a la vez
sujeto y objeto de conocimiento. El esta fuertemente implicado en este
conocer; las vai-ia"bles en juego no son tan faciles de idendficar como en
el conocimiento fisico a causa de su gran intcrdependencia: porque el
niiio se enfrenta con un objeto que nopermanece indiferente.
Es probable que este enfoque respecto del alcance de los contenidos
escolares tambien neutralice\:i influencia de ciertos autores que acotan
los contenidos escolares al aprendizaje de los conceptos incorporados a
los corpus cientificos de las disciplinas escolares. Se entiende que el
objetivo de la ensenanza esta centrado en el aDrendizaJCLrk: los ronrep-
tos estmcllirantes o fimdamentalcs de dichas ciencias.
Si bien esta posicion podria tener un cierto grado cle adecuacion en
los niveles medios y superiores de ensenanza, no es tan claro en la
educacion basica. En estos ciclos de escolaridad es frecuente que
abordemos el conocimiento de hechos o de conceptos especificos mas
que la ensenanza de conceptos esti-ucturantes.
Es habitual que, por ejeinplo, en o 5^ grado se aborden contenidos
como "Los alimentos", "Efectos del \aento" o "Las maquinas de vapor".
Sin embargo, dificilmente se podria pretender que los alumnos llegaran
a asimilar el concepto de "energia" tal como es explicado [)or los
cientificos.
Frente a esta postura, es importante destacar nuevamente ( ] u e , si bien
al alumno se le propone una aproximacion a veces iniuiliva del ( O I K c p -
to involucrado, en este ejemplo "la energia", ello no iiiipide ( | u e e l
docente deba necesariamente dominar este (oiKcpio, . i n i K p i e sus
alumnos esten lejos aun de asimilarlo.
Al enfatizar el nivel conceptual, y tomaiido e n ( i i e n i . i I.e. (Iili( iiltades

(Illl, l.NSKNAN I< 1'. MAI ,',1K( IS
Illl
I | i i ( ' . i l 1 1 I I I I . I I I 111', I l i n i l ' . I lai a acceder a conocindentos complejos, de un
. i l l ! I i i i v c l l i e alisiia( c i i i n , s e lian exuaido consecuencias pedagogicas.
A M , pill c)empi(j, algunos pcdagogos de paises europeos han propuesto
| i i r , i c i ) ; a r la ensenanza de las ciencias naturales al nivel de la ensenanza
',(•( uiidaria. Aigumcntan que, en edades tempranas, los niiios no po-^
s e e n la iiocion de causalidad fisica, no pueden realizar razonamientos)
iiuluctivos y son incapaces de relacionar una formula matemadca con la
realidad fisica subyacente (Coll, 1989).
Cabe seiialar que estas consideraciones son el rcsultado de investiga-
cioncs psicologicasyquiza no puedan ser trasladadas mecanicamente al
contexto escolar.
El problema, a nuestro entender, no esjustificar por que los niiios no
pueden aprender ciencias en edades tempranas sino encontrar que es
lo que si pueden aprender y por que es interesante que el inicio no se
postcrgue. Posiblemente esta postura se deba, en parte, a la confusion
existente entre la "ciencia de los cienuficos" y la "ciencia escolar".
Sin embargo, cabe iLconocer que una consecuencia positiva del
enfasis puesto en los contenidos conceptuales es haber a)aidado a la
toma de conciencia acerca de la necesidad por parte de los docentes de
un buen dominio conceptual. Esta perspectiva intensifica, en los liltimos
tiempos, propuestas de capacitacion cientifica dirigidas a docentes;
incluso se incremento la demanda.
Ei riesgo es que, a menudo, este enfasis en lo conceptual es interpre-
tado por algunos especialistas como condicion necesaria y suficienle
para la enseiianza de las ciencias, sobre todo en la docencia cle nivel
medio y superior, en especial en el ambito univeisitario, desestimando
la importancia de la formacion didactica y psicologica.
Este enfasis en lo conceptual a menudo produce, en la practica, una
mayor desNnnculacion de los fenomenos del entorno. En vez de promo-
\er vinculos reflexivos y cuestionadores con los objetos y, partiendo del
problema, provocar el uatamiento de lo conceptual, se parte del
concepto para ilustrar luego lo coddiano.
Durante una clase, R., maestro de 7" grado, ensefia el concepto de
"Estados de agregacion de la materia" y lo simplifica en tres casos:
liquidos, solidos y gases. Luego pide a sus alumnos que busquen
ejemplos en el entorno. Explica que los solidos denen forma propia.
n i m i
DIDACIICA 1 ) K ( A . ' U I I I N C I A . S N A l I I K A I t'l 5 ]
mientras que los liquidos y gases adoptan la forma del ici i|iiciii( j m
solidosy los liquidos no son comprimibles, los liquidos lluyeii, cu c i c n .
Por supuesto que con este esquema quedan fuera de los ejemplos de
los alumnos los materiales fronterizos. ^Donde ubicar la mayonesa?,
la mousse de chocolate?, la geladna?, ^y la esponja del bano? iConio
expHcar la forma de una^ota de agtia"?. ;y liqiie adopta la arena o la
harina en un frasco?
Como estos ejemplos no encajarian en la explicacion del docente,
nadifijos incluj'e.
iQue pasaria si, en cambio, intentaramos que los chicos explorasen
los materiales del entorno, registrasen sus propiedades, pensasen a par-
tir de ellas diversos criterios para agruparlos, los discutieran, y solo a pos-
teriori los aproximaramos a una eonceptualizacion que les permitiera
ampliar la comprension de los fenomenos que encuentran en su
entorno?
Para los docentes del nivel primario, el enfasis que algunos psicolo-
gos o pcdagogos han puesto en lo conceptual representa, sin embargo,
un aporte para ser tenido en cuenta, ya que, como hemos mencionado
antes, la defensa del rol de "facilitador de experiencias de aprendizaje"
y la idea de que, ante un problema planteado al grupo o por el, el maes-
tro puede "reconocer" su ignorancia y proponer una "invesugacion"
junto con sus alumnos, encubren no solamente su nivel de descono-
cimiento de la asignatura sino la poca relevancia que dene el dominio
conceptual para quien ha asumido la responsabilidad de enseiiarlo. ~«
CEN Q U E . A 5 P E C T O S C O I X C I D E N O D I H E R E N LOS C O N ' O C L M I E N T O S CIENTl'nGOS .
D E LOS C O N T E N I D O S D E LA C I E N C I A E S C O t A R ?
El hecho de usar la misma denominacion "ciencias" y de compardr
algunos de los objetos de estudio no solo no garandza que cientificos y
alumnos compartan una misma tarea sino que a menudo confunde a
quienes no estan suficientemente alertados sobre estas cuestiones.
Dice J . I. Pozo (1987):
No e x i s t e u n i s o m o r f i s m o c o n i p l e t o e n t r e l a c i e n c i a d c i.i c o m u n i d a d
c i e n t i f i c a y l a c i e n c i a q u e se a p r e n d e y .se e n s e f i a e n l a e s c u e l a . F.xisten
d i f e r e n c i a s , y es r a z o i i a h l e q u e s c . i a s i , r l a d o q u e l.i e s t r u c t u r a l o g i c a d e u n a
62 Q U E ENSENAN L O S MAESTROS . D I D A C T I C A D E LAS C I E N C I A S N A T U R A L E S
disciplina —la estructuracion realizada por los expertos— y la estructura-
cion psicologica de ella —la forma como se organizan sus conceptos en la
mente de nirios y ninas—no siempre coinciden.
El conocimiento fisico debe y puede encararse desde edades tempra-
nas. De hecho, este conocimiento comenzo mucho antes que los ninos
ingresaran en la escuela. No por ello pretendemos trivializar o desvir-
tuar las caracterisdcas del trabajo cientifico ni tampoco olvidar los pre-
rrequisitos que dicho trabajo exige en los individuos (Gil Perez, 1986).
Los cienuficos producen conocimientos; mejor aiin, construyen
modelos explicadvos acerca de los fenomenos del entorno natural e
intentan explicar suscausas, mientras que los alumnos tratan de asimilar
cooocuniejltos q u e , en todos 'us c a s o s , ya han sido construidos.
Esta diferencia radical, aunque no unica, determina objetivos basica-
mente diferentes entre la ciencia de los cientificos y la ciencia escolar.
El alumno no puede convertirse en un pequeiio cienufico, como
algunos proyectos pedagogicos quisieron intentarlo. No posee el caudal
de conocimientos para poder reconstruir en forma autonoma el camino
de la ciencia; no posee los recursos metodologicos ni la tecnologia
adecuada.
iQue es lo que si puede hacer y aprender, en que aspectos puede
parecerse su tarea al "espiritu" que comparte la comunidad cienufica?
Esperanuas-quo cl nliTrnrro porrga-a prueba 8 u capacidad crcattvaTque
desarrolle un espiritu cridco, que valore y ponga en practjixla riguro-
sidadj^quese interese por comunicar los iTOTHaabs de sus urabajosyque
sea capaz de trabajar cooperadvamente, de plantearse nuevas preguntas
y de buscar caminos creadvos paraponer a prueba sus ideas.
En cuanto a los contenidos cientificos, habran de asimilarlos signi-
jicalivno construclivammte—como plantean muchos de los autores con-
temporaneos— o aproximarse a aspectos parciales de aquellos modelos
expiicativos de las ciencias. Y n o por ser parciales son incorrectos.
I'.n la |)r;ictica docente, como tambien en una parte importante de los
textos escolares, se concibe la ciencia escolar como un recorte trivial de
la ciencia de l o s (ieniificos. Las ciencias son concehidas. r n m o im
conjunto de vmLtdi's m r a d a s (niimimasy ahisloricasalas que el nmo.debe
acceder, y lo (|ue pi una es la idea de f^ue el principio, la ley, el cojitepto
o la teoria rTirrnTlTi j i a i le o s o n e()|)ia liel de la realidad. Por iQjantn.rnmo
63
alguna vez hizo el hombre de ciencia, la clave del conocimiento sera
"saber observar" para ser capaz de "descubrirlas".
Estas ideas respecto de las caracterisdcas del saber cientifico y las
concepciones reladvas a la produccion de dichos conocimientos son
parte del sustrato de las estrategias de enseiianza que plantean los
docentes.
I . es maestra y pardcipa de los talleres de capacitacion desde que
comenzo el aiio escolar. Durante una buena parte del aiio se analizaron
estas cuestiones e.r>Lsremol6gicasy sus^impJicaciones didacticas. Se udli-
z6, entre ou-os.^'xoncepro de_toiosintesis. Se analizaron las dificultades
de comprension por parte de ninos y adultos, se reprodujeron algunas
invesdgaciones didacdcas relacionadas con el temay, fundamentalmen-
te, se estudiaron las transformaciones del modelo que, a lo largo de la
historia de las ciencias, se produjeron en relacion con el proceso de
nutricion de las plantas y, mas concretamente, en relacion con el
concepto de fotosintesis.
A pesar de ello, al terminar el taller I . pregunta: "iYcomo supo el
cienufico que eso era la fotosintesis?".
Como indicador de la resistencia a abandonar la idea de que la foto-
sintesis es parte de la planta, volvia a aparecer la creencia de que el mo-
delo es copia fiel del fenomeno y el problema radica en "saberlo ver".
No resultan extranas estas ideas de los maestros, cuando en los textos
o en el Diseno Curricular de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, por dar un
ejemplo, se espera que los alumnos "observen las cadenas alimentarias
en la comunidad de vida".
YnN.AlAIENTE...
A lo largo de este capitulo hemos senalado las dificultades y algunas
de las causas que, a nuestro entender, explican parte del fenomeno de
"yariamiento de contenidos" de la escuela primariay gue, como aclara-
mos desde el inicio, no inciuye a todos los maestros y profesores pero si
a parte importante de la comunidad escolar.
Algunos de los problemas detectado' > - o n :
• Una concepcion amnigti.i ,•> < i c a d e l o ( | i i e i o i i s i i i u y e n los <onieni-
 viiwwmi
I.I QUK ENSKNAN l.OS MAESTROS ni[)Ac;n(A w. i A - ; CIKNCIA.S N A I DKAI I •

< Il (s <••(,< ilaics y <-l (icsconocimiento respecto de que estrategias de en- recursos: bibliografia. niaicdaks <U apoyo^ material ; I I I I I I I I V I M I . I I ,
seiianza podrian ser las mas adecuadas para favorecer el aprendizaje publicaciones de divulgacio
on cientifica de calidad dirigida a almnun!
dc cada tipo de contenido. •y/o docentes, equipamiento, etc.
• Una deficiente formacimi cientifica, que se remonta a las caracteris- Fomentar la organizacionxlmanciacion de proyectos innovadores.
ticas de su formacion inicial.
Y finalmente... ; •„
• La confusion entre conocimiento cientifico y contenido de la ciencia
escolar. Promover, en la comunidad toda, la toma. de cmiciencia de las
• La idea que eJ rol doc^^nte implica "facilitar" experiencias de consecuencias que, para la sociedad, acarrea no atender a una educa-
cion de calidad.
aprendizaje y no un compromisn re-iponsaoie ae "enseriar" conteni*
dos escolares, confundiendo la idea de enseiiar con la de uulizaTun
modelo de enseiianza "tradicional", transmitivo o repeddvo, que
fomenta el aprendizaje de memoria.
• Creer_qjj£-refipetar los int&t^seMie los alumnos implica "esperar" que
ellos expliciten lo que desean conocer.
• Una concepcion de ciencia entendida como un conjunto acabado y BlBLIOGRAFIA

estatico de ''erdnd'"^ r l ^ - f i n i f i v r a t
• Modos de intervencion educativa que confunden la realizacion de Benlloch, M. : Forun aprendizaje cmLanuUmsla df bud^nm^^drid. Visor 1984
actividades con la adquisicion de contenidos por parte de los alum- Carrascosa, A. J. y Gil Perez, D. : -La metodoiog.a de la superficialidad' en el '
- p . c i . u . z a j c u c l a s c i e n c i a s " , t m e n a n z a de las d e n d a s , 1985.
nos, que adhieren a enfoques empirico-inductivos o transmisivos.
Castorina, J. A. y otros: Psicologia genetica. Aspectos metodologicos e impU,c a n d a s
' • El hecho de idendficar la actividad con la de un hacer "efecdvo", pedagogicas, Buenos Aires, Mirio y Davila, 1984
: manipulauvo. " ^ •: P r o b l e m a s en Psicologia Buenos Aires, Mirio y Davila, 1989.
n e t i c a , Bi
/ y j . c u i u g i a g effnitiica,

i Asimismo observamos, con frecuencia, ambiguedades o conu-adic- Coll, C : Conodrniento psicologicoy practica educativa, Barcelona, Barcanova, 1989.
i ciones enu-e lo que los maestros piensan q n e e s t a n ensenando y lo que : Aprendizaje escolar y construcdon del conodrniento, Buenos Aires, Paidos
1990.
efecdvamente aprenden sus alumnos.
.: Psicologia y curriculum, Barcelona, Paidos, 1991.
La pregunta que cabe plantearse es: ^cuales podrian ser las estrate-
, Palacios, J. y Marchesi, A. (c
(comps.): Desarrollo psicologico y educadon, II.
gias que favorecieran cambios relevantes en los docentes? Psicologia de la educadon, Madrid, AJianza, 1990.
! Pensamos que algunas de ellas son: Ministerio de Educacion y Ciencia de Esparia: Diserio Curricular Base (DBC),
•I 1989.
•:' • ^romover dc-sd'-- in i n r r i t . . , ^ ; / ^ , ^ imn " r n l f ] ] ] - ^ refiexiva" que Driver, R., Guesne, E. y Tiberghien, A: Ideas dentificas en la infanda y Li
^ favorezca el analisis cridco y teorico de la pracdca doeenie adolescenda, Madrid, Morata, 1989.
• Insisdr en la necesidad de una reforma sustandva de la formacion Duckworth, E.: Como tener ideas maravillosas. Y otros ensayos sobre como enseriar y
inicial, garandzando una mejora en la calidad y cantidad de conoci- aprender, Madrid, Aprendizaje Visor, 1988.
mientos cienuficos y didacdcos e integrando la formacion teorica Gil Perez, D.: 'Tres paradigmas basicos en la enseiianza de las ciencias"
cif
Ld£Zt£irt5,^Barcelonaj^l983.
con la pracdca. "La metodologfa
" cientifica 'y la'<^nsenanzade
i las ciencias, U n a s relaciones
25 • Desarrollar una amplia variedad de acciones de capacitacion en Ci > ^ ^ ^ " r i z a de las d e n a a s . Vol. 4 (2), Barcelona. 1986
4
v^iordan, A. : l a ensenanza de las dendas, Madrid, Siglo XXI, 1985.
servicio -
. rifr^rf^r n los docentes el facil i^.^:,o a un repertorio callficado de
 1
M A K I N G SENSE O F N A T I O N A L
CURRICULUM SCIENCE

Reflecting o n their w o r k
Taking responsibility for investigations
R e s p o n d i n g to stimuli p r o v i d e d for t h e m
Science is essentially a w a y of t h i n k i n g a n d Relating their w o r k to the real w o r l d
working. D e m o n s t r a t i n g a t t i t u d e s s u c h as self-
It m u s t include: discipline, curiosity, perseverance and
open-mindedness.
• T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of basic skills
• T h e fostering of positive attitudes
: • T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of scientific concepts.

C h i l d r e n learn best t h r o u g h active i n v o l v e - The £ramework of National f|f

' m e n t i n learning experiences. T h r o u g h this
-.iinvolvement they develop ideas w h i c h help
3 t h e m to m a k e sense of the w o r l d a r o u n d
hjthem. Their k n o w l e d g e and understanding
J of science w i l l both^develop progressively
t h r o u g h their schooling. W o r k i n k e y stages
•41; a n d 2 p r o v i d e s t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r l a t e r
years. By channelling the children's natural
'1 c u r i o s i t y i n t o s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n w e c a n
;::h'elp t h e m t o a c q u i r e strategies t o d e v e l o p
jraore f o r m a l a n d complex concepts.
-"Good science education is e v i d e n t where
\n a r e :
Gtirricuhim science •y^My'^^^B.
N a t i o n a l C u r r i c u l u m s c i e n c e is described
t h r o u g h five p r o g r a m m e s of study (PoS):
F o u n d a t i o n S c i e n c e a n d S c i e n c e 1 , 2, 3 a n d
4. T h e s e set o u t w h a t p u p i l s s h o u l d be
t a u g h t . T h e a t t a i n m e n t targets ( A T s ) set o u t
the expected standards of pupils' p e r f o r m -
a n c e at six l e v e l s ( 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5 a n d 6).
T h e PoS for k e y stages 1 a n d 2 are f u r t h e r
s u b - d i v i d e d as s h o w n o n p a g e 2.

•]• I n v o l v e d i n practical investigations w h i c h Understanding Foundation Science

build u p o n their previous experiences
Foundation Science contains the essential
and interests
knowledge, skills a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g that
D e v e l o p i n g the skills of hypothesising,
w i l l need to be a p p l i e d across the o t h e r f o u r
observing, classifying, measuring,
PoS in order to study t h e m successfully.
recording and inferring
Cooperating w i t h others in planning,
^ L-vestigating and communicating Understanding Science 1
• Gaining scientific k n o w l e d g e a n d under-
5:=nding S c i e n c e 1 is c o n c e r n e d w i t h the basic p r o -
 cesses a n d skills o f science. Contexts
Foundation Science
deiived f r o m Science 2 ,3 a n d 4 s h o u l d b e
Systematic enquiry
Science in everyday life used t o teach children about experjr.ental
The nature of scientific ideas a n d i n v e s t i g a t i v e m e t h o d s . C h i l d r e n s'r.zS.z
Communication also b e g i v e n t h e opportunitv', as r a r : ::
Health and safety n o r m a l s c i e n c e a c t i v i t i e s , t o carrv" o u t • v h i l e
investigations themselves. Investigaticr.s
Science 1
Experimental and Investigative S c i e n c e are activities i n w h i c h children a s k ques-
Planning experimental work tions, test ideas, p r e d i c t i o n s o r h y p o t h e s e s
Obtaining evidence and d r a w conclusions.
Considering evidence
F e w children u s e t h e results f r o m their
Science 2 investigations t oc o m e t otheir conclusions.
Life P r o c e s s e s and Living Things
T h i s skill, i nparticular, requires careful
Life processes
teaching. T h e difficulty o f a n investigation
Humans as organisms
depends o n the concepts w h i c h underlie it.
Green plants as organisms
Variation and classification
It is b e s t t o s t a r t f r o m t h e c h i l d ' s u n d e r s t a n d -
Living things in their environment i n g o fthe scientific ideas i n v o l v e d . Because
of planning, assessing and resourcing impli-
Sciences
cations, i t i ssuggested that a m a x i m u m o f
Materials and their Properties
one investigation per chUd per half-term be
Grouping materials (and classifying, KS2 only)
Changing materials
undertaken.
Separating mixtures of materials (KS 2 only)

Science 4 Understanding Scicnpe 2, 3 and 4

Physical Processes
S c i e n c e 2, 3 a n d 4 a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h k n o w -
Electricity
Forces and motion ledge a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of science. Science
Light and sound 2 i sconcerned w i t h the biological aspects;
The Earth and beyond (KS 2 only) Science 3w i t h the chemical a n d Science 4 the
physical. Emphasis i s placed o n children
being 'taught' these sections. Care s h o u l d b e
t a k e n t orelate the teaching t op u p i l s ' exist-
ing k n o w l e d g e a n d to use famiUar contexts.
2 -
L O O K I N G AT S C I E N C E IN Y O U R S C H O O L
W h a t is a scheine of v y ^ ^
In order to meet the requirements outlined
by t h e p r o g r a m m e s o f s t u d y a n d t h e a t t a i n -
m e n t targets, every school will need t o
develop a structured f r a m e w o r k for learn-
ing. T h i s f r a m e w o r k i sbest described asa
s c h e m e o f w o r k , a n d t h e w a yi n w h i c h it fits
irito t h e overall school p l a n n i n g is s h o w n b y
the diagram below.
Scheme of work
Teacher's lesson
plans, records
T h e school's s c h e m e o fw o r k i s a w a y o f
setting o u ta structure f o rt h e learning
experiences w h i c h children should have
d u r i n g their time i n school. It m u s t b e suffi-
ciently structured to ensure coverage o f the
programmes o f study i na n appropriate
way, b u t it also needs to b esufficiently flex-
ible t oa l l o w y o u a st h e teacher t o r e s p o n d
to t h e n e e d s a n d interests o f y o u r c h i l d r e n .
A scheme o f w o r k will have m o r e detail i n
it t h a n t h e s c h o o l p o l i c y s t a t e m e n t f o r
science. I t d o e s n o t , h o w e v e r , p r e - e m p t t h e
formulation o fthe policy statement w h i c h
should describe t h e broad aims o f t h e
nature a n d scope o f t h e science t o b e
taught. T h e scheme must never b e as rigid
as a s y l l a b u s , h o w e v e r , a s t h i s i m p l i e s a
fixed a n d inflexible list o f content t o b e
taught a n d , a ssuch, cannot respond t ot h e
needs d f y o u r class a n d y o u r c h i l d r e n .
Ten p r i n c i p l e s for a s c h e m e of w o r k
It i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t , b e f o r e a s c h e m e o f
w o r k i s p r o d u c e d , the w h o l e staff discuss
the style, nature a n d principles o f t h e
scheme. If the scheme of w o r k isto encour-
age cooperative classroom l e a r n i n g i t i s
essential t o i n v o l v e the w h o l e staff
T h e D E S b o o k l e t Science 5 - 1 6 : A S t a t e m e n t of
Policy (1985) suggested t h e t e n principles
 o u t l i n e d b e l o w a sthe basis for d e v e l o p i n g s t e m s f r o m t h e children discussirig their
a s c h e m e o f w o r k . These issues m u s t b e o w n toys a n d i n v e s t i g a t i n g hov.- t h e y -.vork
addressed a n d t h efollowing questions w i l l a l l o w ' t h e m to e x p e r i e n c e Science 4 :r. a
considered. w a y w h i c h w i U s e e m m o r e relevant to : h e ~ .

1 Breadth A l l p u p i l s s h o u l d be i n t r o d u c e d t o Question: H o w d o I ensure relevance r.:v.-?

the main concepts from t h ewhole range of
4 Differentiation T h e i n t e l l e c t u a l a n a r ^ : : : : -
science... a n d t o a r a n g e of s k i l l s a n d processes.
c a l d e m a n d s . . . s h o u l d be s u i t e d t o t h e ac:l:::£s
In t h e past, early science h a s been of t h e p u p i l s . . . f o r a l l p u p i l s .
a p p r o a c h e d w i t h t h eemphasis o n nature
W i t h i n a n y class there are c h i l d r e n w o r k i n g
study and m a n y children have not had the
necessary introduction t o t h e 'physics' at s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t levels. I t i s necessar\
aspect. T h e p r o g r a m m e s o fstudy for key t h a t w e a d d r e s s t h i s when p l a n n i n g s p e c i f i c
stages 1 a n d2 provide a f r a m e w o r k activities w i t h i n a topic a n d ensure that all
for the concepts a n d skills b u t it i s essential levels are catered for.
that w er e v i e w the present practice i n o u r Question: H o w d oI cater for the m o s t and
own classrooms. least able, a n d also for the m a j o r i t y o f m y
Question: H o w w e l l a m I covering the m a i n children?
areas of science? 5 Equal opportunities ... s h o u l d give
2 Balance A l l ... should achieve a balance genuinely equal curricular opportunities...

b e t w e e n the acquisition of s c i e n t i f i c knowledge actively seek ways of e x c i t i n g t h e i n t e r e s t of

a n d t h e p r a c t i c e of s c i e n t i f i c m e t h o d . girls.

T h e PoS outline the requirements o f both Science m u s t b e equally Accessible t o a l l

the p r o c e s s a n d t h e c o n t e n t . S c i e n c e 1
c o n t a i n s d e t a i l s o f the s k i l l development
necessary a schildren progress t h r o u g h the
key s t a g e s . S c i e n c e 2 , 3 a n d 4 p r o v i d e t h e
c o n t e x t s in w h i c h c h i l d r e n c a n p r a c t i s e t h e
skills.
Question: A m I p r o v i d i n g a balance o f the
necessary skills a n d fostering the develop-
m e n t of t h e m i n appropriate contexts?
3 Relevance Science education sliould
e x t e n s i v e l y o n t h e e v e r y d a y experiences of t h e
children.
children irrespective o ftheir gender, ethnic
background a n d intellectual ability. T o
d e n y c h i l d r e n the chance to realise their full
potential deprives the c o m m u n i t y o f m a n y
valuable skills a n d resources. Some o f the
strategies necessary to p r o v i d e o p p o r t u n i t y
for a l la r e discussed i n detail later (see
E q u a l O p p o r t u n i t i e s , p a g e 9).
Question: H o w does m ypresent science
p r o g r a m m e p r o v i d e science for all?
draw
6 Continuity Increasingly important... to
build on f o u n d a t i o n s already laid.

C h i l d r e n d on o t learn i n 'isolated pockets'. The successful implementation of the

B y starting f r o m their o w n interests a n d
experiences w e can ensure that their learn-
ing is appropriate t o their stage o f
d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e c h i l d r e n w i l l also feel a
sense o fo w n e r s h i p o f the p r o g r a m m e o f
•p'work; for example, a topic o n toys w h i c h
science c u r r i c u l u m i s dependent u p o n the
children acquiring k n o w l e d g e a n d skills.
W e need t ok n o w w h i c h areas the children
h a v e covered p r e v i o u s l y a n d this has i m p l i -
cations f o r t h e links f o r m e d w i t h other
classes, d e p a r t m e n t s a n d schools.

4
Question: W h a t curricular links d oI have
n o w w i t h other classes/departments ?
7 Progression Courses s h o u l d be designed
give progressively deeper understanding a n d
greater competence.
Revisiting areas m u s t never entail repetition
of w h a t h a sgone before. Each visit will
n o r m a l l y b ea ta higher level, will d e m a n d a
d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o fk n o w l e d g e a n d a
m o r e sophisticated u s e o f t h e necessary
processes.
Question: I nw h a t w a y s can I ensure that I
am building on previous work?
8 L i n k s across the curriculum Should link
science ... w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e i r
guage and mathematical competence.
I t is d i f f i c u l t t o e n v i s a g e s c i e n c e w i t h o u t
measurement o r without communication,
and i t provides a vehicle f o r children t o
practise m a t h e m a t i c a l , technological a n d
language skills. M a n y science topics also
p r o v i d e a f o r u m i n w h i c h t oaddress cross-
curricular themes, skills and dimensions.
Question: H o w can I use science asa vehicle
for o t h e r areas o f the c u r r i c u l u m ?
9 Teaching methods Science is a p r a c t i c a l
s u b j e c t a n d s h o u l d be t a u g h t ina way
emphasises practical, investigative and problem-
solving activities.
Children learn most productively w h e n
t h e y a r e actively i n v o l v e d i n practical
investigations. T h e y will only develop the
skills o u t l i n e d i nScience 1 i f w e provide
t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r first h a n d e x p e r i e n t i a l
learning. This has obvious implications for
the w a y i n w h i c h w e organise the learning
e n v i r o n m e n t a n d this issue i saddressed in
m o r e detail later.
to Question: H o w can I organise m y classroom
a n d m yteaching style t oensure that chil-
dren learn productively?
10 A s s e s s m e n t Progress s h o u l d be assessed
... i n w a y s w h i c h a l l o w a l l p u p i l s to s h o w w h a t
they can do, rather than w h a t they cannot.
Assessment helps u st oplan the next steps
in children's learning and should b e seen as
part o f their ongoing activity within t h e
classroom. Assessment activities s h o u l d b e
incorporated i n t h eteaching programme
a n d n o t s i m p l y be a n end-of-topic activity.
lan- Question: H o w can I ensure that I have the
o p p o r t u n i t y t o a s s e s s my c h i l d r e n ?
By using these ten principles a n d address-
ing t h equestions i n t h elight o f current
practice i tw i l l b epossible t oh i g h l i g h t the
areas o fgreatest concern a n d develop a n
action plan suitable for y o u r children and
y o u r school. I nf o r m i n g a n action plan
w h i c h will lead t ot h edevelopment o fa
w o r k i n g scheme, y o u will need t o address
w h a t t oteach, h o w a n d w h e n t oteach i t
and w a y s i n w h i c h t orecord the outcomes.
These issues are discussed i nthe next t w o
which sections. I t i s i m p o r t a n t t orecognise that
this i s a whole-school issue a n d that
a l t h o u g h u l t i m a t e l y o n e p e r s o n o rg r o u p o f
people will take o nt h e responsibiUty o f
p u t t i n g t h e s c h e m e together, a n y discus-
sions o n t h ef o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e scheme
m u s t i n c l u d e a l l m e m b e r s o f staff. I n sepa-
rate infant a n d junior schools there m u s t b e
liaison t oensure that w ea r eb u i l d i n g o n
previous experience.
3
T E A C H I N G A N D L E A R N I N G ISSUES

All bverView of the issues Classroom organisation and

A s w e l l as the actual content o fthe scheme
of w o r k there a r ea n u m b e r o fissues t o b e
considered. A so n e o f t h em a i n aims o fa
scheme o fw o r k is t oprovide a structured
f r a m e w o r k f o rlearning, i t must include
other aspects o f teaching a n d learning.
T h e s e a r e illustrated i n t h ed i a g r a m b e l o w
a n d a r ediscussed i nthe f o l l o w i n g sections
of the chapter.
Cross-curricular
Equal opportunities
links
,maMg(Me^^^
Ways of organising science work
Science i sa practical activity a n dthis h a s
implications f o r your classroom organisa-
tion. There a r e several different w a y s o f
organising science, u s i n g a whole-class o r a
group approach, w h i c h a r e set o u t below.
Y o u w i l l n e e d t oselect t h e a p p r o a c h o r
c o m b i n a t i o n o fapproached w h i c h best suits
the needs o fy o u r children, w h i c h is viable
in y o u r classroom a n d w h i c h suits y o u r
style o f teaching.

In each example the f o l l o w i n g code applies:

S = C h i l d r e n w o r k i n g o na science activity
Resources (material
Communication
and human) C =C h i l d r e n w o r k i n g o nother activities

t T = Teacher.

S c h e m e of T h e a r r o w sizes o neach d i a g r a m reflect the

work a m o u n t o fteacher intervention required.

A high intervention activity

w h e r e y o u n e e d t o s p e n d a f a i r a m o u n t of
Assessment
Classroom organisa- t i m e w i t h t h e c h i l d r e n , f o r d i s c u s s i o n , for
tion and management
safety r e a s o n s o rbecause y o u a r e assessing
the children.
t • A n activity w h i c h requires only
Recording findings Safety
intermediate intervention o ny o u r part.

- A l o w intervention a:

6
 w h i c h t h e children a r e able t o complete 3 T h e w h o l e class t o g e t h e r f o r t e s t i n g and
-A-fth httle o r n o i n t e r v e n t i o nf r o m y o u . discussion.

A p p r o a c h 1 A l l t h e class w o r k i n g o n t h e
SS ss ss
same science a c t i v i t y ss ss ss ss
ss ss ss ss ss T
ss ss ss ss ss ss ss
ss ss ss
ss T . w ss
ss ' ss Advantages and disadvantages

SS ss • Similar t o approach 1 , b u t this o n e i s

ss ss useful if y o u are w o r k i n g o n a p r o b l e m -
solving activity such as designing and
Advantages m a k i n g a paper plane. I tm a k e s t h e test-
• First h a n d , practical experiences for all i n g a m u c h safer p r o p o s i t i o n a n d your
• Easy planning results are likely t ob e m o r e accurate. I t
• Develops cooperation. w i l l also help the children t o appreciate
the i m p o r t a n c e o f Hstening t othe results
Disadvantages
of others a n d incorporating others'
• One activity m a y n o tb e suitable f o r outcomes i n their o w n work.
w h o l e class
Approach 3 A l l groups working o n a
• Resourcing could b e costly
• Teacher intervention - all groups could circus of science activities.
t need h e l p a tthe same time. ss ss
ss ss
" Approach 2 A w h o l e - c l a s s a c t i v i t y .

There are several organisational stages i n a

whole-class activity:

1 I n t r o d u c t i o n t o the w h o l e class ss ss ss
ss ss ss
ss ss ss ss
ss ss ss ss ss ss Advantages
ss ss ss ss ss ss
• High on motivation
T • S m a l l a m o u n t s o f a v a r i e t y c\t
• Teacher intervention maiv^geable i f the
2 G r o u p s w o r k i n g o n different aspects a c t i v i t i e s a r e p l a n n e d ca^ e f u U y .
ss ss is Disadvantages
ss ss ss
• Timing could bedif'jcult
« Speed a n d sequen problems
• C o u l d bedema;; ding o n the teacher.

ss ss Approach 4 g ^j. groups worl

ss ss o n science acti\

52
 cc CC • T r a i n t h e c h i l d r e n t o m a r . a z e their o w n
cc cc t i m e ( u s i n g t i c k l i s t s , s h e e t s , rime l i m i t s ,
e t c . ) b u t r e m e m b e r t o b e ser.sirlve : : the
ss T ^ cc c h i l d r e n ' s i n d i v i d u a l work race
ss cc
• P r o v i d e a m i x t u r e o f activities. Here : : :=
u s e f u l t o t h i n k i n t e r m s of the tra::::-
cc cc cc
CC CC cc l i g h t s m o d e l a n d p r o v i d e a balar.ce : :
h i g h t e a c h e r - i n t e r v e n t i o n activitie; : ~ z
Advantages - c e r t a i n l y n o m o r e t h a n t w o ) , moderate
t e a c h e r - i n t e r v e n t i o n a c t i v i t i e s (amr^r^
• Teacher intervention more manageable a n d l o w t e a c h e r - i n t e r v e n t i o n activities
• W o r k s well i n integrated day ( g r e e n - w h i c h a r e , i n t h e m a i n , self-
• Easy to resource s u s t a i n i n g / i n d e p e n d e n t a c t i v i t i e s . ) It is
• Easier t o m a t c h activity t o individual i m p o r t a n t that the c h i l d r e n realise the
needs. significance of the traffic-lights m o d e l , to
w h i c h they s h o u l d respond readily. I n
Disadvantages
m y o w n classroom, having identified
• Needs careful planning the red, a m b e r a n d green activities, 1
• Has timing implications w o u l d tell the children m y expectation
• R e p o r t i n g b a c k m a y be difficult. o f t h e i r w o r k p r o g r a m m e , i.e. t h e y h a d
to c o m p l e t e t w o r e d , o n e a m b e r a n d t w o
H a v i n g chosen an approach or adapted one
green activities d u r i n g the day
of t h e m t o m e e t y o u r o w n needs (for ex-
• U s e w r i t t e n i n s t r u c t i o n s t o assist i n d e -
ample, i n the third outlined approach y o u
pendence, develop* reading skillsa n d
could have t w o o r three different science
encourage cooperation, such as readers
activities w h i c h are duplicated w i t h i n the
helping non-readers.
classroom), there are still other aspects o f
classroom organisation t o b e considered,
such as the management o f time, groups Managing groups
•and r e s o u r c e s . H o w m a n y children i n a group? The ideal
n u m b e r o f children w o r k i n g together i n
Managing time o n e g r o u p d e p e n d s o n t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e of
Teacher time Y o u w i l l n e e d t o h a v e realis- cooperative g r o u p w o r k . If they are used t o
tic goals w h i c h : w o r k i n g a s a w h o l e class, t h e y w i l l benefit
b y w o r k i n g i n pairs a t first. Y o u can t h e n
• A l l o w non-contact time f o r planning, gradually build t h egroups u p t o fours
, t a l k i n g to parents, a n d so o n ( w h i c h i s t h e o p t i m u m n u m b e r for most
• A l l o c a t e t h e a m o u n t o ft i m e t ob e spent activities).
o n t h e science aspect o f t h e therrje
I t i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t a l l c h i l d r e n feel that
(remembering all your other commit-
t h e y h a v e a p u r p o s e w i t h i n the group. A t
ments)
f i r s t y o u may f i n d i t h e l p f u l to allocate
• Allow time f o rvisiting speakers a n d
t a s k s to i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n the group.
visits. -
G r a d u a l l y , a s t h e c h i l d r e n g a i n in c o n f i -
C h i l d r e n ' s time T o u s echildren's time dence, they will take responsibility f o r
m o s t effectively y o u need to: o r g a n i s i n g t h e t a s k s . A c t i v i t i e s involving

m
frnir.g and classifying i n pairs are good for
: iir.g up group cooperation.
H-w m a n y groups w o r k i n g on science
a c t i v i t i e s ? T h i s w i l l d e p e n d on t h e a v a i l -
abilit}- o f resources a n d t h e n a t u r e o f t h e
activities. S o m e activities d e m a n d a h i g h
ievel o fteacher i n t e r v e n t i o n a n d it i s better
to b a l a n c e such a n a c t i v i t y w i t h o t h e r s o n
w h i c h t h e c h i l d r e n can w o r k p r o f i t a b l y
•^N-ith l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n f r o m y o u . F o r e x a m p l e ,
in a food topic one group could b e baking
w i t h y o u , w h i l e others are m a k i n g observa-
4onal drawings o f fruits and vegetables,
^conducting taste tests, m a k i n g m o d e l s o f
iay;ourite meals, conducting surveys o f
favourite foods or w r i t i n g o u t recipes.
^ V T i e r e w i l l the groups w o r k ? T h e r e a r e
several aspects w h i c h need t o b e consid-
• e r e d h e r e . F i r s t t h e r e i s t h e s a f e t y a s p e c t . If
children need space t ow o r k (for example,
if t h e y , a r e t e s t i n g w h i c h t o y v e h i c l e t r a v e l s
f a r t h e s t or i n v e s t i g a t i n g j e t p r o p u l s i o n w i t h
balloons) they will need a quiet area a w a y
f r o m the u s u a l classroom traffic. It w i l l also
e n c o u r a g e in t h e m a s e n s e of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
If t h e y feel t h a t t h e y are t r u s t e d t ow o r k i n
t h e c o r r i d o r or h a l l . ( I have o f t e n f o u n d t h a t
i h e ; more I t r u s t e d m y c h i l d r e n t o w o r k
w i t h o u t direct supervision, the m o r e they
responded b y s t a y i n g o n task.)
"Another aspect is t h e noise level o fa n
activity. A c t i v i t i e s w h i c h i n v o l v e noise,
such as s a w i n g a n d h a m m e r i n g , c a n b e
iistracting t o others a n d s o they are best
'•;£rt t o t h e s i d e s o r c o r n e r s o f t h e r o o m .
-Tc.e a c t i v i t y i t s e l f h a s i m p U c a t i o n s o n
-•••here t h e c h i l d r e n w i l l w o r k . A s y o u w e l l
cv,-, w h e n c h i l d r e n a r e c a r r y i n g w a t e r
^m o n e e n d o f t h e c l a s s r o o m t o a n o t h e r ,
ilage i s inevitable. I f y o u are n o t l u c k y
ough to have a water tray or sink in your
ssroom t r y t o ensure that activities
.-civir.£ w a t e r a r e n e a r t o t h e d o o r .
Organising resources
G e n e r a l e q u i p m e n t such a s scissors, sticky
tape, pencils, paper a n d glue s h o u l d ideally
be stored i n a central area w i t h i n the r o o m .
It i s essential that c h i l d r e n k n o w w h e r e
s u c h i t e m s a r ek e p t a n d h a v e r e a s o n a b l e
access to t h e m if y o u are t o foster a sense of
responsibiUty i n l o o k i n g after e q u i p m e n t
and promote independent learning.
It i s also h e l p f u l t oe n c o u r a g e the c h i l d r e n
to b e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c o l l e c t i n g m a t e r i a l s ,
a n d for p u t t i n g t h e m a w a y after they have
finished! (I k n o w that s o m e t i m e s it i s easier
a n d quicker t o clear a w a y yourself, b u t
perseverance w o r k s wonders.)
T i m i n g a n d s e q u e n c i n g of a c t i v i t i e s
Inevitably some activities take longer t o
complete t h a n others s o i tis essential that
children k n o w w h a t t o do w h e n they have
finished. I t is also necessary t o r e m e m b e r
that there m a y b e a logical order t o t h e
activities, a n d children m a y b e c o m e frus-
trated or lose interest if t h e y cannot f i n d a n
answer to a question because they have not
w o r k e d t h r o u g h a p r e l i m i n a r y activity.
A well documented feature o four educa-
tional system is the underachievement i n
science o f children f r o m ethnic m i n o r i t i e s
a n d o f girls. T h i s level o f underachieve-
m e n t deprives i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n these
g r o u p s o f the chance t o realise their full
potential w h i l s t d e p r i v i n g society o f valu-
able skills and resources.
T h e media b o m b a r d us w i t h a stereotypical
i m a g e o fscientists. If y o u w e r e t oask chil-
d r e n i n y o u r class t o d r a w o r describe a
scientist, i t i s l i k e l y t h e y w o u l d p o r t r a y a
white, middle-aged, m a l e 'professor' clad
in a w l i i t e coat. M a n y cliildren reject a
career i n science f r o m a nearly age as they
feel that they d onot fit the stereoptypical
i m a g e . A steachers w e are i n a s t r o n g p o s i -
tion t o change this. T h eintroduction o f
N a t i o n a l C u r r i c u l u m science - a n 'entitle-
m e n f c u r r i c u l u m for all children o f all ages
- is a powerful weapon as i twill broaden
children's experiences o f science t h r o u g h -
out their c o m p u l s o r y schooling a n d help t o
foster a positive attitude to science.
C h i l d r e n l e a r n best b yd o i n g , a n d the skills
w h i c h they develop w i l l help t o foster
important attitudes, such as cooperating
w i t h others, open-mindedness a n d perse-
verance, w h i c h a r epositive attributes f o r
e v e r y o n e . Science can b e a nexcellent v e h i -
cle f o r p r o m o t i n g e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s i f w e
t r a n s l a t e t h ep r i n c i p l e o f 'science f o ra l l '
into positive classroom practice.
T h e r e a r e m a n y strategies w h i c h c a nb e
used to try to achieve this a i m .
Cross-cultural links
B y m a k i n g cross-cultural links integral t o
our chosen themes w e can provide cultural
breadth for all children, and foster positive
attitudes b y v a l u i n g a variety o f cultures
a n d traditions. For example w e can:
• C h o o s e topics w h i c h a r e rich i n cross-'
cultural links, such as food, celebrations,
c l o t h e s a n d o u r s e l v e s (Sc 2, 3 , 4 )
• Ensure that alternative languages,
lifestyles, customs a n d scientific achieve-
-: . m e n t s o f o t h e r c u l t u r e s a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d
, into displays and published materials
• A r r a n g e visits t oand f r o m rehgious and
ctdtural centres t o share customs,
. tices, festivals, m u s i c a n d d a n c i n g ( S c 3
and 4)
• B o r r o w artefacts such as m u l t i c u l t u r a l
clothes, musical instruments, ornaments
' (Sc4)
• Visit shops and markets i nmulti-ethnic
areas to s h o w the w i d e variety of available
foods, fruits, vegetables a n d spices p c 2
and 3)
• Invite parents, grandparents and friends
f r o m m i n o r i t y groups into school to share
t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s (Sc 2 )
• R e m e m b e r t o focus o n t h e similarides
between people - w e have more similar-
ities t h a n d i f f e r e n c e s (Sc 2).
Girls and primary science
Females i n o u r society are seriously under-
represented i n scientific careers. This
a p p e a r s t o start a t a n e a r l y age: A P U tests
at a g e 11 f o u n d 'marked differences
between boys a n d girls i n using some
measuring instruments a n d applying
physics concepts'.
B y the age o f11 children's v i e w s o f science
can b e firmly entrenched, w h i c h means a
change i n attitude m u s t b e presented
t h r o u g h o u t the p r i m a r y years.
H e r e a r es o m e s u g g e s t i o n s f o r f o s t e r i n g a
positive attitude i n girls t o w a r d s science
f r o m a n e a r l y age:
• P r o v i d e m o d e l s o f w o m e n a s scientists
a n d technicians
• E n c o u r a g e girls t otake a nactive e x p l o r -
ing role i n groups rather t h a n a passive,
scribing one
• Ensure that w o m e n teachers s h o w t h e m -
selves as competent role m o d e l s , a t ease
w i t h tools, construction kits, computers,
and so on
• Invite male and female visitors i n non-
traditional occupations into school
prac- • Teach a U c h i l d r e n t h escientific p r i n c i -
ples underlying traditional female
occupations such as cookery, textiles,
child cafe
• Provide extra support and m o r e oppor-
tunities for girls to w o r k w i t h other girls
^ 5
 u s i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n kits, machines, elec- • S a yw h a t they h a v e f o u n d o u t f r o m their
•tricity, a n d s o o n work.
Encourage girls t odevelop their spatial
D u r i n g k e y stage 2 , all children s h o u l d have
awareness b y ensuring experiences w i t h
opportunities to:
large apparatus, m o d e l - m a k i n g
:Use gender-neutral language ('made' • Use appropriate scientific vocabulary
not 'man-made'; 'people' not 'mankind') • Use standard measures and S I units
,C h e c k p u b H s h e d materials f o r sexual • U s e a w i d e range o f methods t o record
stereotyping. ( A r e w o m e n s h o w n i n and present information i na n approp-
n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l occupations? D o pic- riate a n d systematic manner, f o r
tures s h o w girls t a k i n g a n active role?) example: diagrams, drawings, tables,
'charts a n d line graphs
• U s e their recorded information t o point
out a n d interpret patterns o r trends i n
Communication their data
• D r a w conclusions consistent w i t h t h e
p^The processes a n d content o f science w o u l d evidence a n d begin t o relate these t o
liibe' m e a n i n g l e s s without communication. scientific k n o w l e d g e a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g .
^;The e s s e n t i a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n skills a n d t h e
There are many ways i n which w e can
i^various techniques w h i c h children should
encourage purposeful discussion i n the
p d e v e l o p t h r o u g h o u t their science education
classroom.
I? a r eo u t l i n e d i n t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s t r a n d o f
.the F o u n d a t i o n Science PoS. T h e r e are also
|references. t o communication skills i n
I S d e n c e 1 , 2, 3 a n d 4. T h e a t t a i n m e n t t a r g e t
Interaction between children
^ M e v e l descriptions set out appropriate types
p i and range o f performance that pupils If w e p r o v i d e o p p o r t u n i t i e s for t h e c h i l d r e n
^ l . w o r k i n g a ta particular level s h o u l d d e m o n - to w o r k Lnpairs w eencourage vocabulary
^%strate..By b r i n g i n g together this i n f o r m a t i o n enrichment as well as helping t h e m t o
i||.and s o m e s p e c i f i c e x a m p l e s , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o suggest ideas. I t is o n l y b y t a l k i n g freely that
I see progression as children w o r k t h r o u g h children a r e able t o shape their o w n ideas
^.the key stages. and absorb the patterns w h i c h they find.

D i n i n g key stage 1 , aU children should have W e m u s t also encourage children t o u s e

opportunities to: their results purposefully, f o r example
asking t h echildren t ofind out information
Name
f r o m a b a rchart. I norder t o ensure that
Describe
discussion between children is purposeful
Present information i n speech a n d
w e need t o monitor that w e a r e offering
writing
opportunities for t h e m to:
Communicate what happened during
their w o r k • Follow intructions
M a k e a record of observations a n d • Listen t o others
measurements • Contribute t o discussion
Use'drawings, labels, tables a n d bar • Offer ideas
charts t opresent results • Report i n sequence.

11
D i s c u s s i o n between children and
children, and children and teacher
A t thie e n d o f a s e s s i o n i t i s u s e f u l t o g i v e
cliildren t h e opportunity t o report back t o
o t h e r s i n t h e class. T h i s e n c o u r a g e s t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t o fl i s t e n i n g skills, h e l p i n g t h e
children t o value other people's ideas, as
w e l l as giving t h e m m o r e insight into their
own investigations.
R e p o r t i n g back t o others requires specific
skUls o nt h e part o f t h e children a n d also
m u c h patience f r o m y o u , b u t nevertheless
it i s w o r t h t h e effort. I t i s u s e f u l i f y o u
encourage t h e audience t o a s k questions.
T h i s helps t h e children t o clarify their
t h i n k i n g a n d t h ew a y they present their
findings. A g a i n , results take time!
Whole-class discussion
This i s useful either as a starting point t o
s t i m u l a t e i d e a s o ra t t h e e n d o f a session t o
d r a w threads together. T h e most important
issue t o remember here is t o keep t h e
sessions short (between t e n a n d fifteen
Jrriinutes atthe most).
P . . !
' Communication to the whole
school and to parents
Children inevitably see recording as a n
outcome o f a nactivity. (Does this remark,
overhead o nthe r e t u r n j o u r n e y f r o m a \isit
to a f a r m , s o u n d f a m i h a r ? ' I b e t I k n o v r v.-hat
we'll b e d o i n g t o m o r r o w - she'U have u s
w r i t i n g about t h e animals a n d drav.-ing
pictures. W ea l w a y s d o ...')
It is essential that c h i l d r e n are e n c o u r a g e d t o
jot d o w n pointers d u r i n g their investiga-
tions. This will provide ongoing records c f
long-term observations, such as t h e g r o w t h
of a plant, time-lines o r a diary o f t h e
weather. I t will also a c ta s a n aide-memoire
in problem-solving activities i f they sketch
prototype models showing amendments o r
improvements.
Recording after investigations helps t h e
children to draw conclusions, make
inferences a n d suggest hypotheses w h i c h
lead t of u r t h e r investigation.
It i s essential that 'children n o to n l y record
their findings i n w a y s w h i c h are appropriate
to t h e m , b u talso t h a t t h e y d e v e l o p a n
understanding o fw h y they need t o record
results.
There a r em a n y w a y s i n w h i c h children c a n
record their results. I tisi m p o r t a n t that they
experience asm a n y w a y s as possible:

T h e school assembly isa useful f o r u m for the • Talking/reporting

encouragement o f verbal communication • Model making
skills. A sw e l l ast a l k i n g about investigations • W r i t t e n reports •
and "models which they have produced, • Diagrams and pictures
children c a nc o m m e n t o n slides o f t h e m - • Tape recording '
selves w o r k i n g t h r o u g h activities. • Video recording
• Using the computer. ;
• Drama
Recdirdihgrfindings • Poetry .
• P E
It i s essential that t h e c h i l d r e n record their • Dance .
findings. I twill help t h e m t odevelop com- • Photographs
m u n i c a t i o n skills a n d i t will also help t o • Tables, bar charts,.line graphs. (This m u s t
provide evidence for assessment purposes.' be considered a sa three-stage process. I n

12

^ 1 -
 'J-.e f i r s t s t a g e c h i l d r e n w i l l complete children will experience mathematics A T I :
r - r e a d y p r e p a r e d tables. Later t h e y w i l l U s i n g a n da p p l y i n g mathematics. T h r o u g h -
: b e g i n t o d r a w u p t h e i r o w n s i m p l e tables, out their scientific education children will
•i.I nt h e third stage they will b e ready t o also b e m e e t i n g S o A s f r o m A T 2 : N u m b e r
I: select t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e t y p e o f chart and algebra, A T S :Shape, space a n d
f';t-; f o r t h e i r results a n d t h e n design it.) measures, a n d A T 4 : H a n d l i n g data.
The group report. (Here t h egroup o f
In m a n y p r i m a r y classrooms children will be
Ji' 1 0 c h i l d r e n w o r k i n g t o g e t h e r w U l d e c i d e
m e e t i n g criteria laid o u t i nt h e technology
[•^Jrr h o w t o p r e s e n t a j o i n t r e c o r d o f t h e i r
d o c u m e n t , a l t h o u g h they m a y n o t at first
I w o r k . T h e y m i g h t design a poster o r
glance a l lb e involved i n w o r k i n g o n a
|;>£spresent a c o o p e r a t i v e d i s p l a y o f t a b l e s ,
'technological' activity. Consider y o u r o w n
p w r i t t e n reports, pictures, photographs,
classroom. Depending u p o n t h e age-ranges
Li\ etc. i n w h i c h each g r o u p m e m b e r h a s
of t h e children y o um a yhave various
. made a contribution. This w i U help child-
activities t a k i n g place. F o re x a m p l e , i n a
^-i^ • r e n t o recognise a n dutilise t h eskills a n d
nursery o rinfant classroom y o um a y have
Wr-' t a l e n t s o f o t h e r s . )
c h i l d r e n p l a y i n g i n t h es a n d a n dw a t e r tray,
^^^The' a b o v e list i s b y n o m e a n s exhaustive. o t h e r s m a yb e acting o u ta s i t u a t i o n i n t h e
S;.The m o s t i m p o r t a n t t h i n g t o r e m e m b e r i s t o s t r u c t u r e d p l a y area. I f y o u teach older
ll^vary t h e w a y s i n w h i c h w e ask children t o children, some m a y b econducting a survey,
tirecord - sometimes a finished model is others w o r k i n g o na mini-enterprise.
^perfectly adequate.
W h a t e v e r t h e a g e - g r o u p , s o m e o f y o u r class
m i g h t b e reading i nt h equiet area, o r u s i n g
Links with other curriculum construction kits, o r m a k i n g models f r o m
j u n k materials. I na n yo f t h eabove activities
areas children a r e m e e t i n g t h e criteria o f t h e
programmes ofstudy for technology:
jVScience h a s m a n y l i n k s w i t h o t h e r areas o f
the cinrriculum. O t h e r areas c a n b e used t o ^'^Pupils should be t a u g h t to d e v e l o p their
-..'communicate scientific f i n d i n g s : P E , d r a m a design a n d technology capability through com-
^'^and m o v e m e n t l e s s o n s a r e e x c e l l e n t v e h i c l e s bining their d e s i g n i n g a n d m a k i n g skills w i t h
for s u c h a p u r p o s e . I na r ta n d craft sessions, knowledge a n d understanding i n order to
-^when children a r e m i x i n g colours a n d design a n d m a k e products.''^
-experimenting w i t h different media, they ' Design and Technology in the National Curriculum,
'are d e v e l o p i n g scientific skills a n d k n o w - D E S , 1995
pledge i n a d d i t i o n t o d e v e l o p i n g creative
I n m a n y scientific t h e m e s children will b e
a n d aesthetic skUls. W h e n they a r e c o m -
m e e t i n g technology criteria. H e r e are some
::n^urdcating findings verbally o r i n written
examples:
-form t h e children are experiencing English
- A T I : Speaking a n d listening, a n d A T 3 : 1 H e a l t h a n d safety. T h eability t o recognise
; "Writing. a n d assess hazards a n d risks, a n d t o take
action to control them, are c o m m o n to both
^ b l t w o u l d b edifficult toimagine science w i t h -
science a n d technology.
W= r u t m e a s u r e m e n t o r h a n d l i n g d a t a a n ds o
ui-.e l i n k s w i t h m a t h e m a t i c s a r e s t r o n g . F o r 2 Working with materials a n d compone7:ts.
ex.arr.ple, i n m a n y scientific i n v e s t i g a t i o n s How t h ew o r k i n g characteristics of materials

13
relate t o t h ew a y s i n w h i c h t h e y a r e u s e d .
W o r k i n g w i t h electrical a n d mechanical
components. I n these situations children
are m e e t i n g b o t h science a n d technology
criteria.
3 Developing and communicating ideas.
T e c h n o l o g y criteria are m e t w h e n e v e r child-
ren d r a w their models, design machines,
take measurements or m a k e sketches.
4 Focused practical tasks a n d investigations.
C h i l d r e n d e v e l o p a n dpractise particular
skills a n dk n o w l e d g e , w o r k i n g indepen-
dently a n d i n teams.
I n a science topic o n m o v e m e n t , a tried a n d
tested activity is t o design a n d make a
w h e e l e d vehicle. A n extension tothis could
be t oa d d tread t ot h e wheels a n d seei f this
affects t h ew a y t h evehicle travels. I n this
one activity t h e children a r e experiencing
the following ATs:
Mathematics A T I : U s i n g a n d a p p l y i n g
m a t h e m a t i c s , A T 2 : N u m b e r a n d algebra,
AT4: H a n d U n g data
English A T I :Speaking a n d listening
Science A T I : E x p e r i m e n t a l a n d i n v e s t i -
gative science, A T 3 : Materials a n d their
properties, A T 4 : Physical processes
Technology A T I :Designing, AT2: Making
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e m a n y c u r r i c u l u m areas
w i t h w h i c h science h a s traditional links,
m a n y scientific activities a n d investigations
w i U help children t o experience cross-
curricular skills, themes a n d dimensions
such as citizenship, health education,
industrial awareness, e n v i r o n m e n t a l educa-
tion a n d equal opportunities.
Questioning should encourage the children
14
to express their thoughts a n d ideas.
T h i n k i n g a l o u d h e l p s t h e m t o de-. e i c p a n d
e x p l o r e t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n . g : : :i-.e -.-.-orld
a r o u n d t h e m . A m a j o r airr. c : c u e s r . : r i n . g is
to p r o m o t e p u r p o s e f u l activir.-. s : : r e n
q u e s t i o n s a r e f a ra n d aw^ay p r e f e r a d i e ::
c l o s e d q u e s t i o n s ( t h o s e w h i c h , i-.a-e ; n d y
o n e acceptable a n s w e r , o f t e n eidner y e s
'no'). M a n y children are reluctant t : ansv.er
closed questions because o f their fear ::
giving t h e ' w r o n g ' response. O p e n ques-
t i o n s d o n o t h a v e a s i n g l e ' c o r r e c t ' ans--.-er
a n d t e n d t o elicit a m o r e p o s i t i v e response.
T h i s i s also t h e case w i t h person-centred
questions; for example, t oask, ' W h y d o y : : .
think ...?' is n o t likely t ob e threatening tc
the child a n d w i l l also give y o u m o r e detail
about t h e child's reasoning ability.
W h e n questioning children there are other
aspects t o consider.
• T o n e o f voice.. I t is i m p o r t a n t t o s o u n d
encouraging a n d friendly - the questions
s h o u l d n ' t s o u n d U k ei n t e r r o g a t i o n .
• V a l u i n g t h echild's response is o f para-
mount importance and a most powerful
tool. T h i s c a n b e a c h i e v e d b yu s i n g praise,
tone o fvoice, using the child's n a m e a n d
responding positively w i t h smiles a n d
nods.
• Repeating t h e child's answer. This
ensures that a l l t h eother children c a n
h e a r t h er e s p o n s e , a n d i s also u s e f u l f o r
emphasising a particular section o f t h e
response.
Asking open and pupil-centred
questions
W e ask questions for a variety o f purposes.
For example, i na n investigation into finding
the most suitable material t o m a k e a n ice
cube last longer, t h equestions c a n enable
children to:
 i.Re\-ievr t h e i r i d e a s - ' W h a t c a n y o u t e l l m e
"about u s i n g the newspaper to insulate the
be' ice c u b e ? '
• O b s e r \ ' e i n m o r e d e t a i l - ' W h a t can y o u
--:Vtell m e a b o u t the d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s ? '
Pursue investigations more purposefully
l ^ ! - ' H o w m u c h b e t t e r was the p o l y t h e n e
" - " I t h a n the tissue p a p e r i n m a k i n g the i c e
" 'cubelast?'
• ^ S t o p and r e t h i n k - ' H o w can w e m a k e
" s u r e that o u r test i s f a i r ? '
• J u s t i f y t h e i r i d e a s and a c t i o n s - ' W h y d i d
^ i ' { . y o u m a k e a U the p i e c e s o f m a t e r i a l the
s a m e size?'
.•"Encourage self-criticism - ' I fy o u w e r e
^ i ; g o i n g t od o this investigation again, w h a t
do y o u think y o u w o u l d change?'
•^Demonstrate their understanding o f a
' .particular scientific concept b y a p p l y i n g
i|;their findings t o a practical situation -
II ' W h a t m a t e r i a l w o u l d y o u u s en o w i f y o u
i ^ i w a n t e d t o k e e p s o m e t h i n g cold? F o r
|| e x a m p l e , w h a t w o u l d y o u u s e t o w r a p a
M block o f ice-cream?'
m - - • -
Safety ^ • , ^ . - :^ ..
; k t a U t i m e s t h esafety o ft h ec h i l d r e n i s o f
p r i m e i m p o r t a n c e a n d i ti so n eo fy o u r k e y
'responsibilities a s class teacher. Science
"activities w h i c h i n v o l v e children t a k i n g
•responsibility for p l a n n i n g their w o r k need
c a r e f u l s u p e r v i s i o n . A s t e a c h e r s a c t i n g in
iloco p a r e n t i s y o u m u s t e n s u r e t h a t t h e c h i l d -
r e n w o r k i na w a y w h i c h is safe. I n s o m e
'situations that might m e a n suggesting
alternative strategies t othe children.
A n essential part o fthe learning process is t o
e n c o u r a g e c h i l d r e n t ob e c o m e i n d e p e n d e n t
learners. T ofulfil this y o u m u s t encourage
the children t o take responsibility f o r t h e
collecting together a n dclearing a w a y o f
rtaterials w h i c h they m a yu s e within' a n
15
investigation, s oremember t oleave e n o u g h
time f o r t h i s . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o i n s t i l i n t o t h e
•children a responsibility f o rkeeping their
w o r k i n g area clear a n d uncluttered d u r i n g
their investigations. B y choosing before-
h a n d the required materials and equipment
w e c a n reduce a n yp r o b l e m s w h i c h m i g h t
occur.
A safety checklist
• Provide water-based glues rather t h a n
rubber-based o r solvent ones. P V A is
clean, n o n - t o x i c a n dw a s h e s o u ti f acci-
dentally spilled o n clothes
• Plastic beakers a r e easily obtainable,
cheaper a n d m u c h safer t h a n glass ones
• Spirit thermometers m u s t always b e used.
' A U 3 0 c m - l o n g t h e r m o m e t e r s a r e clearly
labeUed a n d a r eeasUy read b y y o u n g
chUdren. Mercury thermometers must
' not b eused asthe Uquid mercury f r o m a
broken thermometer is a serious health
hazard
• Naked flames, • such as candles o r
nightUghts, must only b e used under
strict s u p e r v i s i o n . C h i d r e n w i t h l o n g hair
s h o u l d h a v e i t tied b a c k a n d l o o s e c u f f s
s h o u l d b eroUed u p . E n s u r e that activities
i n v o l v i n g n a k e d flames take place o n a
sand tray a n d that a fire bucket is nearby
• D o n o t u s e h o t g l u e g u n s . I fy o u w i s h t o
use a glue g u n , l o wtemperature glue
g u n s are avaUable a n d m u c h safer.
• D o n o t u s ec h e m i c a l salts s u c h a s c o p p e r
sulphate a n d cobalt chloride. These a r e
p o i s o n o u s i f s w a U o w e d . T h e scientific
value o f m a k i n g chemical gardens o r
g r o w i n g crystals u s i n g t h e s e salts i s
questionable
• Never u s every hot o rnear boiling water
(50°C m a x . ) . S u p e r v i s e o r p o u r o u t h o t
water yourself a n d keep hot kettles out o f
the chUdren's reach ,
• W a r n the c h U d r e n n e v e r t o taste o r i n h a l e
 substances w i t h o u t supervision
• Ensure that children w a s h their hands
before a n d after a n y cooking o r tasting
activity. M a k e sure that all utensils a r e
clean
• W a r n c h i l d r e n n e v e r to eat a n y leaves o r
berries t h e y m a y collect
• If y o u have pets i n the classroom r e m i n d
t h e c h i l d r e n o f t h e n e e d for strict h y g i e n e .
Treat a n y bites w i t h scrupulous care.
Encourage the children t otake responsi-
b i h t y for safety. A list s u c h a s the f o l l o w i n g
w i l l h e l p to m a k e the w o r k i n g areas safer.
1 Keep work areas tidy. Put away any equipment you have
finished with.
2 Clean any spillages right away.
3 Keep bags in the cloakroom, well away from work areas.
4 Make sure that everyone in your group is working safely.
5 If you are not sure what to do, ask your teacher.
<4
Resources . ^
The teacher '
A s a teacher y o u r role i s complex a n d
difficult t o define. I t depends u p o n m a n y
things: y o u r confidence, t h e previous
experiences of y o u r children, a n d the nature
of learning. W i t h i n the classroom y o u will
take o n m a n y roles. For example, d u r i n g the
c o u r s e o f a d a y y o u m a y be:
A n enabler, g u i d i n g t h e c h i l d r e n t o w a r d s
areas of research
A manager, c o o r d i n a t i n g t h e a c t i v i t i e s a n d
m a n a g i n g material and h u m a n resources
A presenter, o f f e r i n g a c t i v i t i e s , giving
information a n d clarifying ideas
A n adviser, l i s t e n i n g , s u g g e s t i n g alterna-
tives, offering encouragement
16
A n observer, s t u d y i n g t h e c h i l d r e n , m o n i -
3
toring their progress and giving feedback
An evaluator, a s s e s s i n g t h e c n d l d r e n ' s
progress a n d m o n i t o r i n g the acd-.ddes.
O f t e n t h e b e s t a d v i c e y o u c a n g i v e t h e rb.il d-
r e n i s d i r e c t i n g them t o w a r d s a n n r r n n a r e
resources to h e l p t h e m f i n d their c'-.n s i l u -
tions. T h i s will m e a n that y o u will have ::
consider t h e materials available L n t h e
classroom.
Material resources
Specialist apparatus i s n o t necessar}- b u t
c h i l d r e n s h o u l d h a v e easy access to a range
o f s i m p l y e q u i p m e n t i n o r d e r t o carrv^ o u t
investigative activities. T h e list opposite,
t h o u g h not exhaustive, isa typical example
of basic e q u i p m e n t w h i c h m o s t schools
have.
T h e f o l l o w i n g are e x c e l l e n t s o u r c e s o f free
materials:
• Shoe shops and supermarkets for boxes
and cardboard
• Dairies for yoghurt pots
• Electrical a n d engineering f i r m s for w i r e
and magnets
• T i m b e r yards for w o o d offcuts.
Parents as a resource
Parents are a valuable resource that is con-
tinuously under-used. I naddition t o pro-
viding materials and helping o n visits they
are invaluable i n t h e classroom. Initially
they m a y only w a n t to w o r k w i t h their o w n
children but, as their confidence increases,
they will b e willing t ow o r k w i t h other
groups. .
T h e g r o u n d rules for parental i n v c l v e ~ e n :
i n t h e c l a s s r o o m s h o u l d b e l a i d d o v . - n a : :b.e
outset by y o u a n d the parents. I tis in/.rrr-
tant that parents and teachers v.-rrk as
 •.f rs a n d t h a t t h e p a r e n t s ' s k i l l s a r e f u l l y
A questionnaire sent h o m e asking for details
:: u e o p l e w i U i n g to c o m m i t a regular p e r i o d
cf t i m e , s p e c i f y i n g suitable t i m e s a n d o u t -
lining specific skills w h i c h parents feel they
h a v e t o offer t o t h e s c h o o l i sa g o o d idea.
M a n y parents have c o m p u t i n g , electronic,
-Sdentific a n dartistic skills w h i c h a r e f a r
^'.superior t o y o u r o w n a n dw h i c h w o u l d
enhance the children's education. Yet m a n y
of these skills a r e u n d e r - u s e d simply
because y o u are n o t a w a r e of t h e m .
It i s essential that parents u n d e r s t a n d their
role w i t h i n t h e classroom, that they a r e
a w a r e of the n e e d to let the c h i l d r e n p u r s u e
their o w n lines o f e n q u i r y a n d also realise
t h e i m p o r t a n c e o fo p e n - e n d e d q u e s t i o n i n g .
A parents' evening w h i c h shows parents the
w a y s i n w h i c h children learn t h r o u g h active

A materials checklist

To enhance observation: plastic tubing hammer

. hand lenses filter paper hand drill
• 'lem' viewer blotting paper sandpaper
.. mini-spectors funnels masking tape
' midi-spectors magnets wheels - card, wood, plastic
stereo (binocular) microscope batteries (1.5v, 4.5v) straws
bulbs (1.5v,2.5v) Plasticine®
bulb holders clay
To develop measuring skills: simple motors plaster of Paris
metre rules buzzers Mod-Roc
centimetre rules switches nails
•'.measuring jugs plastic-covered wire screws
; measuring cylinders screwdrivers corks
..height charts crocodile clips pipe-cleaners.
' tape measures cotton reels string
^'tocker timers « cogs syringes
.xiTransan timers pulleys Corriflute
X. water timers • beads materials (fabrics)
. stop clock/watch ' marbles junk materials (boxes, etc.)
' bathroom scales springs (Slinky) propellers
balances carpet tiles Capsela
i; electronic weighing machine slope Dupio®
slotted masses battery-operated toys Lego®
droppers wind-up toys Lego Technic® '.'
thermosticks balloons/balloon pump Meccano® Cj^
,: spirit thermometers balls Teko®
spring balances elastic gears of many different types
' • Newton meters paper fasteners
" centicubes plastic guttering

To encourage exploration of the

To develop investigating skills: environment:
torches To develop designing and making poolers
plastic mirrors skills: Petri dishes (plastic)
- acetate sheets junior hacksaws plastic tanks
concave/convex mirrors dowel plastic bowls
. : lenses • wood (offcuts) , buckets
'oisidoscope square section wood sieve
stethoscope balsa wood natural materials, rocks, fossils

17
 i n v o l v e m e n t w^ill n o t o n l y i n c r e a s e t h e i r c o n -
fidence t o w o r k i n the classroom but will also
give t h e m a ninsight into the curriculum.
To have confident parents w o r k i n g along-
side y o u i n t h e classroom will m a k e y o u r
role m o r e m a n a g e a b l e as y o u will b e able t o
p l a n activities a r o u n d parental skills a n d
they will provide you with more opportu-
nities t oassess g r o u p s w i t h i n y o u r class.
Record-keeping
T h e p u r p o s e o fr e c o r d - k e e p i n g is t o i m p r o v e
the effectiveness o f schooUng b y ensuring
a better m a t c h b e t w e e n t h e abilities o f
.children a n d their learning experiences.
A n agreed school marking/record-keeping
policy is essential.
'Keeping records o f t h e children's experi-
:ences isi m p o r t a n t for several reasons:
• I n order t o deliver the National
Curriculum successfully, i t is essential
,. that a l lchildren revisit each part o ft h e
p r o g r a m m e o f study m o r e than once iit,
each k e y stage
,• I t w i l l b e i m p o r t a n t t ok n o w exactly w h i c h
areas o f t h e p r o g r a m m e o f study have
been experienced b y your children i n t h e
past. O n l y t h e n w i l l y o u b e able t o p l a n a
p r o g r a m m e o f learning w h i c h ensures
adequate progression i n both skill
development and concept development
,• V a l u a b l e c u r r i c u l u m t i m e c a n b e w a s t e d
b y unnecessary repetition o f achvitiep. I t
is i m p o r t a n t t o r e v i s i t a skill area o r
• c o n c e p t b u ti t is b o r i n g t o revisit exactly
the same activity.
Records will enable y o u to:
• M o n i t o r t h e breadth, balance a n d rele-
: vance o fp l a n n e d activities
18
• Address continuity a n d progression i n
teaching and learning
• See at a glance the areas w h i c h have been
covered a n d those still t o b e covered a n d
allow for purposeful revisiting withcut
unnecessary repetition.
It f o l l o w s t h a t r e c o r d s s h o u l d g i v e evidence
of:
• Topics a n d activities experienced
• Skills experienced
• Concepts developed.
Record-keeping systems fall i n t o t w o m a i n
groups:
• R e c o r d s o f t h e experience o f a w h o l e class
• Records o f a n i n d i v i d u a l child's attain-
ment.
Class records
To provide a complete s u m m a r y o fthe w o r k
c o v e r e d b y a particular class, several records
are needed. T h e first 6 f these is a copy o f the
topic w e b that w a s used t o plan t h e half
term's w o r k , such as the one opposite. Topic
w e b s w i l l b e m o r e o r less u s e f u l d e p e n d i n g
on the a m o u n t o f detail that they s h o w and
this varies f r o m school t o school. H o w -
ever, a topic w e b does set the context o f the
children's learning a n d is thus useful as a n
overview.
T h e next record is a suggested topic plan-
n i n g a n d a s s e s s m e n t s h e e t ( s e e p a g e 20).
Schools m a yw i s h t o adapt this t o u s e f o r
each half-termly topic. I t c a n provide such
i n f o r m a t i o n as:
• T h e n a m e o fthe topic
• T h e learning objectives f r o m t h e pro-
g r a m m e o f study/scheme o f v.-ork. i . e .
k n o w l e d g e , understanding a n d skiLs
• T h e activities experienced b y the children
• T h e m e t h o d s o frecording used
• Assessment opportunities
• Tr.e skills f r o m other subject areas, such
as E n g l i s h a n d m a t h e m a t i c s , w h i c h c a n b e
rractised w h i l e w o r k i n g o n science •
activities, m a y also b e recorded
• A n evaluation of the activity w h i c h will be
useful in future planning.
The completed sheet o n page 2 0shows h o w
the topic p l a n n i n g and assessment sheet can
be u s e d a s a p l a n n i n g t o o l a s w e l l a s f o r
recording. T h e topic i n this example isa Y 6
topic o n C o m m u n i c a t i o n s .
1 H a v i n g chosen the topic, d r a w u p a topic
web like the one below. T h e m a i n areas to b e
covered are identified b y consulting your
school scheme of w o r k and the relevant pro-
g r a m m e of study.
; 2 T h e n e x t step i s t o select a p p r o p r i a t e
learning objectives a n dactivities f o r t h e
c h i l d r e n ( h a v i n g c h e c k e d class records t o
ensure that revisiting does n o t m e a n
repetition o f a n activity) and t o enter t h e
details i n t h eboxes o n t h ep l a n n i n g a n d
assessment sheet. Objectives s h o u l d be a s
concise as possible, focusing o n
the k n o w l e d g e , u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d skills
the children should acquire.
It is n o t n e c e s s a r y t o p u t s o m e t h i n g i n e v e r y
box, contrived Unks w i t h i n a topic a r e
seldom helpful.
3 Identify the children's probable m e t h o d of
recording. I t is valuable t o return t o
this c o l u m n at t h e analysis stage as t h e c h i l d -
ren m a y find unexpected ways o f recording
a n d c o m m u n i c a t i n g their findings.
4 W h e r e specific resources are n e e d e d these
s h o u l d b erecorded. I t m a y b ea piece o f
apparatus that needs t o b eborrowed, f o r
example a video, computer disk o r
textbooks.
5 The assessment column encourages y o u
to look for built-in assessment opportunities
(r&ther t h a n bolting o n separate tasks o r
tests a ta later stage). A u s e f u l s h o r t h a n d t o
indicate the m e t h o d of assessment uses the
l e t t e r s O , P , Q o r S: '

Shodowls n: cording

Symmfl'iT^

mirrors ("COLOUR, Y

de.v\c£.s

elecVnotu
^^^^^ t-ouching I
SimpNe. CircutS
bod>-j language
S\^J it cV^eS

papers
C\QSS neuJSpoper

Videos

TV Half-term's topic web

19
 ^^°duced by

Topic planning and assessment slieet

Method Assessment
Science Learning objective (from PoS) Activities of recording Specific resources (O. P, Q. S)
lb-, fo . A l t <i <M ^Cvs»*l>(.
llwlIC^
Foundation •• -

0..^ <>_^ uto^^

Science 1

Science 2

Science 3
P/S

Science 4
5 basis for a d v a n c e p l a n n i n g of the topic.
^6 T h e f i n a l c o l u m n a l l o w s f o r a s i m p l e
;evaluation o f the activity a s a learning
-iexperience for the children. It i s i m p o r t a n t
"•'Tor s c h o o l s t o d e v e l o p t h e i r o w n c r i t e r i a f o r
this evaluation.
^ I n f o r m a t i o n f r o m the topic p l a n n i n g a n d
.'assessment sheet can b e transferred to the
jclass record s h e e t o u t l i n e d b e l o w . T h i s i s
pDrily f o r k e y s t a g e 1 , t h o u g h a s i m i l a r o n e
" c o u l d b e u s e d f o r k e y s t a g e 2. T h e r e a r e
"copies of t h e s e a tt h e e n d of the book. T h e
,sheet has b e e n d r a w n otit so that each P o S
statement has one box.
carry o n w h e r e the previous teacher left off.
It m a y w e l l be that i n s o m e schools a h i g h l y
structured scheme of w o r k reduces the need
for whole-class r e c o r d - k e e p i n g to a 'deficit
model' i n w h i c h only omissions from that
year's w o r k are recorded. I nothers, the
assessment system m a y hold the key. W h a t -
ever the system, teachers w i l l need to learn
to trust each other's professional judge-
ments. Standardisation meetings involving
the w h o l e staff are invalauble i n achieving
this.

;The c h i l d r e n ' s e x p e r i e n c e s can be r e c o r d e d

_by;marking the relevant boxes as indicated
'below.

A f t e r t h e 1st v i s i t

S c i e n c e c l a s s r e c o r d s h e e t ( K e ys t a g e 1)

C1.5I ... - lo 19..

After a re-visit
Fourvdation 1 • b c

cipQundation a n d Science 1 will b e revisited Scienca 2 a b c

3 a
ron m a n y occasions. T h e n u m b e r of visits can 4 a b

"be r e c o r d e d as: 5 a b

Science 1 1 a b c
Ejcperimental and 2 a b c
investigative
science 3 a b c
•I'l
Science 2 1 a b

:TTie s h e e t p r o v i d e s a s u m m a t i v e r e c o r d LHe p r o c e s s e s
and living
2 a b c
'I'l
of t h e w o r k c o v e r e d b y the class a n d serves Itiings 3 a b c

A a b
as a u s e f u l r e m i n d e r o f t h e n e e d t o w i d e n 5 a b

"children's experiences. It can aid transition Science 3

Materials and
1 a b c a
•1
their propertJos 2 a b
;e4to t h e n e x t c l a s s a n d p r o v i d e s u p p l e m e n t a r y 1 a b c
Science 4
' j n f o r m a t i o n f o r use i n m o d e r a t i n g a class's Physical processes 2 a b c d

w o r k with others. 3 a b c d
•1

-tSchools w i U n e e d to d e c i d e the exact f o r m a t T o p i c s covered

^and quantity of recorded information, and

' d u r i n g a s s e s s m e n t 'best-fit' w i t h the level Year group Autumn spring Summer Teacher

i d e s c r i p t i o n s i s a d v i s e d . It i s still a s i m p o r - Nursery

tant a sever to r e m o v e the 'fresh-start each n

-lyear' s y n d r o m e . School record-keeping 1

-systems m u s t a l l o w subsequent teachers to 2

21
U s e d jointly, the topic w e b , topic p l a n n i n g
a n d a s s e s s m e n t s h e e t a n d t h e class r e c o r d
sheet will provide valuable information.
T h i s c o u l d be:
• F o r m a t i v e (helping to plan appropriate
activities)
• Evaluative (showing any under coverage
of the PoS)
• I n f o r m a t i v e (to parents, governors, L E A )
• Transitive (to pass o n f r o m teacher to
teacher, school to school)
• S u m m a t i v e (a r e c o r d of the curriculum
experienced).
Individual records
I n d i v i d u a l records are a necessary part of
b u i l d i n g u p each child's overall profile/
record of achievement.
To be useful, the records s h o u l d provide a
succinct s u m m a r y of:
• T h e w o r k covered
• T h e skills gained '
• The concepts understood
• T h e child's perception of his/her learning.
T h e i n d i v i d u a l r e c o r d s c a n t h e n act as a
focus for discussion w i t h the child, parents
a n d colleagues (particularly o n transition).
It is s u g g e s t e d t h a t w o r k i n a c h i l d ' s
b o o k / t o p i c f o l d e r , etc. c a n f o r m t h e m a i n
record of a n individual's progress. W o r k can
be suitably annotated by the teacher to pro-
v i d e i m m e d i a t e feedback to the child and to
f o r m a record of the child's competence i n a
particular area. A useful w a y of recording
e p h e m e r a l e v i d e n c e that m a y o t h e r w i s e be
lost i n the day-to-day classroom happenings
is t o m a k e a n o t e , as it h a p p e n s , o n a 'Post-it'
a n d stick it o n the child's w o r k , or o n y o u r
m a r k b o o k , for y o u r later reference.
At appropriate intervals (decided by the
22
whole staff) a sum~ahve r-r::rd c:
i n d i v i d u a l c h i l d r e n ' s p r o g r e s s car. r e r r . a d e .
It m a y be u s e f u l to c o n f i r n - this d v :es: :ask
o f s o m e s o r t . T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l :;
c o n f i r m that the k n o w l e d g e base has reer.
l e a r n e d . T e s t s / t a s k s c a n t a k e a •••.Ide -. a r . e r y
o f f o r m s , p e n c U a n d p a p e r b e i n g c r l v : r . e ::
m a n y assessments w h i c h are disrussea :r
m o r e detail i n the section o n assessrrer:
( p a g e 23). T h e d a t e o n w h i c h t h e chd.d dis-
p l a y e d c o m p e t e n c e is u s e f u l , as t h e r e v.ill be
i n s t a n c e s w h e r e a c h U d is u n a b l e t o d o s: a: a
later date.
S e l f - a s s e s s m e n t is a n i m p o r t a n t aspect o f t h e
r e c o r d - k e e p i n g , t h o u g h i t is r e l a t e d micre
the activities t h a n the outcomes. I n v o l v i n g
children i n the assessment of their ov.n
w o r k is a u s e f u l w a y o f c o n f i r m i n g a n d
enhancing progress. C h i l d r e n w h o under-
stand w h y they are d o i n g s o m e t h i n g a n d
w h a t they have to do to succeed invariablv
w o r k better. T h e r e s h o u l d be o p p o r t u n i t i e s
for c h i l d r e n to set t h ^ i r o w n targets. Schools
m a y w i s h to link this i n w i t h the production
of a record of a c h i e v e m e n t or p o r t f o l i o of
work.
F o r s o m e c h i l d r e n it m a y be u s e f u l to h a v e
s o m e ready p r i n t e d a n n o t a t i o n slips w i t h
s u i t a b l e c o m m e n t s s u c h as:
' T h i s p i e c e o f w o r k s h o w s t h a t I c a n ...'
' I l i k e t h i s w o r k b e c a u s e ...'
'This piece of w o r k s h o w s I need mere
practice at...'
T h e p r i m a r y science p r o f o r m a s h o v . n
o n p a g e 23 c o u l d be u s e d to i n v o l v e t h e c h i i d
in self-assessment. The topic'activi:y
column w o u l d usually contain intorrr.aticn
t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m the class topic r l a n n i r c
and assessment sheet.
T h e next t w o c o l u m s can c o n t a i n cede letters
e n t e r e d b y the c h i l d . T h e c o d e w o u l d be
agreed by discussion. For example:
 C h i l d r e n will need some initial help a n d
encouragement w i t h self-assessment.
I enjoyed this w o r k
I U k e d s o m e bits Genuine open encouragement isneeded i f
I d i d n ' t enjoy it c h i l d r e n a r e t op e r s u a d e d t odeclare their
thoughts a n d feelings about their learning.
Zziel:
Most children w i U need help t obe positive
E = I f o u n d it quite easy and constructive about their learning rather
M = It wasn't too hard than negative a n d downgrading. With
H = If o u n d this w o r k hard y o u n g children y o u c a nparaphrase their
oral responses to a f e w key questions. Y o u r
Y o u n g e r children could use symbols:
own comments will b e more useful,
especially a tt r a n s i t i o n to a n o t h e r class if t h e
staff as a w h o l e agree o n the key aspects o f
learning t o b econsidered and commented
on.

Even simple feedback from t h e children J l s s e s s m e t i i ^

gives u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n about their u nd er-
standing a n d enjoyment o f t h e work. T h e assessment o f children's development
in science i s a matter o f concern t o a l l
teachers. K e y issues include t h e t i m e
r e q u i r e d , t h e skills n e e d e d , t h en a t u r e o f
Primary science pro forma e x t e r n a l tests/tasks ( S T A s ) a n d the possible
distortion of the teaching p r o g r a m m e .
Name. .Class. Date.
T h e s e c o n c e r n s are n a t u r a l . I n m a n y w a y s
Topic/activity Code Child's comment Teacher's comment
1 2
t h e y m i r r o r t h econcerns o f secondary
teachers just before the advent o fthe G C S E
exams. H o w e v e r , after the first r u n - t h r o u g h
of the G C S E , secondary teachers generally
felt confident about their n e ww a y s o f
=1
assessing children's progress a n d H M l
reported significant i m p r o v e m e n t s i n t h e
quality of children's learning.

In July 1993, t h eDearing Interim Report

stated:

^''One of t h e issues that has a r i s e n d u r i n g c o n -

s u l t a t i o n is t h a t w h e n a n a t i o n a l t e s t h a s taken
p l a c e , l i t t l e o r no w e i g h t i n g is c u r r e n t l y g i v e n
t o t e a c h e r assessment i n the tested a t t a i j u n e n t
t a r g e t s . T h i s i s to u n d e r - v a l u e s o u n d l y based,
moderated teacher assessment. M y recom-
m e n d a t i o n f o r a l l k e y stages is t h a t t h e n a t i o n a l

23
 t e s t a n d t e a c h e r assessment r a t i n g s s h o u l d be 18) y o u a r e b e t t e r able t o forn^. a n o b j e c t i v e
s h o w n s e p a r a t e l y i n a l l f o r m s of r e p o r t i n g a n d v i e w o f the children's progress.
in school prospectuses/^

T h e n a t i o n a l tests a t t h e e n d o f each k e y
stage a n d teacher assessment provide
different information. Teacher assessment is
w i d e r a n g i n g a n d f o r m a t i v e , t h e tests a r e
s u m m a t i v e p r o v i d i n g a snapshot at a par-
ticular t i m e . T h etests a r e u n a b l e t o cover all
the a t t a i n m e n t targets, experimental a n d
investigative science being left t o t h e
teacher.
T h e test results s h o u l d n o t b e seen as a
w a y o f c o n f i r m i n g o r invalidating teacher
assessment results. W h e n using t h e level
descriptions t olook at pupU performance,
teachers need t o judge w h i c h description
best fits. T h e r e isn o expectation o f a n exact
match.
Assessment m u s t b e seen as part o f t h e
teaching process a n d f o r m a nintegral part o f
the learning programmers outlined below.
If w h i l e p l a n n i n g t h echildren's p r o g r a m m e
of learning y o u have considered assessment
opportunities (see Record-keeping, page
Collecting and recording e v i d e n c e
In order t o gain a n d maintain a n cngiing
picture o f t h echild's developments -'r.eze
n e e d s t o b e a d e v e l o p i n g b o d y o f e\"ib£n:e
w h i c h reflects t h e child's activities a n d
learning outcomes. Crucially, this v.iii
illustrate w h a t t h e child k n o w s , under-
stands a n d c a n d o . This evidence m a y
include:
• Y o u r notes; a n ongoing record, possibly a
m a r k b o o k w h i c h h a s o n e page f o r each
chUd. This can be completed as t h e need
arises a n d c o u l d b e a b o u t a c h i e v e m e n t ,
more experience needed orsimply day-to-
day information. A tt h ee n do f each w e e k
y o u c o u l d r e a d t h ec o m m e n t s , t a k i n g n o t e
of those chUdren w i t h f e w c o m m e n t s a n d
perhaps targeting t h e m f o rthe following
week .
• A d e v e l o p i n g p o r t f o l i o o fselected pieces
of w o r k (bearing i nm i n d that o n e piece o f
w o r k c a nprovide evidence o f several A T s

NC and LEA S c h o o l policy a n d

policy documentation
Planning
Individual pupi
needs
Learniog activities
The
Child
RcN/iew a n d
evaluation Leor.ning

Assessmenfc

Formative records
Learning outcomes Record of progress
including N C a t t a i n m e n t :

24
 ||,'in-several c u r r i c u l u m areas) p e r h a p s as • D e c i d e o n a U m i t e d n u m b e r o fskills /con-
^ p a r t of a record of achievement cepts t o assess. ( S e etopic p l a n n i n g a n d
^Opportunities f o r pupil a n d parental • assessment sheet.)
jicontributions. ChUdren could choose • Focus y o u r t h i n k i n g o n t h e skill(s)/
i ' w o r k to g oi n their portfolio and could b e concept(s) and h o w they w U l be exhibited,
^linvolved i n t h e updating b y choosing before y o u start. W h a t evidence w i U y o u
ll'what t o remove. Parents could be be l o o k i n g for?
wolved b y being encouraged t o a d d • Scrutinise a n d internalise t h ew o r d s o n
•:comments to chUdren's w o r k . y o u r record sheet as m u c h as possible
•j;:Individual/group/class discussions to beforehand so that y o u can focus o n the
KJ:review objectives. T h e s e can b e f o r m a l o r activity rather t h a n the sheet.
l^iniormal at the beginning o r end of t h e D o n o t t r y t oassess too m a n y children i n
^sessions a n d w i U p r o v i d e insight i n t o the a n y one session, certainly n o m o r e t h a n
^children's perceptions of their learning one group of three or four chUdren.
^Performance o n p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g activi- • Try a ' d u m m y - r u n ' o nanother group to
||,ties, investigations a n d coUaborative help y o u t ohighlight the key features o f
^tasks. B y including a n egg-race type o f the activity. ^
pactivity i tis possible t o observe h o w the • A i m to spend a n appropriate length o f
^ c h U d r e n react t oa chaUenge a n d to g r o u p time o n t h e observation. O n eo r t w o
#interaction, as w e U as demonstrating that minutes w U l be too short for y o u t o fully
^.^^leaming is f u n understand t h e activity i n w h i c h t h e
IJRecords o f oral work/practical demon- children are engaging whilst fifteen
[strations. T h e s e c o u l d b e p a r t o f a class m i n u t e s istoo long, g i v e n the needs of the
^assembly o r f o r m a section o f a n open rest o f t h e class. F i v e m i n u t e s w i U give
pafternoon for parents you significantly more information
• l y s i n g photographs as a record. This will especially if y o u r e t u r n for another obser-
l i n v o l v e the c h U d r e n i na n e x p l a n a t i o n o f v a t i o n a f e w m i n u t e s later. A s a guideline,
|;the purpose a n d context.' t h i n k of the t i m e y o u w o u l d need to spend
in listening to the g r o u p reading.
fit u n d e r t a k i n g a s s e s s m e n t i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o
• Y o u m a y learn m o r e about a child's skiUs
^ c o g n i s e that activities i n v o l v e learning
if y o u a c t as a n u n i n v o l v e d observer,
fprocesses as w e U as products, a n d a variety
rather t h a n trying t o b e t h e teacher,
of m e t h o d s , i n c l u d i n g observation, m u s t b e
faciUtator a n d tutor simultaneously.
peveloped.
• O r g a n i s e t h erest o f t h e class w i t h self-
directed a n d absorbing tasks as far as y o u
fobservin^ children can. R e m e m b e r y o u are o n l y talking about
limited times.
>It i s e s s e n t i a l t o b e a r i n m i n d a n u m b e r o f
• Record t h eskills y o u observed i m m e d i -
'•points b e f o r e u n d e r t a k i n g a n y o b s e r v a t i o n
ately after the obsep.'ation, a i m i n g as far
Tof a p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t y .
as p o s s i b l e t o b e u n p r e j u d i c e d b y a c h i l d ' s
V B e clear a b o u t t h ea i m a n d p u r p o s e o f (in)abilit)' i n a n o t h e r c u r r i c u l u m area o r
^ T t h e assessment. Does t h eachvity really by a child's misbehaviour.
l^provide a n appropriate assessment
ig'opportunity? (See topic planning a n d Asking yourself t h e f o U o w i n g questions
l^^assessment sheet.) m a y h e l p t oi m p r o v e a n d refine y o u r obser-

25
v a t i o n skills:
• W h a t d i d the children actually do?
• W h a t d i d I expect the children to do?
• W h a t did the children learn?
• W h a t did I learn?
• W h a t did I plan next for the children?
• W h a t d i d the children say about their
learning?
T h e g o l d e n r u l e is t o set y o u r s e l f
reahstic a n d achievable targets.
I n f o r m a l a n d f o r m a l teacher a s s e s s m e n t s are
vital elements of the assessment procedure.
T h e y m u s t be c o n t i n u o u s if t h e y are to p r o -
vide a true picture of w h a t a child can do.
Y o u n e e d t o s a m p l e a n d t a r g e t g r r u n s cf
c h i l d r e n at d i f f e r e n t t i m e s a n d i n d i f f e r e n :
situarions. T h i s w i l l enable y o u to assess a
class of c h i l d r e n , o v e r a h a l f - t e r m or a t e r ~ s
work, within a structured framev.crl-;.
practical, Remember, if assessment i n f o r m s sub-
s e q u e n t w o r k , y o u are o n the right track.
26
 EVALUATION
i n t h i s b o o k w e l o o k e d at w a y s o f
A i l i e r
m o n i t o r i n g w o r k t a k i n g place i n the class-
r o o m . T h e areas w e covered included
.-.1, .•-
"appraising a n d recording the a t t a i n m e n t
targets v i s i t e d b y classes, a n d e v a l u a t i n g
the progress of i n d i v i d u a l c h i l d r e n to p r o -
vide evidence for assessment throughout
. a n d at t h e e n d o f k e y s t a g e s 1 a n d 2.
^ e ' s c i e n c e s c h e m e itself also needs e v a l u -
^ating. I n o r d e r t o assess t h e effectiveness o f
diir p r o g r a m m e of l e a r n i n g w e m u s t b u i l d
^^*-'review procedures. T h e s e s h o u l d be
"c6r\sidered at three levels:
- • i I n d i v i d u a l activities
H a l f t e r m l y topics
••, T h e s c h e m e o f w o r k .
^ A ' n u m b e r o f criteria n e e d to be c o n s i d e r e d
w h e n selecting appropriate activities for
the children.
A''
Does the activity provide o p p o r t u n i t y for
the c h i l d r e n to:
D e v e l o p their understanding of the
processes of science by experiencing
skills?
Foster the development of attitudes such
as r e s p e c t f o r e v i d e n c e , perseverance,
open-mindedness, cooperation, respect
37
for Hving things a n d self-criticism?
• D e v e l o p s c i e n t i f i c c o n c e p t s (Sc 2-i)l
• Reach a satisfactory outcome?
• A p p l y scientific ideas to real-life prob-
lems, especially i n a technological con-
text?
• W o r k cooperatively w i t h other children?
• C o m m u n i c a t e their ideas to others?
Does the activity:
• Stimulate curiosity?
• Relate to the interests a n d previous
experiences of the children?
• A p p e a l to b o t h boys a n d girls?
• Reflect m u l t i c u l t u r a l aspects of society?
• H e l p the children to develop an under-
standing of the w o r l d around t h e m
t h r o u g h their interaction w i t h materials?
• I n v o l v e the selection by the children,
• a n d their use, of a range of s i m p l e and
safe e q u i p m e n t a n d materials?
• Use resources w h i c h are readily avail-
able i n the classroom?
• C o n t r i b u t e to a broad-based, balanced
science c u r r i c u l u m a n d b u i l d u p o n chil-
dren's previous experiences?
B y r e g u l a r l y assessing chosen activities to
the above criteria y o u can ensure that y o u
are m e e t i n g the children's e n t i t l e m e n t to
t h e science c u r r i c u l u m at t h e l e v e l o f partic-
ular l e a r n i n g experiences. T h e use of topic
or w e e k l y p l a n n i n g a n d assessment sheets
to i d e n t i f y the relevant skills a n d concepts
a n d t o e v a l u a t e the success o f the a c t i v i t y
within t h e classroom will provide all t h e
necessary i n f o r m a t i o n .
H o w e v e r , n o single activity c a n provide
c h i l d r e n w i t h the full range o f skills o r the
b o d y of k n o w l e d g e outHned by the N a t i o n a l
Curriculum, so the programme of learning
n e e d s to b e e v a l u a t e d at topic level.
Evaitlatiiig topics
W h e n e v a l u a t i n g t h e topics y o u need t o
return t o the criteria used i nchoosing the
topic. These included:
• T h e needs a n d interests o fthe children,
the appropriateness o f the topic t o their
experience a n d stage o f d e v e l o p m e n t
a n d t h e t i m e o f year. ( W e r e activities
a d d e d t o the topic because o f the chil-
dren's interests a n d enthusiasms? D i d
they enjoy the topic?)
• T h e content o f t h etopic. (Is there a
balance o fcoverage o fthe m a i n areas o f
science?)
• The intended outcomes. (What did y o u
expect t h e children t o learn? D i d t h e
w o r k a c t u a l l y c o v e r t h e i d e n t i f i e d partfe
of t h e p r o g r a m m e s o f s t u d y ? D i d t h e
children actually experience t h e skills
expected?)
• Local resources. (Were the visits useful?
D i d y o u m a k e the best u s eo f parents,
local g r o u p s , etc? W a s the v i s i t r e l e v a n t
to t h e n e e d s o f t h e c h i l d r e n ? )
T h e use o fthe sheets o u t l i n e d earlier i n the
b o o k w i l l h e l p to assess the topic as p a r t o f
the learning programme. B y transferring
t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h e class r e c o r d sheet
y o u c a n better assess t h e success o f t h e
topic. T h i s w i l l help y o u t o plan f u t u r e
w o r k effectively for the children. Y o u m a y
find that y o u have t o make some, slight
a m e n d m e n t s t o t h enext topic because o f
38
over/under-coverage of rrogrammes ol
s t u d y . T h i s r e v i e w o f tcpics s h c u l d b e
u n d e r t a k e n t e r m l y or half t e r m l v depending
on the m o d e l chosen. The usecf iifferent
c o l o u r e d p e n s w h e n c o m p l e t i n g t h e :la5s
r e c o r d s h e e t w i l l b e u s e f u l v r h e r , v : , : ze^zr.
the e v a l u a t i o n of the s c h e m e itself.
Evaluating the scheme of
work
T h e s c h e m e o f w o r k s h o u l d b e seen as a
w o r k i n g d o c u m e n t . I t reflects the school's
thinking about t h e delivery o f t h e curri-
c u l u m , b u t it is n o t w r i t t e n i n stone.
T h e sections w i t h i n y o u r scheme (outlined
in Section B - f o r example, classroom
o r g a n i s a t i o n , e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s , assess-
ment) w i l l need t ob ereviewed i n the light
of c u r r e n t l e g i s l a t i o n p r o d u c e d b y the D f E ,
H M I , the N C C , S E A C , the L E A and y o u r
o w n school policy statements t o take into
account m o r e appropriate a n d effective
teaching m e t h o d s , a n d also c o n t e m p o r a r y
events w h i c h w i l l b r i n g m o r e relevance t o
the children's w o r k .
The chosen m o d e l should be evaluated
separately. A g a i n , y o u s h o u l d r e t u r n t o the
criteria used w h e n t h eparticular m o d e l
was chosen. Each o f the models outlined
earlier h a d advantages a n d disadvantages
and, n o d o u b t t h r o u g h staff discussion a n d
by w o r k i n g t h r o u g h y o u r chosen model,
y o u w i l l h a v e raised o t h e r core issues. B y
r e t u r n i n g t o those issues i tw i l l b e possible
to e v a l u a t e t h e m o d e l b y u n d e r t a k i n g a n
audit. W e r e t h e advantages reflected : r .
actual practice? H a v e y o u f o u n d v.ays : j
r e m o v e the apparent disadvantages?
The timing of this review will again depend
on the frequency at w h i c h y o u decided : o
cover the p r o g r a m m e s o f study. A realisric
 S>'approach w o u l d b e t o r e v i e w at the e n d o f
one year a n d t h e n m a k e t h e necessary
^J; a m e n d m e n t s . T o d o s o e a r U e r w o u l d n o t
^1 a l l o w e n o u g h t i m e f o r r e f l e c t i o n - t o w a i t
*^|'.for t o o l o n g , h o w e v e r , c a n l e a d t o c o n t i n -
|f,uity problems.
Wpion w i l l need t oevaluate the m o d e l again
pi a t t h e e n d o f t h e t w o - y e a r c y c l e u s i n g the
fpEsame criteria.
Condusidii^
I
|;The process of the d e v e l o p m e n t , i m p l e m e n -
l^tation a n d e v a l u a t i o n o f a s c h e m e o f w o r k
f s h o u l d b e b o t h g r a d u a l a n d cyclic. I t i s
^ n e i t h e r desirable n o r reaUstic to a t t e m p t to
|reach a final product too rapidly. There
i^must b e f u l l c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h all staff
t h r o u g h o u t the stages of d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e
a i m s h o u l d be to ensure the setting u p o f a
process to evaluate a n d m o d i f y the scheme
in the light of experience.
If this i s d o n e i t w i l l b e possible t o a c -
c o m p l i s h t h e a i m set o u t i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
paragraph, taken f r o m the final report o f
t h e National Curriciduin Science \Norklng
Group ( D E S , A u g u s t 1 9 8 8 ) :
'^The planning and implementation of a
balanced hut flexible programme for Science
which meets the requirements of the National
Curriculum is a cliallenging but achievable
goal.'^
In many ways t h e development o f a
s c h e m e o f w o r k is a j o u r n e y o n w h i c h it i s
as i m p o r t a n t t o t r a v e l a s t o a r r i v e . T h i s
book aims to provide helpful signposts o n
that journey!
1.4 What d o e s s c i e n c e teaching within a National curricuium imply? |

• " Practical scientffic education that enables students to use everyday life

k n o w l e d g e i n o r d e r t o i m p r o v e life c o n d i t i o n s a n d k n o w l e d g e a b o u t o u r s e l v e s .

• C i v i c s c i e n t i f i c e d u c a t i o n in o r d e r to e n a b l e all p e o p l e to p a r t i c i p a t e s o c i a l l y , witii

a s c i e n t i f i c a p p r o a c h , in political d e c i s i o n s .

• Cultural scientffic education, related with all the different level of science's

nature, with the science and technological signfficance and its incidence on

social configuration"

• " K n o w l e d g e about S c i e n c e - certain facts, c o n c e p t s a n d theories.

• Scientific knowledge applications - the u s e of t h i s k n o w l e d g e in r e a l a n d set

situations.

• Scientific skills and approaches - g e t t i n g u s e d to s c i e n t i f i c p r o c e d u r e s a n d the

use of scientific tools and equipment.

• Problem solution- applying skills, procedures and scientific knowledge in real

investigations.

• Interaction with technology- Practical problem solving, s c i e n t i f i c infatuation,

aesthetic, economical, social and useful aspects of the different possible

solutions.

• S o c i a l - e c o n o m i c a l - political and moral-ethic discussions about scientific and

technological issues.

S c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y ' s history and development.

MartinezTorreciosy. Joauuin E t a ! ?nn5v

P R O B L E M S E N C O U N T E R E D DURING SCIENCE TEACHING

(Gil P6rez, Daniel. Macedo, Beatriz. Martinez Torregosa, Joaquin. Et al. 2005)

Not m a k i n g c t i i l d r e n a w a r e t t i a t : s c i e n c e - t e c t i n o l o g y - s o c i e t y interact.

Knowledge presentation as something absolute a n d unchangeable.

P r o m o t i o n o f a perfectly well designed a n d rigid scientific m e t h o d

v/hich children a r e s u p p o s e d t o stuck to.

Creativity , invention a n d doubt are ignored in science classes.

Classes are decontextuafized. Helping t opromote the idea that

science is s o m e t h i n g

that individuals practice on t h e i r own a n d w i t h o u t t>earing i n m i n d society's needs,

i n t e r e s t s or i n f l u e n c e s .

Technology i sn o t taken into consideration. G e n e r a l l y it i s s e t aside

instead of being

p r o m o t e d a n d s h o w i n g t h e c r u c i a l r o l e it p l a y s i n life r e g a r d i n g p r a c t i c e and machine

and tool handling. T h i s a l s o fosters a d e c o n t e x t u a l i z e d v i s i o n , a s if scientific research

could b e done without the use o flechnology. (Gil Perez, Daniel. Macedo, Beatriz.

Martinez Torregosa, Joaquin. Et al. 2005)

Science issometimes seen a n d transmitted a s s o m e t h i n g difficulL

with abstract

language a n d o fdifficult a c c e s s (fostering the misconceived idea that only those

e x t r e m e l y intelligent, a n d m a i n l y b o y s , will h a v e a c c e s s t o it).

 Scientific method

O B S E R V A T I O N - T h e s p e c i f i c P R O B L E M y o u will w o r k v/ith is c l e a r l y s e t t l e d . B a c k g r o u n d
k n o w l e d g e is e l i c i t e d a n s p e c i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e p r o b l e m is s e l e c t e d ,
analyzed and reflected upon.

H Y P O T H E S I S : C r e a t e a s t a t e m e n t at>out t h e g e n e r a l n a t u r e of the p h e n o m e n o n observed.

A possible solution for a given problem, a hypothetical explanation.
REVISE Y O U R
HYPOTHESIS

INVESTIGATING: C a r r y o u t a f a i r t e s t t o s e e if y o u r h y p o t h e s i s w a s correct.
A N D I N T E R P R E T I N G Analyze data and conclude.
REINVESTiGATc
A N D
R E I N T E R P R E T
If r e s u l t s D O
match your hypothesis If r e s u l t s D O N O T
is S U P P O R T E D . Support your hypothesis R E C Y C L E

A P P L Y

r
 1.5 Diagram s h o w i n g how Scientific Investigation takes place

T h i s m o d e l s h o w s a n " o p e n " ( n o t r i g i d ) and m o r e c o m p l e x ( a s i t a c t u a l l y t a k e s p l a c e ) approach

to s d e n t r f k ; i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

Problematic situation Sclerrtlflc and fBcJinological

Open and, many times, confusing. It body of knowledge It bulWs
may have Its origin in previous upon.
investigations, technological needs,
Scientific teams.
ot)servations, by chance...
They study bibliography, Beliefs, attitudes and Interests (personal and
debate ideas and make collective), socioeconomic needs, political
situation...
/

With amplifications, sligtit changes

Problem Is clearly o (very rarely) global
established. reformulations, may be integrated
fn
Reeslabllshgisfetgms

New hypothesis Build hypothesis that may be

• contrasted. Verify or refute hypothesis
and construct new
knowledge.

X
Design different strategies In order Modify beliefs and altitudes
to contrast hypothesis, Including, (social or personal) as
when possible, designing and science conceptions.
carrying out experiments.
I
Create "links' with our science
fields, promote unifying
processes between initially
Interpreting results. autonomous fields.
that may demand Bearing In mind; hypothesis,
theoretical knowledge and other
Investigations' results.
Allow technical applications
that imply decision making
within tlie relationships
between:
Communication Technology, society and
Stating results: articles, meetings environment.
and exchange with other
that may demand
Investigators, congresses...
Generate new problems

Promote scienlific education.

This research may
promote

B e a r i n g i n m i n d w h a t w e h a v e a n a l y s e d w e s h o u l d t>e a s k i n g o u r s e l v e s h o w w e s h o u l d t e a c h
s d e n c e in d a s s in order to promote meaningful a n d not repetitive s d e n c e learning (Ausubel.
1968).
 7' Skills to develop during Science classes

One o f the goals o f an elemental science program isthe development o f thinking

skills. People use these skills to collect, understand, interpret, apply and evaluate

i n f o r m a t i o n and ideas w h e n they solve problems and m a k e decisions.

In a Science course we should try to introduce n o t o n l y basic and higher order

thinking skills, also w e should introduce process skills (the tools o f scientific investigation).

O n e w a y o f e n c o u r a g i n g the d e v e l o p m e n t o f tliese skills is by:

A l l o w i n g students t o get i n v o l v e d i n scientific-like investigations.

Involving students in hands-on experiences

Fostering contextualization bearing i n mind, among otlier things: science-

technology-society.

A l l o w i n g students to draw u p o n concrete experiences to extend their knowledge.

Developing a science knowledge base o f specific concepts, vocabulary and

organizing principles

P r o v i d i n g extended practice i n the use o f logical and t h i n k i n g skills

Challenging students with questions and problems to solve

T h e r e a r e 5 m a i n skills whrch should be devetoped during a s c i e n c e c l a s s a n d m a n y s u b - s k i i l s

thgt a r e derived f r o m t h e m a s s h e w n in the tat>te tfiat f o l l c w s .

Ot)serving

Hypothesizing

Investigating

Interpreting

Applying

SKILL DEFINITION SUB-SKILLS I M P L I E D

OBSERVING The s k i l l of o b s e r v i n g i s vital to M e a s u r i n g , c l a s s i f y i n g , n a m i n g

science. We need to help the listing, g r o u p i n g , describing,

c h i l d r e n to d e v e l o p it to a high recording, v i s u a l i z i n g a n d

d e g r e e by m a k i n g t h e m o b s e r v e delimrting a p r o b l e m a t i c s i t u a t i o n .

thoroughly, putting all their

 senses into practice and

reflecting upon their o b s e r v a t i o n .

INVESTIGATING I n v e s t i g a t i n g m e a n s f i n d i n g out Recognizing testable q u e s t i o n s ,

w h a t h a p p e n s . It u s u a l l y i n v o l v e s d e s i g n i n g fair t e s t s , c a r r y i n g o u t

a n s w e r i n g a q u e s t i o n a n d "fair fair t e s t s , r e c o g n i z i n g a n d u s i n g

testing". s p a c e or time r e l a t i o n s h i p s ,

Hypothesizing and investigating s e q u e n c i n g , controlling variables,

are i n e v i t a b l y l i n k e d . recognizing factual and logical

Investigating may take place inconsistencies, reconciling

before a n d a f t e r a s i m p l e question i n c o n s i s t e n t c i i l e r i a , l o o k i n g for

or problem h a s been settled; info.rmation.

w h e n it o c c u r s after a h y p o t h e s i s

it i s d o n s in o r d e r to c o n f i r m or

deny a possible solution.

HYPOTHESIZING When w e hypothesize w e suggest Formuiating Questions and

tentative e x p l a n a t i n n . s to HyiintjiR.SRK, ifientifying anH

problems. H y p o t h e s e s m a y be S u g g e s t i n g Aiternattves, Predicting,

re3?on?b!!; o r n o t , t ? u t o n l y b y Distinguishing fact from O p m i o n /

investigating, - by gathering Bias.

evidence contrasting o r

s u p p o r t i n g the h y p o t h e s i s - . will

wc be s b l c t o c i m c K i t s

r e a s o n a b l e n e s s v a l i d a t i n g it or

SiOt.

INTERPRETING W h e n w e i i U e r p r e t vi/e h a n d l e a i l Recognizing tiie m a i n Idea,

t h e i j i f o r m a t i o n v^-e h a v e gathered supporting details, reccqnizinq

eiliier by expeiinienliny or by c a u s e a n d effect, d i s l i i i y u i s h

l o o k i n g f o r i n f o r m a t i o n , and w e o b s e r v a t i o n an<J explanalioti.

try t o m a k e s e n s e o f it b y d r a w i n g recognizing patterns aivj

COJiclusjtifss nru: npp'yjtiy i t t o fSlaiiOJiShlpS, OOJnpnrinu,

g i v e ! ) situations. c o n t r a s t i n g , s u m m a r i z i n g , restaliiig.

explaining idea?, h-ierprevn^

c h s i - f s . r r . s p s ^r.ri graphs.

comprehsnding meaning, judging

s n r i ev^l!i;;ti!).-!, vi=::isii7;;-..-i
 o

'PjjoM [eei SiJ] lio sen ^jiOAA

a i u o o e q u e j p i i q o o s B u i o p Ag

0t5pD!,v.ouM .v.ou oin 'oop.osjd

oiUj jnd Of 'Aidde o» jue-Hoduj;
/JSA S! 3! 33E|d UBHei
S l i j M t j p 'SoiuOjeUe BUiJjelii seL! Buipue^sjapiin sauo ApnjS
ieoiiosid B Si eau5|3:5 s v

'SiiOiliiiijgp
I

•
 : 1.8 Cross-curricular activities
V . /

While teachinq s c i e n c e t e a c h e r s m u s t a i v r a y s try t o p r o m o t e cross-curricular activities. This

enatstes students to visualize science in a contextuafeed vray a n d helps t h e m to understand in a

t>etter w a y t h e i n t e r a c t i o n : s c i e n c e - t e c h n o k x j Y - society.

' Heil, David. Allen, Maureen. Coonev. T i m o t h v . E t . a l . "Discover the wonder". ScottForcsniaii Science.

H a m c r C o I l i n s PublisJiers. Illinois. 1996.

62
 nil

El Aprendizaje Significativo y su relaciun con la co.sliucciun del Couoaiiiieiito

= Podemos decir que el aprendizaje es un proceso de ce:= •

••i estructuras$ignificativas, que implied cambios en iees:
^ • i cognitiva delsujeto como resultado de lasnecesidades, -^^:
_ J nes, deseos, tensiones, aspiraciones etc.

.! [I aprender supone PROCESOS de asimilacion, reflexion, e interiorizaclon y no PRODUCTOS "CCC

I y esto nos debe llevar a que el alumno desarrolle una ACTITUD CRITICA y una capacidad pa-d
}%DECISIONES. Estas dos caracteristicas son las que definen el proceso de APRENDER A APRENDER.

A P R E N D E R

Implica Supone

Se v i n ( u l a «on
(PRQCISOS) ACTITUDES

Qut iuponan Qua ilovan a

\ i

o m o d a ( l 6 n ^ C^nlerlorliacion TOMA DE
DECISIONES

i AUSUBEL sostiene que la estructura

•cognitiva de una persona es la que decide
\ de que material le resulta significati-
—'

; vo y de cual desea adquirir y retener.

a Adhiere al conceplo de que para poder incorporar una idea

nueva y releneria se deben teneren cuenla los conceptos 0
proposiciones ya disponibles en la eslrucirura cogniliva de
i Anclas Saberes P^.i'^ona (SABERES PREVIOS) ya que ellos son las AN-
i Conceptuales
Previos ^^'^^ CONCEPTUALES que nos permiiiran asimilar e
interiorizar un nuevo concepto con la consiguiente adap-
^C0GN1TN^
i tacion y formacion de una nueva estructura cognitiva.
 Ccractensticas del Mmiim ^mmiW
El aprendizaje significativo se caracieriza porquecrea estructuras
cognitivas nuevas a partir de relacionar conceptos nuevos
(nueva in formacion) con lo que el alumno ya sabe (ideas previas).
Esta relacion no debe ser arbitraria sino que es el alumno el que
construye su conocimiento y el que esta decidido a aprender
(hay una implicacion afectiva de significatividad).

Es mas eficaz que el memoristico

ya que le afecta a sus Ires fases: ADQUISICION.
RETENCiON
y ASIMILACION.

v " E l l t o d o a p r e n d i z a j e se debe p a r t i r de lo que el a l u m n o y a sahe... C^^)!^

...y de c o n s t r u i r el n u e v o c o n o c i m i e n t o en b d s e j a e s t o " . i- ^ i

Este aprendizaje supone que se den ciertas condiciones:

Significacion potencial del material: podemos
decir con Coll que el nuevo material debe ser
"susceptible" de dar lugar a la construccidn
de significados.
Se debe conectar con algun conocimiento
For ultimo podemos decir que eF APREN-
DIZAJE SIGNIFICATIVO resulta de la ASIMI-
LACION de nueva informacidn. Este pro-
ceso se puede llevar a cabo detres formas
diferentesr:]{^':\\- r:^':''- ^ - , . ' •:
"Wt..

que el alumno ya posea en su estructura ' hlWAPRENDIZAJESUDORDINADO: la n t / e -

cognitiva (saberes previos). •'.vj](:!|i^|.K^^:/c/ea:'p concepto esta jerarqui-
Debe existir una ACTITUD positiva, activa del \-^'^^^^^^ ya pre-
alumno para dar sentido y relacionar lo que y'r'M'^^ekistente mcis'relevanter : • ' ^
se aprende con sus conocimientos previos y ] ••APRENDIZAJE SUPRAORDENADO:
significados ya construidds. • . • : ' : i , i i - ^ c o h la. informacidn que se adquiere,
Ausubel habia de INCLUSORES y los define | : ; ^ ^ l ^ ^ | ' ; | ; / o s : c o n c e p t o s ya existentes se reor-
como "ideas relevantes que posee el alumno \!:\^^0^f^ganizan y adquieren nuevo significado.
en su estructura cognitiva y con los que rela- | f ; | » ; j / A ' p « f W p / Z ^ ; ^ COMBINATORIO: se
ciona la nueva informacidn". Serian para el \^$^^^^^^^^lVj'^-,^^^^'^^'^^ c/e • elemen tos
lo que nosotros llamamos saberes previos,
ideas intuitivas, conocimientos previos.
, C O M O P L A N I F I C A M O S MA Midhd didMVM
" . . . C u a i i d o l o s docenlcs tienen proyectos...los aluinnos iienen desiiiios" r'^ \\J

PlAlflflCAClOH

quelomprende

I I (delnino) (Docenle) mioAomAcmA

son
Podemos decir que la U.D. es una estructura, un sistenia de organizacion ablerio y flexible, cnlrc ubjelivos
contenidos, estrategias metodologicas, recursos y criterios de evaluacidn, que gira alrededor de un e y
integrador, altamente significativo para el alumno y que se ubica dentio de un cunlexlo.
A partir de esta definicion diremos que el contexto es el espacio geografico donde se eslablecen relaciones
entre las personas, los valores, los objetos, las norntas, los animates, etc.
Tambien podemos definiria como un "RECORTE DE LA REALIDAD", o sea verdaderos sectores en los que se
relacionan todos los elementos que los constituyen a partir de las realidades concrctas de la vida.
La U.D. debe ser una situacion total, globalizadora e integradora, que posibilite al alumno elaborar anticipa
ciones, confrontarlas yanalizarlas.
Utilizando un concepto muy propio de las Ciencias Maturates
podemos llegar a comparar la U.D. con el "Ecosistema" en
donde la interrelacion entre sus componentes es constantey
ningun factor puede vivir aislado del resto.
Debemos tener muy en claro que al plantficar una U.D. los
criterios de seleccidn de la misma no sean de la "Idgica adul-
ta" sino de la "realidad infantil".

dm rm MA mmd omcrm?
Se debe iniciar con una experien-
cia directa.
Se debe construir en funcion de:
. Las caracteristicas del grupo.
. El entorno sociocultural.
. El diseho curricular.
'5"
Debe tener CONTENIDOS: ^
Altamente significativos para el grupo de ninos, for-
mar parte de su "universo referencial".
Funcionales: o sea adaptables a olra problentalica.
Socialmente relevantes: en relacion con slluaciones
que vive en su vida colidiana y que la sociedad le
demandara en el fuluro.

Debe ser PERTINENTE en relacion alproyecto que sos-

tiene cada institucion en particular. e O C i Q o
'/A
0
Caracterislicas O ®n
Debe implicar el concepto de TOTALIDAD o sea que el
del grupo
nifio a traves de ella pueda observar objetos nalurales y
concretosyal mismo tiempo contenidos referidos a ellos.
U . D .
Debe ser GLOBALIZADORA, teniendo en cuenta que
el conocimiento y la percepcion son globales. El niho Discno Enlofiio
es un ser " e n tero" y como tal debemos educarlo. No Curricular Sociocullural q
sirve de nada establecer el aprendizaje como una serie
de aspectos sueltos, separados y sin relacidn de con-
ti 011 id,id rntrn w'
 La escuela debe responder al DESARRQLLO INTEGRAL, no solo del conocimiento sino de
las diferentes capaddades expresivas. .. .:•. „ -
Debe representar una PROBLEMATICA
comiin a todos los ninos. EXPERIENCIA DIRECTA
PROBLEMATICA
CONTENIDOS
Demandara del docente un CONOCI- CONOCIMIENTOS
PERTINENTE
MIENTO PROFUNDO de la comunidad, de CONFLlCTOSyOESEQUillBRIOS
TOTALIZADORA
sus pautas cullurales, costumbres, valo- EJESINTEGRADO=,ES
GLOBALIZADORA
res, historia cotidiana de sus alumnos,
saberes previos, o sea todo lo que consti-
tuye el mundo referencial de "su" grupo. '
Lassiluaciones que se planieanen la U.D. deben generarCONFLiaOS YDESEQUILIBRIOS COGN05CITIV05
que creen una situacion de necesidady estimulen alnino a actuarpara recuperar el equilibrio perdido.
Los grandes EJES INTEGRADORES (proyectos, centros de interes, temas) y su secuencia surgiran a
partir de los emergenles del grupo que registre el docente.

•dEmmms mm LA mMOPimrm?
Podemos fiablar de tres momentos en el tra-
bajodelaU.D.:

Iniciacion: Su duracion varia de acuerdo a la edad

de los ninos, el interes que les despierte y la rique-
za del contexto. Una vez seleccionado el recorle de
la realidad es importanle que el docente reatice u n
mapa conceptual en el que figuren los datos de la
misma, ya que le obligara a pensar que problemali-
cas le planleara el nino y que contenidos y "herra-
mientas"necesiiara para su resolucidn.
En este periodo se deben plantear las generaliza-
ciones conceptuales o ideas basicas a construir, las
preguntas problemaiizadoras y la seleccidn de es-
trategias a utilizar (indagacion de ideas previas).
Esta eta pa incluye
las experiencias directas.

Desarrollo: En esta etapo se concretaran las es-

trategias de indagacion de ideas previas, o anti-
/ ^ ' V cipaciones; y las aclividades de CONFRONTACION
j)^ A/y que plantee et docenle.

Cierre: Le debe dar oporlunidades de integrar conocimientos y abrir nuevas posibilida-

^ des de "enganche" con otras unidades didacticas .(ver mapa adjunto pag.30)
 BACKGROUND
These skills are g r o u p e d
together in the following w a y
i n Science in the National
Curr/cu/um (1991) under:
A t t a i n m e n t t a r g e t 1:
Scientific investigation
(i) a s k q u e s t i o n s , p r e d i c t a n d
hypothesise;
(ii) o b s e r v e , m e a s u r e and
manipulate variables;
(iii) i n t e r p r e t r e s u l t s a n d
evaluate scientific evidence.
The knowledge and
u n d e r s t a n d i n g to be c o v e r e d
w ithin the Science National
C u r r i c u l u m is n o w set o u t
u n d e r t h r e e a t t a i n m e n t targets:
6 l-.'roductionl
A t t a i n m e n t t a r g e t 2:
Life a n d living processes
This attainment target includes
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f life
processes, variation in
populations, and a study of
ecosystems.
Attainment target 3 :
Materials and their
properties
Included in this attainment
target are the k n o w l e d g e and
understanding of the
properties and classification of
materials, naturally occurring
and manufactured materials,
chemical changes and the
E a r t h a n d its a t m o s p h e r e .
A t t a i n m e n t t a r g e t 4:
Physical processes
This attainment target includes
knowledge and understanding
of electricity and magnetism,
energy resources and energy
transfer, forces and their
effects, light and sound, and
the Earth's place in the
Universe.
Children's attitudes are also
i m p o r t a n t if they are to engage
purposefully in scientific
activity. T h e attitudes w h i c h
need to be developed t o
produce effective scientific
ways of thinking and working
include:
• curiosity;
• perseverance;
• critical reflection;
4 8
 What does the hivestigation m e a n ?
Defining the parameters.
Asking questions.

Starting a n e w investigation. M a k i n g observations

a n d predictions.

\
D r a w i n g a conclusion. j „ £ INVESTIGATION

Interpreting the Making a hypothesis.

results.

Recording findings.
Designing the investigation.
Fair testing.
Testing the hypothesis.

• open-mindedness; u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n science are increase scientific knowledge

• •a p p r o p r i a t e l y v a l u i n g the
suggestions of others;
• sensitivity to the living and
non-living environment;
• willingness to tolerate
uncertainty;
• respect for evidence;
• creativity and inventiveness;
• co-operation with others.
A l t h o u g h t h i s b o o k is
concerned with carrying out
investigations In science, iti s
important to emphasise the
close relationship of
Attainment target 1: Scientific
investigation to those
attainment targets relating to
knowledge and understanding
(AT2, 3 a n d 4). I n v e s t i g a t i v e
w o r k s h o u l d use, reinforce a n d
develop the concepts of
science. K n o w l e d g e and
inextricably linked to scientific
investigation and f o r m the
contexts for children's
investigations. As they carry
out their investigations they
will develop a deeper
understanding of scientific
concepts.
T h e r e are a n u m b e r of
stages in the investigative
process w h i c h are best
thought of in terms of a
cyclical process a s s h o w n
above.
T h i s b o o k is c o n c e r n e d w i t h
helping children to develop
the investigative skills w h i c h
f o r m part of the above cycle.
The book shows h o w to link
these skills together and to
place these investigations in
different contexts which will
and understanding.
What is i n t i i i s b o o l i for
you?
This book aims to increase the
confidence and competence of
primary teachers to help
children develop an enquiring,
investigative approach to
science, enabling t h e m to
carry out whole investigations.
Development of scientific
skills w h i c h enable children to
ask questions, predict, plan,
carry out, record,
communicate and interpret the
results of scientific
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s is a n e s s e n t i a l
part of this process. These
skills and their progression are
individually analysed in

[introduction.

Children carry out
investigations f r o m a very
early age, a l t h o u g h a t first
these are relatively
unsophisticated. For
instance, a t o d d l e r m a y in
the process o f t u r n i n g o v e r a
brick or log notice that there
are a large n u m b e r of
creepycrawlies (animals)
underneath. She m a y even
notice that there are a
n u m b e r of different kinds of
creepycrawlies. The child
moves to the next brick or
T
log w i t h a q u e s t i o n in h e r
mind which is probably
coupled with a prediction.
There is an expectation that
there will be c r e e p y c r a w l i e s
under the next log and a .
view (prediction) that there
will be as m a n y . T h e child
turns o v e r the log, is
disappointed a n d says 'not
m a n y under there', a n d
w a n d e r s off. T h i s c h i l d h a s
clearly carried out an
investigation where a
Developing investigation
question has been raised, a
test has b e e n u n d e r t a k e n
a n d a conclusion has been
r e a c h e d . I tis this n a t u r a l
curiosity of m a n y young
children that m a k e s
investigation such a fruitful
avenue of study, during
which scientific concepts a n d
l a n g u a g e will d e v e l o p h a n d
in h a n d with a g r o w i n g
sophistication in scientific
i n v e s t i g a t i v e skills.
skills in primary schools 9
 BACKGROUND

The simple investigation theories explaining these, and i i ) o b s e r v e , m e a s u r e a.-.d

carried out by the toddler
mirrors the process through
w h i c h teachers are encouraged
to investigate i n the
classroom. A t t a i n m e n t target
1: Scientific i n v e s t i g a t i o n
suggests that pupils should:
develop the intellectual
and practical skills w h i c h will
allow t h e m to explore and
investigate the world of
science and develop a fuller
understanding of scientific
phenomena, the nature of the
the procedures of scientific
investigation. This should take
place t h r o u g h activities that
require a progressively more
systematic and quantified
approach which develops and
draws u p o n an increasing
knowledge and understanding
of science. The activities
should encourage the ability to
plan and carry out
investigations in w h i c h pupils:
i) a s k q u e s t i o n s , p r e d i c t a n d
hypothesise;
manipulate variables:
iii) i n t e r p r e t t h e i r r e s u l t s a n d
evaluate scientific evidence."
Details of the progran-.::-.e;
o f s t u d y at K e y Stages 1 ar.d 1
m a y b e c o n s u l t e d i n Science in
the National Curriculum
(1991). W h i l s t it i sn o t p o s s i b l e
to discuss these stages i n great
detail here, some of the key
lines of progression can b e
identified briefly. These are
outlined in the table below:

Key Stage 1 Key Stage 2

Askingyquestions, suggesting ideas, m a k i n g Moving towards formulationof testable

predictions. hypotheses.

Appreciating the need for safe and careful action. Understanding and practising safety and care.

Iptroducing the idea of a fair test. Involving identification and manipulation of

variables i n c l u d i n g those to be c o n t r o l l e d in
fair tests.

Mainly qualitative in approach. , Increasingly more quantitative in approach.

Using non-standard measures (for example, hand Developing skills in using equipment and
spans) and standard measures. measurement; making decisions about w h e n ,
what and h o w to measure.

U s i n g data bases s u c h a s' O u r Facts' to record Capture, transmission, storage and retrieval of
similarities and differences observed during information using computers and sensors.
sorting activities.

Understanding the purposes of recording results; Systematically listing and recording data, for
systematic recording using appropriate methods, example, frequency tables and bar charts.
for example, block graphs and frequency charts.

Encouraging interpretation of results. Searching for patterns in data; interpreting

data and evaluating validity of conclusions.

Questioning what they have done and suggesting Appraising their investigations and suggesting
improvements. improvements to methods.

10 iChapterli

1-']
 But h o w m a y the
i n v e s t i g a t i v e si<ilis d e t a i l e d i n
the p r o g r a m m e s of study and
statements of attainment b e
introduced to children? H o w
may the lines of progression
within the three strands b e
d e v e l o p e d ? I so n e approach
the answer or can n u m e r o u s
a p p r o a c h e s b ea d o p t e d ? T h i s
chapter, and those that follow
it, o f f e r a n s w e r s t o t h e s e
questions and practical
assistance to teachers in the
classroom.
Investigative
sidils
These may b e developed
through five main approaches:
1. b y h e l p i n g c h i l d r e n t o
develop specific skills, such
as, m e a s u r i n g a n d r e c o r d i n g ;
2. b y u s i n g p u b l i s h e d w o r k -
cards w h i c h illustrate good
practice in specific skills, such
as e n c o u r a g i n g t h e c h i l d r e n t o
look for patterns in results;
3. b y t e a c h e r s d e m o n s t r a t i n g
good practice, by questioning
and example, in order to
develop skills f r o m one or t w o
of the strands of A T I , with
children concentrating o n the
other(s);
4. b y p u p i l s c a r r y i n g o u t w h o l e
investigations on their o w n ;
5. b y t e a c h e r i n p u t s d u r i n g
2-4 above.
7. D e v e l o p i n g
i n d i v i d u a l skills
through teaching
Progress in reaching
competency in investigations
w i l l n o t b ea t t a i n e d if c h i l d r e n
do not have the necessary
i n d i v i d u a l s k i l l s . It m i g h t lead
also to the development of
incorrect notions of concepts.
For example, children will b e
•Developing investigation
\
prevented from gaining
accurate data on temperature
differences if they cannot read
a thermometer, and might
conclude that the temperature
of the water was colder than
that of the air o n a frosty
m o r n i n g if they cannot read
the instrument correctly.
These individual skills must
be taught f r o m an early age
and over-learning (where the
skill i sp r a c t i s e d a n d practised
u n t i l c o m p e t e n c y i sa s s u r e d ) i s
important. Opportunities t o
practise individual skills
during whole investigations
m a y n o t b es u f f i c i e n t a n d
more concentrated practice
and teaching m a y b e
necessary, such a sw r i t t e n o r
skills in primary schools ' I

better still, practical examples.
T h i s m a y be resisted by s o m e
teachers w h o w o u l d argue that
a r e a l c o n t e x t is a l w a y s
necessary. Such views need
challenging because, if there are
relatively few opportunities
afforded by real contexts and
this leads to a lack of
competency, the confidence of
t h e c h i l d is u n d e r m i n e d a n d
the ability to carry out
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i sr e d u c e d . T h i s
'catch-22' s i t u a t i o n needs to be
addressed somewhere and
frequency of opportunity
through concentrated training
at the r i g h t t i m e offers the
most promising route to
competency for most children.
The development of such skills
supports activities in other
curriculum areas, such a s
mathematics, geography and
technology. Teachers might
like to consider developing a
Skills List Checklist
a p p r o p r i a t e to the age a n d
ability of their pupils w h i c h
could be presented i n the f o r m
of a certificate. T h i s could b e
done either by listing the skills
in w h i c h competency has been
s h o w n or by awarding bronze,
72 l^hapter-ii
silver and gold certificates
depending on the n u m b e r of
skills achieved.
2. U s i n g p u b l i s i i e d
schemes a n d worl<cafds
Many workcards and published
schemes demonstrate good
practice in developing
individual, and groups of,
scientific investigative skills.
But the teacher m u s t beware.
Some of the earlier schemes
t e n d to be v e r y p r e s c r i p t i v e b y
selecting the questions for the
children to investigate, telling
t h e m h o w to carry out a fair
test a n d w h i c h materials a n d
i n s t r u m e n t s to use. T h u s , for
example, the setting up of a
fair test c o u l d be l e a r n e d
implicitly by the child, t h o u g h
it is u n l i k e l y t h a t ' m a n y d i d s o
because they were not asked
frequently to think and reason
for themselves h o w to do it,
which variables to control and
w h i c h variables to measure.
However, m a n y workcard
s c h e m e s are particularly
strong in getting children to
record t h e i r re,sults i n a v a r i e t y
of w a y s and to consider the
interpretations of their results.
T h e s e m a y be m o r e h e l p f u l i n
providing children with the
basic skills to carry o u t their
o w n investigations.
Recent science scher.-.es
generally have bee n rr.cre
balanced in the'.:
reflecting the netu :e :;:.£r.;e
a n d its role in the .'.a:::.-.;.
Curriculum.
3. T e a c l i e r - l e d i n p u t s
daring investigations
At the start of this chapter • .•
discussed h o w children
i n v e s t i g a t e , t h o u g h b e i t i n a.-,
unsophisticated way, from a
v e r y early age. G r a d u a l l y that
sophistication develops as
v a r i o u s teaching strategies are
applied and children's mental
capacity increases. We believe
t h a t t h e r e i sa n e e d f o r
teachers to teach children,
somewhat formally, key
features of investigative work
as o n e o f t h e w a y s to m o v e
towards higher achievement.
A s w e l l a st h e o t h e r t e a c h i n g
strategies used, w e recommend
that the teacher plays a key
role by m a k i n g large inputs
into one aspect (one strand for
convenience) of children's
investigative work. For
example, d u r i n g w o r k o n the
h u m a n body in a topic entitled
'Ourselves', the children might
be considering pulse rates a n d
heart beat rates. T h e teacher
c o u l d lead a n i n p u t a i m e d at
raising questions w h i c h could
be tested, m a k i n g p r e d i c t i o n s
and suggesting h o w the
i n v e s t i g a t i o n m a y be carried
o u t (see F i g u r e 1). T h e
children w o u l d b e encouraged
to ask questions such a s 'Does
t h e h e a r t b e a t c h a n g e ? ' , o r 'Is
the heart beat faster than the
pulse rate?' at then- o w n level.
The teacher w o u l d then help
the children to put their
questions in a form which
c o u l d be i n v e s t i g a t e d a n d help
t h e m to m a k e predictions and
to suggest w a y s of c a r r y i n g
o u t the test. In this w a y help i s
given, good practice i s
employed and the teachers
>3
 Teacher-led input Children's responses

Children raise questions a t teacher's suggestion. 'Does the n u m b e r of heart beats change?'

Teacher asks w h e n m i g h t heart beat change. 'On a warm/cold day?' 'After exercise?'

C h i l d r e n guided to malce a prediction i n a f o r m 'After exercise the n u m b e r of heart beats

which m a y b e investigated. will increase.'

Teac/ier helps c h i l d r e n to consider/remember 'More b l o o d i sn e e d e d by the body during

f r o m p r e v i o u s w o r k w h y this m i g h t be. exercise.'

Teacher helps children to relate their prediction 'The number of heart beats will increase
to k n o w l e d g e g a i n e d d u r i n g t h e t o p i c o f after exercise because m o r e blood i s
'Ourselves', t h u s m a k i n g it a hypothesis. needed by the body/muscles.'

Figure 1

have used their t i m e and record and interpret their later investigations with the
productively and efficiently. results. Similarly, the teacher child ren having a major input
The original question is n o w would have a major input into with the o t h e r t w o (see the
in a f o r m w h i c h m a y b e a different aspect (strand) of table below).
investigated, and a hypothesis
has been m a d e w h i c h i s Strand 1 Strand 2 Strand 3
related to prior knowledge.
The teacher could then ask the Teacher-led Children carry out Children carry out
children for ideas o n h o w they
might try to verify their Children carry out Teacher-led Children carry out
hypothesis, before asking
t h e m to carry o u t a fair test Children carry out Children carry out Teacher-led

. (S\

Ouf^dves
VJher\s -the hea^t beat
charvge?

'^^^•tl^^ pulse r a t e ?
7 ^

Developing investigation skills in primary schools 13

 T h e a d v a n t a g e s o ft h i s m o r e
'formal' approach isthat the
children are given a frame-
w o r k o n w h i c h t oc a r r y o u t
future investigations. They
have talked about, e.xchanged
ideas and carried out aspects
of good practice controlled b y
the teacher, f^ovvever, they are
not passive o n l o o k e r s but are
involved in the decisions
w h i c h are skilfully
o r c h e s t r a t e d b ythe teacher.
These i n p u t s are also efficient
i n t e r m s o ft e a c h i n g a n d
learning because they could
involve a relatively large
n u m b e r o fc h i l d r e n , e v e n t h e
w h o l e class, a tthe discretion
of the teacher.
/4 Chapter I
4. C h i l d r e n ' s whole
investigations
Children should be given
o p p o r t u n i t i e s t oc a r r y o u t
whole investigations during
w h i c h they raise a question,
make a prediction o r
hypothesis, plan and carry out
their fair tests, record a n d
interpret their results, make
conclusions, relate these t o
their original hypotheses
if a p p r o p r i a t e , e v a l u a t e the
v a l i d i t y o ft h e e v i d e n c e o n
which their findings were
m a d e . T h i s i s , o f c o u r s e , n o t to
say that the teacher does not
have a role. The teacher will b e
t a l k i n g t othe c h i l d r e n , h e l p i n g
t h e m to ask questions, asking
t h e m if they have carried out a
f a i r t e s t , h e l p i n g t h e m to
record and display their
results and interacting with
the children whenever
possible, o rp r o v i d i n g
a s s i s t a n c e if r e q u i r e d .
H o w e v e r , the ' o w n e r s h i p ' o f ,
a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the
i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e s t s w i t h Uie
c h i l d r e n , a n d t h e y s h o u l d be
e n c o u r a g e d t om . a k e d e c i s i r n ;
initially, even if these art
m o d i f i e d t h r o u g h discuss;-..-.s
with the teacher.
5. Teacher inputs
and,
Methods 2-4 require inputs
f r o m teachers if investigative
skills are t o develop
successfully. C h i l d r e n v.ili a s k
for assistance w h e n they are
having difficulties, but
children are not always aware,
for e x a m p l e , w l i e n they have
carried o u t a fair test, w h e n
they are u s i n g a m e a s u r i n g
instrument incorrectly, o r
w h e n they are not d i s p l a y i n g
their results in the most
appropriate way. Teacher
i n p u t s at t h e s e m o m e n t s a r e
most important.
By u s i n g the variety o f
strategies and methods
discussed in this chapter,
children's investigative skills
will develop along with their
knowledge and understanding
of science.
^3

Newly b o r n babies begin to
observe their surroundings
immediately. They soon
begin to explore using one
or m o r e o f their senses o f
sight, h e a r i n g , touch, taste
a n d smell. T h r o u g h use o f
these senses, observational
skills b e g i n t o d e v e l o p a n d
continue to develop. The
e x t e n t o f this, h o w e v e r ,
depend on the passive or
active role o f the observer
and the degree to which
o b s e r v a t i o n a l skills a r e
given p r o m i n e n c e in
teaching a n d learning.
O b s e r v a t i o n is a n i m p o r t a n t
process skill o f scientific
systematically' suggests
strongly a m o r e active
p u r s u i t w h i c h is c e n t r a l t o
investigation a n d should be s o u n d scientific observation.
g i v e n e m p h a s i s a n d status in While o b s e r v a t i o n a l skills
the classroom from a n early m a y be enhanced through
a g e . B u t w h a t js observation teaching a n d the
a n d h o w might introduction o f motivating
o b s e r v a t i o n a l skills b e activities, the q u a l i t y o f
developed? o b s e r v a t i o n s will d e p e n d o n
Dictionary definitions o f a n u m b e r o f factors
'observe' might include including the context o f the
'notice', 'watch' o r 'note observation a n d the
systematically'. These experiences o f the observer
definitions offer different as we shall see later.
insights into the nature o f
will observation', for while
'notice' a n d particularly
'watch' suggest a rather
0
passive interaction, 'note
 BACKGROUND

T h e 1 9 9 1 v e r s i o n o f Science in C l e a r l y , o b s e r v a t i o n is variables', as s t a t e d ir. S t r s ; . ;

the N a t i o n a l C u r r i c u l u m offers important w h e n children ask (ii) o f A t t a i n m e n t ta.-ge: 1 .
at first glance little e m p h a s i s q u e s t i o n s s u c h as ' W h y d i d n ' t Here, c h i l d r e n will be
o n the skill or process of it l i g h t u p ? ' o r ' W h a t w i l l observing closely their
observing. T h e w o r d 'observe' h a p p e n i f 1 p u s h it harder?' investigations employing their
is m e n t i o n e d e x p l i c i t l y i n O b s e r v a t i o n as a k e y senses, using their sight to
A t t a i n m e n t target 1: Scientific i n v e s t i g a t i v e skill is f u r t h e r measure accurately quantities
investigation, in S t r a n d (ii), illustrated by children in and considering the variables
entitled, 'observe, measure responding to, for example, a (factors) w h i c h m i g h t affect
and manipulate variables'. q u e s t i o n s u c h as ' D o m a g n e t s their results. C h i l d r e n also
However, direct references to attract (stick to) all objects?' need to be accurate and
'observe' or 'observation' are and w h e n they point out thoughtful in their
not to be f o u n d i n the (predict) that a magnet will observations if they are to
p r o g r a m m e s of s t u d y at either attract a k e y b e c a u s e it is 'interpret their results and
K e y Stage 1 o r 2. T h i s is, o n shiny. Thus, questions m a y evaluate scientific evidence' as
the face of it, surprising, not be asked a p p r o p r i a t e l y a n d stated i n S t r a n d (iii) o f
particularly if c h i l d r e n are to predictions and hypotheses A t t a i n m e n t target 1.
be g i v e n practical experiences c a n n o t be m a d e s e n s i b l y as In s h o r t , o b s e r v a t i o n is a n
at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a n e w p i e c e suggested in Attainment target integral part of science and
of w o r k where they interact 1, S t r a n d (i) ( ' A s k q u e s t i o n s , s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n . It is
with materials, make predict and hypothesise'), not a l o w - l e v e l skill w h i c h is
observations about these without careful observations. easily mastered, but a complex
materials and then ask T h i s is i n a d d i t i o n t o c h i l d r e n process involving the use of
questions, make predictions being able to 'observe, the senses w h e r e perceptions
and suggest hypotheses. measure and manipulate are selected, m a d e sense of
and related to prior
experiences. T h e development
of observational skills

16 \Chcipter,2
continues througliout
schooling and perhaps
t h r o u g h o u t life because it
requires experience,
motivation and mental
interaction to lead to
r e f i n e m e n t . T h i s is reflected i n
A t t a i n m e n t target 1: Scientific
investigation, of the science
National C u r r i c u l u m explicitly
but also, a n d m o r e i m p o r t a n t ,
implicitly. Questions and
h y p o t h e s e s c a n n o t be made
without observations, accurate
m e a s u r e m e n t s m a y n o t be
made without careful attention
to i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , p a t t e r n s i n
results could n o t be perceived
and criticism of the methods
used a n d results so obtained
could not be offered vvithout
observational skills.
This complex nature of
o b s e r v i n g a n d o b s e r v a t i o n s is
summarised on page D12 of
the Non- Statutory Guidance of
the Science N a t i o n a l
Curriculum (DES 1989).
' O b s e r v a t i o n is t h e p r o c e s s b y
w^hich:
• perceptions are selected
• perceptions are interpreted
• perceptions' significance are
judged against experience and
understanding'.
It is t h e r e f o r e c l e a r t h a t
observation overlaps all other
investigative skills and ranges
f r o m the passive to being very
active mentally. T h u s , the
mental demand of direct
o b s e r v a t i o n s s u c h as
measuring and observing
d i f f e r e n c e s is g e n e r a l l y l e s s
than the indirect, more
abstract observation of
identifying variables and
interpreting data.
Research on
observational skills
Assessment of observational
skills in written f o r m has been
d i f f i c u l t to c a r r y o u t as
indicated by research f r o m the
Assessment of Performance
U n i t (APU). It c o n s i d e r e d that
m a n y question types assessed
language or prior knowledge
and not observational skills.
Even the assessment of
scientific drawings o f objects
s u c h as s y c a m o r e w i n g s w a s
c o n s i d e r e d n o t to be t o t a l l y
appropriate because the
'...assessment was not of the
observations themselves but
of their representation in the
form of the drawings' (Russell,
Black, Bell a n d Daniels, 1991).
T h i s t h e r e f o r e left t h e m w i t h
two broad categories of
questions:
• observing and
communicating similarities
and differences between
objects, photographs and
events;
• making generalisations about
their observed similarities and
differences' (page 14, Russell
et al., 1991).
Trials in schools using
questions derived f r o m these
categories yielded the
following results and
conclusions.
'• S c i e n t i f i c c o n c e p t s h e l d b y
pupils interact with their skills
of o b s e r v a t i o n a n d so
influence performance.
• P e r f o r m a n c e is i n f l u e n c e d b y
the content and context of the
questions. This means that the
process of observation should
be l e a r n e d i n as b r o a d a r a n g e
o f c o n t e x t s as possible, u s i n g
various objects and events to
m i n i m i s e the effect of these
features on pupil performance.
• Individuals do not perform
in a consistent w a y across
d i f f e r e n t q u e s t i o n s , s o i t is
questionaljle whether or not
t h e y can be said to h a v e a
generalised skill of observing
similarities and differences.
• In the surveys, the
o b s e r v a t i o n of differences hy
p u p i l s at a g e s II a n d 13 w a s
consistently better than their
^Observing' ' 7

o b s e r v a t i o n o f similarities.
Opportunities t o practise both
are needed w h e n pupils a r e
developing their observation
skills.
• T h eo b s e r v a t i o n s recorded
by pupils a r eoften lacking i n
detail a n dm u c h less i n
n u m b e r than that expected o r
possible. Observation is
c o m m o n i n science lessons,
but itis loosely defined a n d
consequently lacks focus. '
Demands need t o be made
clear i nextent a n d nature,
w i t h t h eneed f o r repeated
observations f o r checking
being emphasised.
• Pupils should be taught t h e
reason f o r quantified
observations...though pupils
o b v i o u s l y c a n a n d do m e a s u r e
if a s k e d t o ,t h evast m a j o r i t y
do n o ti fleft t o decide f o r
themselves.
• T h ep u r p o s e o ft h e
observations should be
revealed to t h e pupils.
• Teaching should include
opportunities f o rpupils t o
generate their o w n classes,
using both everyday a n d
"scientific" items.
• Assessment tasks need to be
varied a n dselected carefully.
/8 Ithapter 2
with particular attention being
paid to content, t h e context,
the q u e s t i o n d e m a n d , a n d t h e
n u m b e r a n dcomplexity o f the
possible observations.'
(Russell et al., 1991)
Theseresearch findings
illustrate once again t h e
coinplexity o f observation a n d
perhaps point to a need to
s u b - d i v i d e t h es k i l l o f
observation much more. F o r
e x a m p l e , t h ea u t h o r s o ft h e
A g e 11 A P U R e p o r t [ D E S ( 1 9 8 8 ) ]
had great difficultyi n
constructing questions to
a s s e s s t h es k i l l o f
measurement 3.S d i s t i n c t f r o m
observation. Indeed, they
c o n c l u d e tha^t m e a s u r e m e n t
was a different kind o f
observation 'having external
and quantified criteria' (p 103).
This research is also useful
w h e n considering h o wt o help
children to improve their
observational skills.
Improving t h e quality
of observations
We mentioned briefly thatthe
c o n t e x t ar^d d e m a n d o f a n
investigation a n dt h e prior
experiences o f the investigator
w i l l a f f e c t t h eq u a l i t y o f
observations. F o r example,
w h i l e t h es e n s e s m a y i n t e r a c t
passively w i t h allt h e
information i nfront of a child,
this i n f o r m a t i o n will be
selected d e p e n d i n g o nt h e
interests, experience a n d
conceptual understanding o f a
child. T h u s t h e chosen
i n f o r m a t i o n m a yn o tb e t h a t
w h i c h t h eteacher expected
the child t o gather.
Furthermore, t h e many
o b s e r v a t i o n s w h i c h i tis
possible to make, f o r example,
w h e n looking ata burning
c a n d l e , m a yd i s t r a c t a n d
c o n f u s e t h ec h i l d f r o m t h e
main focus o f the activity
which might be to observe t h e
wax melting a n d solidifying.
C h i l d r e n m a yb e h e l p e d i n t h e i
observations i f they:
• u n d e r s t a n d t h en a t u r e o f a
question a n dt h epurpose o f
their observations, possibly
through game-like activities;
• a r ehelped t o identify t h e
relevant from t h e 'irrelevant'
observations;
• a r egiven a f r a m e w o r k i n
which t o observe, f o r example,
starting a t t h et o p o f a n object
and working down;
• appreciate that observations
i n v o l v e all t h es e n s e s (but t h a t
smell a n dtaste m u s t be
carefully used), as there is
evidence that children under-
use their senses;
• a r egiven t i m e t o m a k e
detailed observations:
• a r ehelped b y teacher
interaction to focus the
observation f r o m the We are r e m i n d e d of an the o v e r a l l s i t u a t i o n b u t w a s
superficial to the detailed; excellent example of looking for detail and
• are a l l o w e d to express their observation d u r i n g a visit to a accuracy. These types of
own individuality through an local f a r m d u r i n g w o r k o n detailed observations should
open-ended e l e m e n t to the 'Food and Farming'. 'What be encouraged.
observation; c o l o u r is t h a t c o w ? ' a s k e d t h e
farmer, underestimating the
• are asked to look for The purpose of
s i m i l a r i t i e s as w e l l as a b i l i t i e s o f t h e c h i l d r e n . 'It is
differences; b l a c k a n d w h i t e o n th\s side', observations
• are encouraged to look for b e a m e d a s m a l l girl. This Helping children to observe
detail as w e l l as the m a i n could have been a relatively has a n u m b e r of purposes
features; passive observation, but the because:
• have omitted detail pointed c h i l d e n s u r e s t h a t it is l i n k e d • it e n c o u r a g e s curiosity;
out to t h e m by questioning with an internal interaction, • observing similarities and
(see C h a p t e r 3); involving the tentativeness of differences leads to the
• are encouraged to draw, scientific evidence indicating development of classification
label a n d a n n o t a t e d r a w i n g s ; the ability to m a k e no m o r e of skills and to the identification
• are able to compare and the e v i d e n c e t h a t is r e v e a l e d and m a n i p u l a t i o nof variables;
discuss their observations; through observation or • observing events and
investigation. sequences leads to conceptual
• are p r o v i d e d w i t h
stimulating material f r o m a Another example of a development, for example, in
variety of contexts; quality observation involved learning about the transition
• see t h a t o b s e r v i n g w i l l r a i s e children m i x i n g red cabbage f r o m tadpole to frog;
q u e s t i o n s w h i c h m a y be juice/water with a variety of • it d e v e l o p s k n o w l e d g e ;
investigated. household, aqueous solutions • it acts as a s t i m u l u s to
w h e n b e g i n n i n g w o r k on acid, investigative work;
alkaline and neutral solutions.
Quality o f observation • by observing patterns in
Most of the class were m a k i n g observations, children are
The quality or precision of o b s e r v a t i o n s s u c h as 'It's g o n e helped towards interpreting
children's observations other red' o r ' I t is p u r p l e ' , w h e n o n e their w o r k and m a k i n g
than for measurement and for boy responded to m y question conclusions.
grouping of anirhals in in a t h o u g h t f u l w a y : 'It is Some of these purposes of
A t t a i n m e n t t a r g e t 2, S t r a n d (ii), mainly purple, red on the careful obs ervation are
is i m p l i c i t r a t h e r t h a n e x p l i c i t surface and pinkish in illustrated in the example
in the National Curriculum. between; I only added one activity on the next page.
Therefore, the teacher m u s t drop but I a m going to add
endeavour to show a some more'. This boy was not
progression of detail'and c o n t e n t w i t h a q u i c k l o o k at
precision in the classroom
through careful selection of
activities and t h r o u g h high,
but realistic expectations.
 SAMPLE
ACTIVITY

H o w are we the the same classification group,

s u c h as a s l u g a n d a s n a i l
other crawl and these
observations m i g h t lead the—
same; h o w are (molluscs) or a freshwater to ask questions, make

we different? shrimp and a water louse

(crustaceans). The children
s h o u l d be e n c o u r a g e d to d r a w
Age range large detailed pictures of the
Key Stage 2. two animals. Similarities and
differences c o u l d be r e c o r d e d
Croup size by annotating the diagrams
by the use of tables.
Individuals or pairs.
Next, let the c h i l d r e n
What you need examine animals from
Pond animals or land different classification
'minibeasts', white trays, s u c h as a w a t e r l o u s e
plastic containers with lids, (crustacean) and a damselfly
teaspoons, hand lenses or n y m p h (insect). Again, they
magnifiers. should record any similarities
and differences using
What to do annotated diagrams or tables.
After the children have
observed the animals for s o m e Investigative skills
time, suggest that they look The children may have made a
closely at t w o anifnals f r o m series of related observations
and may have quantified the
length of the animals using a
ruler. They might have noticed
that some animals s w i m while
predictions and design
investigations.
Content
This activity gives children the
opportunity to identify
or
similarities and differences,
both within a group of animals
and between groups of
animals. T h r o u g h activities
groups, like this, c h i l d r e n w i l l be
helped to understand the
principles on w h i c h
classification systems are
built. T h e activity m i g h t help
to develop their concept of an
insect (three pairs of legs) and
a crustasean (more than four
pairs of legs) a n d to realise
that these all b e l o n g to the
class of a r t h r o p o d s (class:
Arthropoda), which have
jointed legs and a b o d y
divided into three parts.
Further activity
Repeat the activity, but use
different pond animals,
minibeasts obtained from
under stones, grass sweeps or
by tree shaking, or plants.

AT1/2b,3b; ATZ/2b,4b

20 ^hapter2}

61
 investigations. In this
c h a p t e r w e will l o o k a t
teachers' questions a n d
their novel testing children's questions,
strategies, but would also be predictions a n d hypotheses,
aware of the n u m b e r o f individually, b u t will
In a c l a s s r o o m where questions being asked by highlight the important links
successful investigative work both teacher a n d children. It between them.
is b e i n g u n d e r t a k e n , a n is t h e s e q u e s t i o n s , coupled
observer would hear the with observations a n d prior
sound o f discussions, experience, that are vital to
equipment being collected the starting point for
and assembled, see the
interest a n d excitement on
children's faces a n d witness

Asking questions, predicting a n d hypothesising ^'

©Z
 BACKGROUND
Teachers'
questions
Elstgeest (1985) identified six
categories of 'productive'
questions w h i c h are listed and
discussed below:
• attention-focusing questions;
• measuring and counting
questions;
• comparison questions;
• action questions;
• problem-posing
• h o w and w h y (reasoning)
questions.
Successful and appropriate
use of these types of question
by the teacher will gradually
lead to purposeful questioning
by the children, to predictions
being made based on
experience, to predictions
being made with a rationale
based on scientific knowledge
and, ultimately, to hypotheses
w h e r e t h e c a u s a l l i n k is r o o t e d
in scientific knowledge,
understanding and theory.
Attention-focusing
questions
Questions should, if possible,
stimulate involvement and
curiosity, encouraging children
to observe m o r e closely and
deeply. As they explore new
materials, objects and
organisms, 'Have you
noticed...?' types of questions
will help to focus their
attention and should
e n c o u r a g e a r e s p o n s e s u c h as
questions; 'Yes, there are six of t h e m a n d
they are hairy.' T h i s m i g h t well
be f o l l o w e d by a n e x p l o r a t o r y
phase w i t h little direction f r o m
t h e t e a c h e r . T h e ' W h a t is i t ? ' ,
' W h a t does it do?' type
questions (Elstgeest, 1985) are
t h e n m o r e likely to be raised
by the children.
Measuring and
counting questions
' H o w long?', ' H o w m a n y ? ' a n d
' W h a t is t h e t e m p e r a t u r e ...?'
are the type of questions
asked in this category and the
c h i l d r e n m a y be able to
approach them with
confidence if their skills of
m e a s u r e m e n t are relatively
s o p h i s t i c a t e d (see C h a p ' e r 5 .
T h e r e is a p r o g r e s s i o n i n
learning f r o m non-standard
units to standard units,
initially using simple
instruments to the nearest
labelled division, but later
using more complicated
instruments and finer
d i v i s i o n s . T h i s is t h e b e g i n n i n g
of the quantification of
variables in investigations. The
advice of Elstgeest (1985) that
'... n o t e a c h e r c a n c h a l l e n g e
your (the children's)
m e a s u r i n g ruler', cannot,
surely, be d e f e n d e d for the
skills of m e a s u r e m e n t should
be r e f i n e d t h r o u g h
questioning, checking and
teaching.'
Comparison questions
Measurement and counting
questions naturally lead on to
c o m p a r i s o n q u e s t i o n s s u c h as
'Is i t l o n g e r ? ' , ' D o e s i t w e i g h as
m u c h ? o r ' A r e t h e r e as m a n y ? '
However, not all comparison
q u e s t i o n s n e e d to be
q u a n t i t a t i v e , as Elstgeest
(1985) points out. Young
children studying fruits or
63
 v.-
1 -il
seeds m i g h t be asi<ed
q u e s t i o n s s u c h as 'Are t h e y t h e
3 is; same colour?', 'Are Ihey the
same shape?' or 'Do they smell
the same?' Older children
could be asked a m o r e o p e n
c o m p a r i s o n q u e s t i o n s u c h as
'Tell m e h o w y o u r fruits are
similar and h o w they are
different?', w h e r e the question
is n o t s u b - d i v i d e d . A s w e l l a s
emphasising the basis for
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , t h e t e a c h e r is
highlighting (by questioning)
the variables in fruits. S o m e of
these are easily divided into
'red fruit' or 'green fruit'
categories (categoric variables)
while others are different sizes
(continuous variables).
Through these types of
questions children's early
perceptions of variables are
developed.
Action questions
' W h a t h a p p e n s if...?' q u e s t i o n s
will be f o l l o w e d u p by
investigation, a result and
subsequent discussion.
Examples could include:
• 'What happens if y o u place
the car h i g h e r u p the r a m p ? '
• 'What happens if we put the
plants in the dark?'
• 'What happens if we put the
sugar in w a r m e r water?'
This question type helps
children m a k e sense of their
experience and, if generalised,
adds to their conceptual
u n d e r s t a n d i n g that vehicles go
further if released further up
the slope, that plants grow
long, leggy and yellow in the
dark and that sugar dissolves
more quickly in warmer water.
It a l s o m o t i v a t e s a n d
encourages curiosity and
investigation.
Problem-posing
questions
Following experience with the
materials or equipment
discussed in the questions
a b o v e , c h i l d r e n will be able to
respond to 'Can you find a way
to...?' q u e s t i o n s . P r e d i c t i o n s
will be m a d e b a s e d o n this
experience and investigations
will be carried o u t to a t t e m p t
to v e r i f y the prediction. This
type of question helps
children to frame
investigations of their o w n and
to begin to carry o u t fair tests
as a r e s u l t , t h o u g h t h e latter
will need separate, more
focused inputs. Further
examples might include:
• 'Can y o u find a vvay to m a k e
y o u r vehicle go e v e n f u r t h e r /
across the roorn?'
• 'Can you find out whether
woodlice prefer a d a m p or a
dry home?'
How and why
(reasoning) questions
T h e s e ' H o w do y o u think it
happened?' and more
importantly 'Why do you think
it h a p p e n e d ? ' q u e s t i o n s a s k
children to reason about their
Asldng questions, predicting a n d
experiences, to interpret their
results and to m a k e
c o n c l u s i o n s . T h e r e is e v i d e n c e
to suggest that these questions
are asked p a r s i m o n i o u s l y in
c l a s s r o o m s . T h i s m i g h t be
because children enjoy
i n v e s t i g a t i n g b u t are far less
keen to interpret their
findings, because they find
consideration of the
implications of their results
difficult, or that teachers are
uncertain about the
appropriate interpretation
themselves, or a combination
o f t h e s e f a c t o r s . W h a t e v e r is
the case, the importance of
these type of questions should
not be u n d e r e s t i m a t e d
because they help children to
consider the relationships they
have uncovered and relate
these to their original
prediction or hypothesis. If the
q u e s t i o n is p o s e d as ' W h y d o
y o u think it happened?' r a t h e r
t h a n ' W h y d i d it happen?', a
more open discussion will
develop where different
v i e w p o i n t s will be considered,
analysed, and possibly
discarded w h i l e others are
retained. Cradually, with
repetition and encouragement,
children will start to interpret
their findings automatically.
i^ypothiesising 2 3

Children's
questions
The most important aspect of
encouraging children to ask
q u e s t i o n s m u s t be for the
teacher to establish a
conducive atmosphere. This '
m a y be achieved i n t w o m a i n
ways:
• responding positively to
questions;
• possessing a flexible v iew of
science as a c h a n g i n g b o dy of
knowledge, at least in t e rms of
children's learning.
Responding positively
to questions
C h i l d r e n m u s t be m a d e to feel
able to ask a n u m b e r of
q u e s t i o n s as l o n g as t h e y are
sensible and appropriate and
this should s t e m f r o m an
atmosphere where
observation, first-hand
experience and curiosity are
encouraged. A child raising
three predictions which could
be t e s t e d s h o u l d be
2 4 Chapter 3
c o n s i d e r e d j u s t as w o r t h y as a
child raising one prediction
which elucidates the
information or relationship the
teacher was hoping to
establish, at least in terms of
asking questions and
suggesting ideas.
Possessing a flexible
view o f science
S c i e n c e is o f t e n v i e w e d as a
factual subject, w h i c h indeed
it is, b u t t h i s k n o w l e d g e is
continually changing. For
instance, early geneticists
w o u l d be a m a z e d b y the
discovery of the structure of
DNA, and microbiologists and
medics w h o died in the 1970s
w o u l d be staggered by the
Aids p h e n o m e n o n and the
discovery of the HIV virus.
W h i l e t h e r e is n o t i m e f o r
children to discover every bit
of scientific knowledge by
themselves (even if one
t h o u g h t it possible), and not
possible to allow children to
f o l l o w t h e i r o w n ideas all t h e
time, scienti'fic investigations
s h o u l d n o t be a p p r o a c h e d w i t h
the v i e w t h a t the teacher
knows the answer but will not
offer it until the children have
spent a lot of time reaching a
c o n c l u s i o n w h i c h is d i f f e r e n t ,
and therefore by Implication,
w r o n g . ' I do n o t k n o w , let's
f i n d o u t t o g e t h e r ' , m i g h t be a
useful underlying philosopliy
so t h a t q u e s t i o n s c a n be r a i s e d
and followed up in an open
manner. Clearly, however, the
teacher m u s t make her/his
m i n d u p as to w h e t h e r a line
of investigation has no future,
and take appropriate action.
T e a c h e r s will be a w a r e t h a t
children's questions often
concentrate on the k n o w n
rather t h a n a concern for the
unknown. This might stem
from the guessing game of
'what m y teacher w a n t s m e to
a s k or to a n s w e r ' , b u t it m a y
be m u c h m o r e t h a n that. This
is w h e r e t h e w e a l t h o f
experience vital to Key Stage 1
a n d 2 t e a c h i n g is c r u c i a l so
that children have concrete
experiences o n w h i c h to ask
questions and to follow up
ideas. Children's ability to
question will also benefit f r o m
the p u r p o s e f u l , skilful line of
questioning pursued by the
t e a c h e r (see Teachers'
questions, page 22) and the
enthusiasm she generates in
asking questions and carrying
out i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . It will also
be a i d e d by c a r r y i n g o u t
investigations in w h i c h the
teacher, albeit with assistance,
poses questions and offers
predictions based on her
k n o w l e d g e , as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t
for a fair test to be c a r r i e d o u t
by the children (this approach
is a d o p t e d i n s o m e o f t h e
activities described in
Chapters 8-19) of this book).
In this w a y c h i l d r e n will be
given a role model which they
m a y e m u l a t e w h e n they are
asked to do the same
themselves. Questioning,
predicting and hypothesising,
like a n y other skill, n e e d to be
taught f r e q u e n t l y a n d i n as
m a n y w a y s as possible.
f-v-

Asking questions, margarine will melt before the test m i g h t be carried o u t a n d

predicting and wax which will melt before

chocolate.
the making a prediction about the
outcome. The prediction
hypotiiesising in should contain the word

the National A t L e v e l 3, c h i l d r e n s h o u l d 'because' in order to relate it

carry out investigations in to e v e r y d a y e x p e r i e n c e . T h i s is
Curriculum which they 'suggest questions, a clear progression f r o m Level
ideas a n d predictions, based 2 where the children have only
S t r a n d (i) o f A t t a i n m e n t t a r g e t on everyday experience, which to a s k a q u e s t i o n , s u g g e s t i d e a s ,
1: S c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n can be tested'. and make predictions.
states that the activities i n the
classroom should Example 2 At Level 4, c h i l d r e n s h o u l d
encourage the ability to Investigation: Children may carry out investigations in
plan and carry out be i n v e s t i g a t i n g the m e l t i n g w h i c h t h e y '... a s k questions,
investigations in which pupils: and solidifying of various suggest ideas and m a k e
05^ questions, predict a n d substances. The children predictions, based on some
hypothesise'. The next few handle some wax, jelly and relevant knowledge, in a form
pages will indicate w i t h some chocolate and notice that w h i c h can be i n v e s t i g a t e d ' .
examples the developmental the c h o c o l a t e b e g i n s to m e l t .
sequence and progression that Children could: Example 3

i t a k e s p l a c e w i t h i n K S 1 a n d 2.
T h e r e is n o s t a t e m e n t o f
a t t a i n m e n t at Level 1 for
Suggest questions, ideas
m a k e predictions based on
everyday experience: Which
and Investigation:
asked to investigate the
Children are

melting of chocolate, wax and

s t r a n d (i) b u t a t L e v e l 2 a will m e l t first, the jelly or the jelly. Children could:
children should carry out wax? T h e chocolate will melt Ask questions, suggest ideas
IS.
investigations in which they: before the w a x because it and m a k e predictions based
' ... a s k q u e s t i o n s s u c h a s melts in the hand. on prior knowledge: Consider
"How?", "Why?" and "What will Suggest ideas for testing: that chocolate will melt before
happen if...?", suggest ideas The jelly and the wax could be w a x a n d j e l l y b e c a u s e it n e e d s
and make predictions.' put o n a tray u n d e r the heat to less heat to m e l t it.
see w h i c h o n e m e l t s first. Suggest ideas for testing in a
Example I Alternatively: the wax, jelly form which can be
Investigation: Children may and chocolate are put in a investigated: The children
be i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e m e l t i n g separate container each could suggest melting equal-
and solidifying of various containing a thermometer, sized pieces of chocolate, wax
substances by heatinp and floating in a bowl of hot water. and jelly on a tin over a
cooling. C h i l d r e n could: W e w i l l see at w h i c h radiator
Asli questions: W h y d o e s t e m p e r a t u r e they begin to melt. The progression from Level
chocolate melt in the fingers At Level 3, t h e cliildren are 3 t o L e v e l 4 is o b t a i n e d i n t w o
but not wax? What will happen suggesting the q u e s t i o n to be
if w e p u t i t o n t h e c o o k e r ? tested base d on their everyday
Make predictions: The experience. T h e y are also
suggesting ideas as to h o w a

Asking questions, predicting a n d hypothiesising ^^

w a y s . Firstly, at L e v e l 4, t h e
child's question, ideas or
prediction are based on
relevant prior knowledge while
at L e v e l 3 these are b a s e d o n
experience. In terms of the
melting investigation, children
will k n o w f r o m experience that
chocolate melts in their hands
and wax does not, but actual
k n o w l e d g e is n e e d e d t o say
t h a t less h e a t is r e q u i r e d t o
melt chocolate than wax or
jelly. T h e second element of
progression involves the actual
testing or investigation of the
question. At Level 3 the
q u e s t i o n s h o u l d be ' i n a f o r m
w h i c h can be investigated'.
T h i s s u b t l e w o r d i n g is o p e n to
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n b u t t h e r e is a
suggestion that questions at
Level 4 m u s t be c a p a b l e of
investigation in the school
e n v i r o n m e n t , u n l i k e those at
Level 3 w h i c h could be tested,
but not necessarily w i t h the
r e s o u r c e s available. It s h o u l d
also be n o t e d that w h i l e the
q u e s t i o n / p r e d i c t i o n s h o u l d be
based on prior knowledge,
d o e s n o t h a v e to be scientific
k n o w l e d g e (see L e v e l 5).
A t L e v e l 5, c h i l d r e n s h o u l d
carry out investigations in
w h i c h t h e y : '... f o r m u l a t e
hypotheses where the causal
l i n k is b a s e d o n s c i e n t i f i c
knowledge, understanding or
theory'.
Example 4 knowledge or theory to predict
Investigation: T o determine
w h a t affects the speed at
which chocolate melts.
Children could:
Formulate hypotheses:
S u g g e s t t h a t t e m p e r a t u r e is
i m p o r t a n t to the m e l t i n g of
chocolate. The higher the
temperature, the quicker it will
m e l t . T h e r e is a c a u s a l l i n k
based on scientific knowledge,
understanding or theory
because the more heat
(energy) t h e r e is, t h e m o r e
2 6 iChaptefs'i
q u i c k l y it will c h a n g e f r o m a
solid to a l i q u i d , as t h e
molecules heat up and move
further apart.
A t L e v e l 5, c h i l d r e n a r e
asked to produce a hypothesis
w h e r e the causal l i n k is b a s e d
on scientific knowledge,
understanding or theory - a
clear progression f r o m Level 4
w h e n t h e p r e d i c t i o n is b a s e d
on relevant prior knowledge.
A hypothesis can be
c o n s i d e r e d as a s u p p o s i t i o n
m a d e as a basis f o r r e a s o n i n g
and investigation. T h u s it
matters not whether the
h y p o t h e s i s is v e r i f i e d o r n o t ,
as i n f o r m a t i o n is g a i n e d
w h i c h e v e r is t h e case. A t L e v e l
5 a hypothesis should include
the cause s u c h as i n t h e
example above, 'The higher
the t e m p e r a t u r e , the q u i c k e r it
will melt' and the effect
(because) 'the m o r e quickly it
will change f r o m a solid to a
liquid as the m o l e c u l e s heat
u p a n d m o v e apart', w h i c h is
based on knowledge,
this understanding and theory.
C h i l d r e n s h o u l d be
encouraged to include the
w o r d because in any
hypothesis and prediction if
possible.
While not within the remit
of Key Stage 2 teaching, at
L e v e l 6, c h i l d r e n s h o u l d c a r r y
out investigations in w h i c h
t h e y : '... u s e s c i e n t i f i c
relationships between
continuous variables'.
Example 5 children will approach
Investigation: Consider the
factors that affect the s p e e d at
which chocolate melts.
Children could:
Predict relationships
between continuous
variables: Suggest that the
higher the temperature the
more quickly the chocolate
will melt because:
Based on scientific
knowledge, understanding
or theory:
The m o r e heat energy there is,
the m o r e q u i c k l y it will c h a n g e
f r o m a solid to a liquid.
Progression between Levels
5 a n d 6 is a c h i e v e d b y u s i n g
continuous variables and by
predicting the relationship
between the variables.
W e can n o w be i n n o d o u b t
about the close relationship
w h i c h e x i s t s w i t h i n s c i e n c e , as
reflected in the National
Curriculum, between scientific
investigation and science
knowledge and theory. For too
l o n g the t w o h a v e t e n d e d to be
taught and learned in isolation
or one has taken priority over
the other. H o w e v e r , w h i l e
questions, predictions and
hypotheses raised w i t h o u t
t h o u g h t s u c h as 'It will be h o t
tomorrow.' or 'This object will
travel faster than that one.' are
v a l i d i n t h e m s e l v e s as t h e y can
be tested, t h e y are of far m o r e
value if they are based on
experience or knowledge.
Thus, an investigation on a
particular topic cannot be
carried o u t successfully say, at
L e v e l 3, 4 o r 5 (e.g. o n t h e
effect of the a m o u n t of w a t e r
or temperature on decay),
unless children have the
necessary experience, relevant
prior knowledge, or scientific
knowledge, understanding or
theory respectively, of the key
factors in the process of decay
(AT2/5d), o n w h i c h to base a
prediction or hypothesis. This
does not necessarily mean that
or
achieve at one or t w o levels
below that of the knowledge
and understanding on which
the i n v e s t i g a t i o n is b a s e d , b u t
this is i n e v i t a b l e u n l e s s t h e y
have been introduced to the
appropriate experiences,
knowledge and scientific
understanding beforeliand.
 CHAPTER 4

deep mental thought.

Nevertheless, this r i g o u r
brings about m u c h o f the
as unique to science as fair fun in science a n d a
testing, the m a n i p u l a t i o n of liberation within the subject,
variables a n d the carrying because children investigate
O f all the skills associated out o f investigations to a n d find out their o w n 'new'
with scientific investigation, obtain meanii,igful results. information, with
f a i r t e s t i n g is p r o b a b l y the The notion o f fair testing constraints then being
one t h a t h a s little o r n o and manipulating variables placed on equipment rather
place in o t h e r a r e a s o f the brings a rigour to scientific than methodology.
c u r r i c u l u m a n d is therefore work which m a y be So h o w can we help
unique to science. Children unsurpassed in classroom children to develop fair
observe a n d m e a s u r e in pedagogy. The collection testing skills? H o w m i g h t w e
other disciplines, though a n d analysis o f historical help t h e m to understand
perhaps not with the same e v i d e n c e is s i m i l a r , b u t variables a n d a p p l y t h e m in
regularity a n d intensity. In involves m o r e value investigations a n d what
history children interpret judgement^ a n d does not steps are important on the
evidence a n d evaluate their involve rigorous testing, r o a d to competency? This
findings. In science a n d except against other people's chapter explores these issues
other curriculum areas, o p i n i o n s , a s d o e s its and m a k e s suggestions to
questioning a n d predicting is s c i e n t i f i c c o u n t e r p a r t . I t is help teachers having
carried out. Children also this r i g o u r w h i c h brings difficulties with this area,
hypothesise in science, a b o u t difficulties in the including examples o f
w h e r e t h e c a u s a l l i n k is classroom, because the activities which help to
based on knowledge. This identification a n d develop fair testing skills.
i n v e s t i g a t i o n skill, while manipulation of variables
h a v i n g its o w n r i g o u r a n d while sometimes being
identity in science, can also concrete, m a y often involve
be applied to the humanities abstract experiences a n d
s u b j e c t s a n d is t h e r e f o r e n o t

^
•s.

r] -
1 ^

I. n —
: r)
fair testing/manipulating variables ^ ^
y ^ —'

«8
 BACKGROUND
T/ie terminology of
variables
Let us first c o n s i d e r a n
' e v e r y d a y ' s i t u a t i o n vvinere
scientific i n v e s t i g a t i o n m a y be
used to give us more
systematic information about a
problem. You have noticed
that your white shirts, blouses
or T - s h i r t s d o n o t s e e m as
c l e a n as t h e y s h o u l d be a n d
y o u a r e e a g e r to see if a
different washing power will
help. You purchase two new
washing powders and with
your usual brand have three to
test. Y o u have already asked a
q u e s t i o n , ' W h i c h is t h e b e s t
washing powder?' and have
already identified what you
w a n t to find out (the
i n d e p e n d e n t variable). You
n o w plan y o u r fair test. Y o u
might decide to wait until,you
had three shirts, three blouses
a n d three T - s h i r t s to w a s h (six
28 (chapter^
of e a c h w o u l d be better) a n d
have therefore identified your
sample for the investigation.
But h o w will y o u k n o w w h i c h
is t h e b e s t w a s h i n g p o w d e r
w h e n all the w a s h i n g c o m e s
out of the three washes? You
decide to give each m e m b e r
the f a m i l y a 'vote', b y j u d g i n g
the w h i t e n e s s of t h e w a s h :
for the best, 2 for the next
best and 1 for the worst. T h e
washing powder gaining the
highest m a r k s will be judged
the best. Y o u h a v e now
decided upon the outcome
i n t e r e s t to y o u w h i c h is j u d g e d
or measured in the
investigation (the dependent
variable), t h o u g h y o u m i g h t
have preferred some more
quantitative and less
subjective measurement, but
acknowledge t h a t t h i s is n o t
available to you. Y o u put one
shirt, one blouse and one T-
shirt into the wash but before
you start y o u realise that y o u
m u s t m a k e it a fair test by
controlling other factors
(variables) w h i c h will make the
results of the investigation
valid. T h e g a r m e n t s are of
e q u a l d i r t i n e s s a n d age, y o u
are going to use one full scoop
of washing powder with each
of wash, the temperature of the
w a t e r w i l l be t h e s a m e (40''C,
3 because all the powders wash
best at l o w t e m p e r a t u r e ) , the
w a s h cycle w i l l be the s a m e
and you will dry t h e m in the
same w a y and for the same
length of time. You have now
of identified the control variables
and the washing machine may
be s w i t c h e d o n . Y o u h a v e
carried out a fair test t h o u g h a
f e w q u e s t i o n s n e e d to be
considered, s u c h as, s h o u l d
you h i v e weighed the p o w d e r
rather than used a fixed
v o l u m e and does the use of
different g a r m e n t s m a k e it
confusing w h e n interpreting
the results.
You find out that powder B
is t h e b e s t , b u t t h e f a i r t e s t i n g
bug has really got y o u now.
u w a n t to find out h o w
p o w d e r is n e e d e d to
give the best r e s u l t s v v i t h o u t
waste and w h e t h e r the
o p t i m u m temperature is really
40''C. Y o u n o w h a v e t o
consider the range, number
and value o f y o u r variables.
You m i g h t decide o n a
t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e f r o m 20°C
t o 60°C, t h e n u m b e r o f
different temperatures being
f i v e a n d h a v i n g v a l u e s o f 20°C,
30°C, 4 0 ° C , 50°C a n d 6 0 ° C ,
evenly spaced between the
smallest and the largest. Y o u
have also f o u n d out that s o m e
variables are discontinuous, f o r
example washing powders.
Others can have any value and
are continuous, for e x a m p l e ,
weight, volume, length, and
temperature. Others are
discrete, h a v i n g w h o l e
numbers only, such as the
number o f germinated seeds
or the n u m b e r o f layers o f
insulation o na d r i n k s can.
However, continuous variables
such a s temperature m a y also
be t r e a t e d a s h a v i p g discrete
values, such as hot and cold.
S o m e variables are said t ob e
categoric (the colour o f a
flower (red/yellow), o r the
presence o rabsence o f a n item
such as pips (with pips/
w i t h o u t pips)). S o m e variables
{derived variables) need t ob e
calculated f r o m more than one
m e a s u r e m e n t a s is the case f o r
the s p e e d o f a vehicle
travelling d o w n a slope. Y o u
have n o w f o u n d out all y o u
need t ok n o w about variables
but the children will not need
to k n o w a l l t h e s e t e r m s ,
though w ewill be suggesting
that s o m e are very useful t o
remember and understand,
particularly as they reach the particular task. Likewise, the
later stages of,and upper context o fa n investigation
levels associated with. Key m a y help children remember
Stage 2. previous experiences and w o r k
It m a y s e e m o n t h e f a c e o f i t w h i c h aids planning and the
that there is little t o fair detail o f planning. T h u s the
testing and the manipulation same child m a y perform better
of variables, but i t does on one task than another even
require fairly sophisticated though the procedural
skills and use o f m e n t a l (experimental) demands are
processes. The demand differs similar (Strang, Daniels and
depending o n the Bell, 1991). W ewill c o m e b a c k
investigation, not just because later t o the demands o f
of the context, but because o f investigations posed b y the
the t y p e o f variables that have number and type o f variables,
to b e m a n i p u l a t e d a s but firstly w ewill look a t h o w
determined b y the original we may develop a n
q u e s t i o n . Fo'r e x a m p l e , appreciation o f fair testing.
children find continuous
variables more difficult t o
handle than categoric (type o f Manipulating variables
w a s h i n g powder) o r discrete (fair testing) a n d the
(hot and cold) variables National Curriculum
(Strang, D a n i e l s a n d Bell,
The statements o f attainment
1 9 9 1 ) . T h e vvay i nw h i c h a
relating t o manipulating
child manipulates variables
v a r i a b l e s i n S c i e n c e in t h e
and the strategies h e uses will
National Curriculum (1991) are
depend o n the conceptual
s h o w n below alongside the
understanding that h e brings
appropriate levels o f
to bear w h e n c a r r y i n g o u t a
attainment.
Level Statements o f Attainment
Observe familiar materials and events.
M a k e a series o f related observations.
Observe closely and quantify b y
measuring using appropriate instruments.
C a r r y o u t a fair t e s t i nw h i c h t h e y s e l e c t a n d
use appropriate i n s t r u m e n t s t o m e a s u r e
quantities such as volume and temperature.
Choose the range o f each o f the variables
involved t oproduce meaningful results.
[Fair tesiihg/manipulating variables ^-
Element o f progression Nature o f progression

Context Set i n e v e r y d a y , Set i n n e w a n d i : . : . -

familiar contexts: unfamiliar contexts:
1 the home 1. t h e l a b o r a t o r y
2 the playground 2. t h e f a c t o r y
3 the shops 3. t h e h o s p i t a l

Variables to be changed
(independent)
1 N u m b e r Single: Multiple:
1 guitar string length 1 guitar string length and
diameter

2 Type Categoric: Continuous:

1. c o l o u r o f car 1 . l e n g t h of car
2. t y p e o f m a t e r i a l 2. m a s s o f m a t e r i a l
3. g e n d e r 3. a g e

Variable(s) to be
measured (dependent)
Nature C a n be a p p r o p r i a t e l y j u d g e d More appropriately
without making measurements: measured;

1. f l o a t i n g / s i n k i n g 1. l e n g t h
2. p i t c h 2. t e m p e r a t u r e
3. b e n d i n e s s 3. v o l t a g e

Apparatus Simple: Co mplex: '

1. r u l e r s 1. micrometer
2. k i t c h e n s c a l e s 2. top pan balance
3. pipette 3. burette

Conceptual Low: High:

burden Tasks depending on limited Tasks depending on
u n d e r s t a n d i n g or application of increasing understanding or
p a r t i c u l a r s c i e n t i f i c c o n c e p t s , eg: application of particular
I n v e s t i g a t e t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h scientific c o n c e p t s eg:
a selection o f everyday waste Investigate the factors
decays naturally. l i m i t i n g t h e r a t e of
photosynthesis.

Progression within
Attainment target 7
It is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t o see a
progression of difficulty and
complexity running through
Attainment target 1 in the
context, number and type of
v a r i a b l e s to be c h a n g e d , t h e
w a y i n w h i c h variables are
measured, the apparatus used
and the conceptual demand
placed on children during an
i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T h i s is
conveniently summarised in
Table 1 (Qualter, Strang,
Swatton and Taylor, 1990).
Some aspects of Table 1
m a y be a n a l y s e d f u r t h e r to
relate to levels'of attainment,
to s t a t e m e n t s of a t t a i n m e n t
and to e x a m p l e s o f these given
i n S c i e n c e in t h e N a t i o n a l
Curriculum (1991). As the
activities given in this section
Table I
and the examples of
statements of attainment given
i n S c i e n c e in t h e N a t i o n a l
Curriculum are for different
investigations in different
c o n t e x t s , w e feel it is p r u d e n t
to include here e x a m p l e s f r o m
the s a m e i n v e s t i g a t i o n b u t at
d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s (see T a b l e 2).
In this w a y , t h e p r o g r e s s i o n
m a y be a p p r e c i a t e d more
readily by the non-specialist.

30 ycKipier4\
 Investigations with sugar a n d water

I n d e p e n d e n t D e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e C o n t r o l v a r i a b l e ( s ) M e a s u r i n g e q u i p m e n t
Level
v a r i a b l e

1 T y p e s o f sugar, eg. Does it disappear Not applicable here Judgement by

white and brown, (dissolve)? (but temperature of observation.
fine and coarse. water, and volume
of water).

2 T y p e s o f sugar, eg. Do they dissolve? As above. Judgement by

lump and crystal. T i m e taken to observation.
dissolve (quickly/
slowly).

3 As above. Which dissolves more Equal volumes of Clock/watch to measure

quickly? water. time.
Same water Water f r o m same tap.
temperature. Same level in container.
Equal amounts of One spoonful of sugar.
types of sugar.

4 As above. Which dissolves Equal volumes of Select clock to m e a s u r e

more quickly? T i m e water. time.
T y p e o f s u g a r as the as t h e v a r i a b l e to be Same water Select m e a s u r i n g cylinder
variable to be measured. temperature. to m e a s u r e v o l u m e .
changed. Equal amounts of Select t h e r m o m e t e r to
types of sugar. measure temperature of
water or justify equal
temperature.
Select scales to w e i g h
sugar or justify use of
equal spoonfuls.

5 One type of sugar At what temperature Equal volumes of Select clock to m e a s u r e

with the temperature does the sugar w a t e r at each time.
of the water in which dissolve fastest? temperature. Select m e a s u r i n g cylinder
it is b e i n g d i , s s o l v e d T i m e as t h e v a r i a b l e Same a m o u n t of to measure v o l u m e .
being systematically to be m e a s u r e d . sugar at each Select t h e r m o m e t e r to
changed. temperature. measure temperature of
water.
Select scales to w e i g h
sugar.

Table 2

Fair testing/manipulating variables ^'

 CHAPTERS

to take into account the

child's s t a g e o f development
when considering the skills
using a variety o f measuring of measurement a n d
instruments in science choosing equipment.
investigations. They also Children n e e d to u n d e r s t a n d
M e a s u r e m e n t is a w a y o f need to be able to apply numbers, for example,
determining quantities o f measurement within before they can use rulers or
temperature, time, length, investigations by relating thermometers.
mass, a r e a a n d v o l u m e . It conceptual understanding to
provides information about skills o f using measuring
changes during i n s t r u m e n t s . It is i m p o r t a n t
investigations or helps
children c o m p a r e situations
Children need to develop
i the skill o f r e a d i n g a n d

Measuring, selecting equipment a n d carrying out investigations 3 9

^3
 BACKGROUND

As children make progress in m e a s u r e m e n t s , what they C h i l d r e n s h o u l d be g i v e n

carrying out scientific
investigations they will
recognise the need to use
equipment to enable t h e m to
quantify their observations.
T h e r e is a p r o g r e s s i o n from
the use o f q u a l i t a t i v e to
quantitative methods in
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s as c h i l d r e n
m o v e f r o m Key Stage 1 to Key
S t a g e 2. T h e y w i l l n e e d t o u s e
m e a s u r e s to say h o w m u c h or
h o w l o n g . T h i s w i l l at first be
through using non-standard
u n i t s s u c h as h a n d s p a n s to
measure lengths or toy bricks
to m e a s u r e d i s t a n c e o r h e i g h t .
Soon they will realise that
these u n i t s m u s t be t h e s a m e ,
for example, the same
h a n d s p a n m u s t be u s e d to
compare w i d t h s or lengths. At
t h i s stage, t h e c h i l d r e n can be
introduced to simple standard
m e a s u r e s s u c h as r u l e r s w h i c h
are m a r k e d w i t h the standard
units but with no minor
divisions on them. Measuring
instruments will become more
precise with m i n o r divisions
o n t h e m as the c o m p l e x i t y o f
the i n v e s t i g a t i o n d e v e l o p s .
should measure and how they opportunities to learn h o w to
s h o u l d m e a s u r e (see F i g u r e 1). use a t h e r m o m e t e r or to m a k e
If t h e c h i l d r e n are to accurate measurements witii a
investigate and measure the ruler. T h e y will c o m e to
similarities and differences understand that they should
between themselves (KS2 A T 2 c h o o s e the appropriate u n i t to
Pos(ii)) they m u s t decide what measure a particular quantity,
m e a s u r e m e n t s ^ t h e y are going for example, they w o u l d not
to m a k e ( p u l s e ' r a t e , h e i g h t a n d use a 15cm ruler to measure
so on), when t h e y will m a k e the distance across the
these measurements, and how playground (ATI/3b). '
they are going to m a k e t h e m It is i m p o r t a n t t o
( A T I PoS). T h e y need to incorporate into the discussioil'!
consider what instruments and planning of all ' ' ^
they will use, for example, investigations a lime which
stop-watch, tape measure, and specifically includes decisions
what units they will measure concerning what
in, for example, m i n u t e s or m e a s u r e m e n t s w i l l n e e d lo be
seconds, metres or m a d e a n d w h a t e q u i p m e n t is
centimetres. Other decisions to be u s e d for m a k i n g t h o s e
they will need to m a k e are h o w measurements.
accurate these measurements As children start to use
n e e d to be a n d h o w m a n y more complex measuring
times they should check or i n s t r u m e n t s t h e y s h o u l d be
repeat the measurements. aware of the importance of
F i g u r e 1
After
Shoe size Pulse rate
W h e n

W h a t Before s h o u l d I
During investigations the m e a s u r e ?
s l i o u l d I
children will acquire the skill
m e a s u r e ?
of choosing appropriate
e q u i p m e n t to enhance their During
o b s e r v a t i o n s . T h e y will w a n t to Height Temperature
measure t i m e so will select a
stop-clock or stop-watch. If
they need to measure Thermometer
t e m p e r a t u r e they will select a Newton
t h e r m o m e t e r as the meter H o w

appropriate measuring s h o u l d I
instrument. m e a s u r e ?

C h i l d r e n will need help at Measuring

first i n m a k i n g d e c i s i o n s as to Ruler
cylinder
when they should make

4 0 Chapter 5
accuracy. Encourage t h e m to
consider the degree of
accuracy w h i c h is r e q u i r e d .
H o w accurate do they need to
be i n a p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n ?
Measurements will become
m o r e precise as t h e level o f
complexity of the investigation
increases. It is i m p o r t a n t f o r
the c h i l d r e n t o be a b l e t o
consider w h i c h is t h e
appropriate item of equipment
to u s e i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e a
higher degree of accuracy.
Accuracy can also be
improved by repeating
measurements and examining
consistency of readings. At 5. C h i l d r e n s h o u l d g a i n
L e v e l 5, c h i l d r e n a r e r e q u i r e d practice in using simple determined by the scale of the
to c h o o s e a r a n g e o f v a r i a b l e s measuring i n s t r u m e n t s to object being measured.
to p r o d u c e m e a n i n g f u l r e s u l t s . enhance observations. • thermometer - allow three
It w o u l d b e i m p o r t a n t , 6. C h i l d r e n s h o u l d m a k e m i n u t e s for it to display the
therefore, in s o m e situations estimations of measurements correct reading and then read
for t h e c h i l d r e n t o s e l e c t a before choosing the to the nearest t w o d e g r e e s
range of appropriate appropriate i n s t r u m e n t for Celsius.
measurements, for example, a their investigation. • measuring cylinder - place
range of t e m p e r a t u r e readings 7. C h i l d r e n s h o u l d d e c i d e o n a flat s u r f a c e a n d r e a d at
if t h e y a r e t e s t i n g t h e e f f e c t , o f w h e n , w h a t a n d how t h e y a r e eye level with the lowest part
temperature change on a going to measure. o f t h e c u r v e ( m e n i s c u s ) . It is
biological p r o c e s s s u c h as the 8. C h i l d r e n s h o u l d select t h e i m p o r t a n t to use an
rate at w h i c h bread dough appropriate measuring appropriate sized measuring
rises. instruments for their cylinder for the investigation.
There are, therefore, a i n v e s t i g a t i o n . •' • stop-clock or stop-watch -
number of stages which 9. T h e d e g r e e o f a c c u r a c y o f set the t i m e r to z e r o a n d t h e n
children will go t h r o u g h i n m e a s u r e m e n t h a s to be read m i n u t e s o r s e c o n d s as
developing m e a s u r i n g skills: selected and the appropriate appropriate.
1. C h i l d r e n w i l l n e e d f i r s t t o be i n s t r i m i e n t n e e d e d to give this • balance or w e i g h i n g scales -
able to m a k e s i m p l e required degree of accuracy read the mass in g r a m s or
observations. s h o u l d be used. k i l o g r a m s as a p p r o p r i a t e .
2. C h i l d r e n s h o u l d recognise Always write d o w n the units
the n e e d to q u a n t i f y t h e i r Measurement skills once the reading has been
o b s e r v a t i o n s i n s o m e vvay. made.
T h i s m a y be t h r o u g h T h e s e i n v o l v e the correct use The following two activities
comparisons or by sequencing. of measuring instruments and c a n be u s e d t o h e l p c h i l d r e n
3. N o n - s t a n d a r d u n i t s s h o u l d reading of the scales: observe closely and quantify
be i n t r o d u c e d . • ruler - read metres, by measuring using
4. S t a n d a r d u n i t s s h o u l d be c e n t i m e t r e s o r m i l l i m e t r e s as appropriate instruments
introduced. a p p r o p r i a t e . T h e u n i t will be (ATl/3b).

Measuring, selecting e q u i p m e n t a n d carrying out investigations 4 1

 SAMPLE
ACTIVITIES

7. Investigating Ask the children h o w we

measure temperature and how
Investigative skills
temperature we can find out the
•T h e c h i l d r e n are
the skill of selecting an
developing

temperature in different appropriate i n s t r u m e n t for

places, for example, the measuring temperature. They
Age range classroom, in a s u n n y place, in have considered w h e n they
a cool place, near a radiator, in should take the temperature
Five to eleven.
the fridge, out of doqrs, in the reading and they have used a
Croup size shade. t h e r m o m e t e r to m e a s u r e the
Pairs or small groups. T h e children can examine temperatures. Skill in reading
different thermometers. How t h e i n s t r u m e n t is b e i n g
What you need are they different? H o w are developed. C h i l d r e n are
A number of spirit they the same? Which would drawing comparisons between
thermometers with a range of be a p p r o p r i a t e for m e a s u r i n g two instruments.
- 1 0 to 110"C, a variety of other the classroom temperature?
spirit thermometers with W h a t u n i t do we use to Content
different ranges, paper, measure temperature? T e m p e r a t u r e is a m e a s u i e o f
pencils, hot and cold water T h e y can then carry out an h o w h o t o r c o l d i t is a n d is
f r o m the taps, a beaker i n v e s t i g a t i o n to c o m p a r e t w o now measured using the
c o n t a i n i n g ice c u b e s . t h e r m o m e t e r s . Do they give Celsius scale. T h e s e record the
the same readings in water t e m p e r a t u r e o f m e l t i n g ice at
What to do from hot and cold,taps and in 0"C a n d b o i l i n g w a t e r at l O C C .
Discuss changes in a b e a k e r c o n t a i n i n g ice c u b e s ? T h e t h e r m o m e t e r s h o u l d be
temperature in summer and What if one of the placed in position and three
winter weather and the t h e r m o m e t e r s is i n a n u p r i g h t m i n u t e s a l l o w e d for it to
importance of keeping food p o s i t i o n a n d o n e is l y i n g display the correct reading
cool in the fridge or freezer. down? H o w long should the b e f o r e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e is
Discuss body temperature and children keep the thermometer taken.
h o w t e m p e r a t u r e is r a i s e d in position before taking a
during illness w h e n we have a reading? Where exactly should Safety
fever. ' t h e t h e r m o m e t e r be w h e n t h e y A l w a y s use a spirit
take the reading? thermometer and not a
mercury thermometer.
M e r c u r y is p o i s o n o u s a n d a
potential hazard if the
thermometer breaks.
Handle thermometers with
c a r e as t h e y are m a d e o f glass.

A T I / 3 b PoS; A T 4 / 2 b PoS(ii)

4 2 'Chapter 5
 CHAPTER 6

C h i l d r e n s h o u l d d e v e l o p
a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e
p u r p o s e s o f r e c o r d i n g
t o e x p r e s s t h e i r f i n d i n g s a n d r e s u l t s a n d r e c o g n i s e t h a t
i d e a s t o o t h e r c h i l d r e n t h e r e a r ed i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s
o r a l l y a n d t h r o u g h o f r e c o r d i n g w h i c h a r e
It i s i m p o r t a n t f o r c h i l d r e n d r a w i n g s , c h a r t s , m o d e l s , a p p r o p r i a t e f o r d i f f e r e n t
to c o m m u n i c a t e t h e i r a c t i o n s a n d writing' (Science t y p e s o f r e s u l t s .
t h o u g h t s a n d i d e a s a t a l l in t h e N a t i o n a l C u r r i c u l u m
s t a g e s o f t h e i r s c i e n t i f i c 1 9 9 1 ) .
a c t i v i t i e s a n d a t a l ll e v e l s o f
t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t . ' T h e y
s h o u l d h a v e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y

Recording a n d communicating results 5

 BACKGROUND

Purposes of recording ideas. It h e l p s c h i l d r e n Children are able gradually

Children do not need lo record
everything they do within their
scientific investigations but it
is i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e y
understand when and why
they record. If they record
their w o r k they will think
about their ideas in more
depth and begin lo take
responsibility for their
learning. T h e y will w a n t to
share their ideas w i t h others
and compare their findings.
Recording and communicating
are part of the learning
process.
R e c o r d i n g c a n be a n a i d to
o b s e r v a t i o n . T h e c h i l d is able
to c o n s o l i d a t e her ideas
through oral communication
and through drawings and
diagrams.
Recording can also help in
planning and ordering of
sequence their thoughts in a
l o g i c a l w a y . It is o f t e n
essential to the progress of the
investigation that children
note d o w n their results, for
example, measuring
t e m p e r a t u r e s or t i m e s to be
represented later on a bar
chart or line graph.
Another purpose of
r e c o r d i n g is t o r e c a l l e v e n t s
w h i c h have taken place
throughout the investigation.
Again, ihis encourages logical
thinking and often makes
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of results easier.
Skills of c o m m u n i c a t i o n are
developed progressively and
children learh that they can
express their ideas,
observations and results in a
variety of ways. They learn
h o w to list aiid record data
systematically and h o w to
represent their results in a
graphical form.
— have a permanent record of
to select the m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e
ways of recording and
r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e i r d a t a a n d are
able to b e c o m e m o r e selective
in w h a t they record. At a
h i g h e r l e v e l , it is h e l p f u l f o r
children to think about h o w
they are going to record their
results before they start to
collect t h e m . T h i s will help
t h e m to decide in more open
investigations what kind of
observations and
measurements lo write down.
It a l s o h e l p s c h i l d r e n t o r e c o r d
them more efficiently and
accurately.
R e c o r d i n g is a l s o h e l p f u l
w h e n the time comes for
children to interpret their
results and recognise patterns.
It is a g o o d s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r
discussion with the teacher
and the rest of the class.
From a practical point of
view, recording can provide
evidence for assessment
purposes. T h e teacher will

the children's w o r k a n d
understanding of scientific
concepts, and vital clues to the
children's thinking. Progress in
skill d e v e l o p m e n t is a l s o
observed and teachers are
provided with useful evidence
for assessing c h i l d r e n o n
aspects of practical activities.
P r o g r e s s i o n in
r e c o r d i n g skills
Recording and communicating
skills increase their c o m p l e x i t y
as t h e c h i l d r e n g a i n m o r e
experience carrying out
scientific i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . It is
often t h r o u g h the process of
recording and communicating
observations and results that
children c o m e to reflect u p o n
their ideas a n d order t h e m to
make sense of their
i n v e s t i g a t i o n . I t is e s s e n t i a l
that t h e t y p e o f r e c o r d i n g is
matched to the level of
development of the child and
to the type of scientific
activity undertaken.
Communication and
recording at the v e r y early
s t a g e s ( L e v e l 1) s h o u l d be
achieved through discussion
with other children and the
t e a c h e r . It is h e l p f u l i f t h e s e
discussions are ongoing
throughout the investigation
r a t h e r t h a n j u s t at t h e e n d o f
t h e a c t i v i t y . It is t h r o u g h s u c h
discussions with others that
JS1_
children are able to sort out
and question their ideas and
share t h e m w i t h their peers.
Class or group discussion w o r k
led by t h e t e a c h e r can be v e r y start thinking in a logical w a y
valuable. T h e teacher can ask a so that they can explain to
series of open-ended others what they have done.
questions helping the children Opportunities for others to
to think for themselves. raise q u e s t i o n s w i l l also be
C h i l d r e n s h o u l d t h e n be provided during formal
encouraged to represent their reporting.
data in a written f o r m (Levels Children should learn and
2 / 3 ) . A t first this m a y be practise the skills of recording
through drawings and charts d a t a i n a s y s t e m a t i c vvay,
but this will lead to recording r e p r e s e n t i n g it i n the f o r m o f
findings in simple tables or frequency tables, bar charts
bar charts (Levels 3/4). and line graphs.
Ordering and sequencing skills
are i m p o r t a n t s k i l l s t o be
developed and children'must Frequency tables,
be t a u g h t h o w to d r a w s u c h block graphs, bar
tables and bar charts. D r a w i n g charts a n d line g r a p h s
line graphs and presenting There are t w o types of
m o r e f o r m a l r e p o r t s are' frequency tables:
a p p r o p r i a t e for c h i l d r e n at • a simple frequency table;
Levels 4/5. • a grouped frequency table.
C h i l d r e n s h o u l d be A good example of how
encouraged to m a k e notes i n f o r m a t i o n can be o r g a n i s e d
during their scientific i n t o a f r e q u e n c y t a b l e is
activities, jotting d o w n their s h o w n for results of a shoe-
plans, ideas, observations and size s u r v e y in a class of 30
r e s u l t s is o n e o f t h e b e s t w a y s c h i l d r e n . T h e r e s u l t s m i g h t be:
of keeping a record. This will 3, 3, 5, 6, 1 , 6, 4 , 5, 4 , 3, 2, 3,
help during formal reporting 3, 4 , 5, 2 , 3, 3, 5, 4 , 7, 2, 3, 2,
as it e n c o u r a g e s c h i l d r e n to 4 , 7, 4 , 3 , 5, 8 .
Recording and communicating results
These results c a n then be Information f rom both types A b a r c h a r t t o s h o w
incorporated into a frequency of frequency tables c a n be t h e v a r i a t i o n i n e y e
table: represented i ngraphical form. c o l o u r i n class
It i s o f t e n e a s i e r t o s e e
N u m b e r o f patterns i nresults b y drawing
S h o e s i z e
c h i l d r e n a graph. The type o f graph to
1 be d r a w n d e p e n d s o n t h e t y p e
1
of data collected.
2 4
3 9
A block g r a p h t o s h o w
•S. 7
4 6 n u m b e r o f visits t o a b i r d
table b y g a r d e n b i r d s
u
5 5
i. 5

i:
6 2
7 2
8 ^ 2
1
1
S 0
A grouped frequency table 5 Green Blue Rrown llnzcl Grey
combines separate values into 2: Eye c o l o u r
groups w h i c h a r eo f equal size. F i g u r e 2
A n e x a m p l e is s h o w n below. 5
o c p
Data f r o m a class survey o f D A line g r a p h is d r a w n foi- a
children's heights is grouped n3 set o f single r e s u l t s s u c h as
Q.
o
into equal bands. The result oi CQ variation of temperature i na
(height i ncentimetres) fora B i r d t y p e
day or distance covered b y a
class o f 2 4 children could be: car i n a g i v e n t i m e . I ti s
F i g u r e I
important to remember when
145, 132, 164, 1 17, 136, 1 2 7 , Block graphs c a n be used t o i n t e r p r e t i n g t h eg r a p h t h a t t h e
171, 115, 138, 146, 134, 141, represent a sFmple set o f data intermediate values o n a line
158, 129, 130, 142, 138, 1 5 4 , such as a record o f the n u m b e r g r a p h m a yn o t h a v e a m e a n i n g
139, 145, 163, 122, 137, 151. and type o f birds which might (see F i g u r e 3 ) .
visit a bird table i n t h e school
A grouped frequency table g r o u n d s (see Figure 1). T h e A line g r a p h t o s h o w
can then be d r a w n w h i c h results might be: 2'1
v a r i a t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e
groups t h eheights into bands. in a d a y
22
The n u m b e r o f heights i n each
g r o u p i s f o u n d b,y a d d i n g u p B i r d t y p e N u m b e r o f visits
20

the relevant results.

Sparrow 3
N u m b e r o f
H e i g h t ( c m ) Robin 1
c h i l d r e n
Blue T i t 5
110-119 2
Thrush 2
120-129 3
Blackbird 2
130-139 8

140-149 5 Bar charts c a n be

constructed to represent data,
150-159 3
for example, a survey o f pets
160-169 2 in t h eclass o r v a r i a t i o n i n e y e I 000 1 1 00 1 200 : 300 1100 1 500 1 GOO

colour or tongue-rolling ability Tilite

170-179 1 (see F i g u r e 2 ) . F i g u r e 3

4 8 iChapter 6
 Report writing involves the
children in placing events in a
logical o r d e r a n d e x p r e s s i n g
their ideas clearly. C h i l d r e n
may find it helpful to follow a
simple w r i t t e n f o r m a t s u c h as:
• what I used
• what I did
• what I saw
• what I found out
or t h e y c o u l d d e v i s e a f o r m a t
of their o w n t h r o u g h
discussion w i t h the teacher. It
is h e l p f u l t o r e c o r d p a r t s o f
the a c t i v i t y as it is o n g o i n g .
Encourage the children to read
through their report to a friend
after t h e y h a v e w r i t t e n it. T h e y
may w i s h to add to it w h e n
ideas h a v e b e e n s h a r e d .
Children should start to use Different ways of
scientific terms w h e n recording
recording and communicating.
Encourage the use of such These arc s o m e possible
terms in verbal discussions methods of recording and
a n d i n w r i t t e n w o r k . It is v i t a l , communicating results.
however, that they understand 1. V e r b a l r e c o r d i n g
the m e a n i n g of the words in • discussion in pairs;
order for learning and • group discussion;
c o m m u n i c a t i o n to be effective. • g r o u p d i s c u s s i o n led by t h e
W o r d s s u c h as m e l t i n g , teacher;
f r e e z i n g , solid, l i q u i d , gas, • f o r m a l r e p o r t i n g - back to a
dissolve, acid, alkali are j u s t g r o u p or the w h o l e class:
some examples of vocabulary • a u d i o tape played to g r o u p
w h i c h c h i l d r e n s h o u l d be or w h o l e class;
e n c o u r a g e d to use a n d feel • recording through drama,
confident about. poetry or stories.
Table 1 shows the 2. P i c t o r i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
progression of recording skills • p a i n t i n g , e.g. t o r e c o r d t h e
f r o m simple to m o r e complex. effects of colour m i x i n g ;

T a b l e 1

M e t h o d s o f c o m m u n i c a t i n g a n d r e c o r d i n g r e s u l t s

L e v e l E x a m p l e o f a p p r o p r i a t e a c t i v i t y

Talking 1 T a l k i n g a b o u t f a v o u r i t e f o o d s a n d f o o d eaten at
breakfast, dinner and evening meal.

Drawings 1/2 Drawing a flowering plant to identify the m a i n

external parts.

Charts 2/3 Classifying everyday materials into different types

u s i n g p r o p e r t i e s s u c h as r o u g h a n d s m o o t h .

Pictograms 3 Recording weather conditions over a period of time.

Children devise their o w n weather symbols and
draw a pictogram.

Frequency tables 3/4 Counting mini-beasts in a sample area in the school

playground.

Tables 3/4 Constructing a simple t w o - c o l u m n table w h i c h

identifies substances which dissolve and those
which do hot dissolve.

Block graphs and bar charts 2/3/4 Carrying out a bird survey - numbers of different
types of birds w h i c h visit the bird table in the
playground over a period of one or two weeks.

Line graphs 4/5 Recording the height of plants over a period of time.

Formal report 4/5 Reporting on an investigation which considers the

factors d i a t affect t h e rate at w h i c h b r e a d d o u g h
rises.

Recording and communicating results

• a picture to s h o w the Presenting data
solution to a problem;
• diagrams - clearly labelled; T h e e m p h a s i s s h o u l d be o n j i v '
• f l o w d i a g r a m s - to s h o w the children generating, collecting
order of events; and using their o w n data.
• charts - results are recorded There are a n u m b e r of
in a systematic organised way; a d v a n t a g e s t o t h i s as
• graphs - block graph, identified by Taylor and
pictogram, histogram, line Swatton (1991).
graph; 1. C h i l d r e n ' o w n ' t h e d a t a a n d
• p i e - c h a r t s - t h i s is a h i g h e r thus its collection and content
level skill; are familiar to t h e m ,
• 3-D recording - collections 2. T h e c h i l d r e n c a n c o m p a r e
of leaves, bark rubbings, their results and methods of
models. collecting the information with
3. W r i t t e n w o r k other children or groups,
• factual writing - includes 3. C o m p a r i n g a n d e v a l u a t i n g
note-taking; their o w n results should
• creative writing; encourage the children to look
• comprehension - to at e r r o r s a n d reflect o n their
reinforce ideas - cloze o w n m e a s u r e m e n t strategies.
procedure; 4. it h e l p s d e v e l o p t h e i r
• worksheets. understanding of the purposes
4. U s i n g a u d i o - v i s u a l of recording and presenting
equipment their results.
• cameras; 5. I t p r o v i d e s t e a c h e r s w i t h
• tape recorders; useful evidence for
• video recorders. assessment.
5. C o m p u t e r s This does not mean, however,
• i n f o r m a t i o n retrieval; t h a t c h i l d r e n s h o u l d n o t be
• graphics; encouraged to use data w h i c h
• word processing. have not been generated by
themselves. For example, data
c a n be p r e s e n t e d w h i c h r e l a t e
to w i d e r contexts w h e r e it
w o u l d be d i f f i c u l t to c a r r y o u t
suitable classroom
investigations.
5 0 Chapter 6
Data presented in
graphical form
Assessment of Performance
Unit (APU) findings provide an
indication of w h a t we can
expect from children in
relation to data presented in
graphical foi'm.
A\ L e v e l 3 c h i l d r e n s h o u l d
be able to a d d d a t a ( n u m e r i c a l ,
pictorial or verbal) to a table
w h i c h is d r a w n f o r t h e m o r
add data involving whole
n u m b e r s to a simple bar chart
where axes and scales are
already drawn and labelled.
T h e y s h o u l d be able to r e a d
information f r o m simple bar
charts.
At Level 4 children should
be able t o c o n s t r u c t a n d l a b e l
simple tvvo-colunm tables and
e n t e r d a t a c o r r e c t l y o r be able
to d r a w f r o m scratch s i m p l e
bar charts or line graphs u s i n g
data involving whole numbers.
At Level 5 children should
be a b l e t o d e s c r i b e a n d
interpret patterns in simple
data presented in a table, bar
chart or line graph w h i c h m a y
or m a y n o t be s e l f - g e n e r a t e d .
T h e r e is a l i n k b e t w e e n
making measurements and
collecting data and
representing the data in
graphical form. Children may
be able to see m o r e e a s i l y t h e
need for taking a series of
measurements over a range or
repeating m e a s u r e m e n t s for
accuracy if they practise the
skill of c o n s t r u c t i n g a n d
interpreting graphs of their
own results. Thinking about
the w a y they are going to
present their results m a y
influence their plamiing
concerning what
m e a s u r e m e n t s they are going
to m a k e . O n the o p p o s i t e page
is a n e x a m p l e o f a n a c t i v i t y
s h o w i n g the use of a frequency
table and bar chart to record
results.
 ins
H o w l i g h t h e l p s u st o s e e
1 h e r e a r e m a n y s o u r c e s o f l i g h t s u c h as l a m p s ^firesa n d .
t o r c h e s . B y f a r t h e j n o s t i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e o f h g h t is t h e s u n .
T h e s u t r ^ L i g h t i s r e f l e c t e ^ r o n i e y e r y object — f r o m clouds and
f r o m t h e a t m o s p h e r e . T h a t is w h y U g h t still s h i n e s i n t h r o u g h
w i n d o w s o n t h e side o f a h o u s e w h i c h faces a w a y f r o m t h e direct
rays o f the sun.
R e f l e c t e d h g h t m a k e s i t p o s ^ b l e f o r u s t o see o b j e c t s ^ L i g h t is
reflected f r o m agarden wall i n all directions. S o m e of that hght
e n t e r s o u x e y e s a n d w e c a n see t h e w a l l . I f w e w a l k a r o u n d t o t h e
o t h e r s i d e o f t h e w a l l , w e c a n s t i U see i t . T h e n w e a r e s e e i n g
H g h t reflected f r o m t h a t side o fthe w a l l . T h e w a l l does n o t
d i s a p p e a r w h e n w e t u r n a w a y f r o m i t ; o t h e r p e o p l e c a n s t i l l see
it i f Hght reflected f r o m the w a l l enters their eyes.
W h e n w e g o i n t o a d a r k e n e d r o o m , w e n e e d a t o r c h t o see
t h i n g s . T h e h g h t o ft h e t o r c h falls o n a c h a i r a n d is reflected
b a c k . S o m e o f t h a t h g h t e n t e r s o u r e y e s a n d w e c a n see t h e
c h a i r ; b u t i f w e m o v e t h e t o r c h n o m o r e h g h t is reflected f r o m
t h e c h a i r a n d s o w e c a n n o t see i t a n y m o r e . H o w e v e r , i t is s t i l l
t h e r e , ^ s w e find o u t i f w e f a f l o v e r i t .
' ^Sojj^^seejwhenjigh o u r eyes._Our eye^ send^
messag^s^abouLth^ T h e b r a i n t u r n s these
m e s s a g e s i n t o a p i c t u r e a n d w e seej±ie w a U , _ t h e c h a i r , o u r _
Jnendsandjami^
W e b e h e v e t h a t w e a l l see t h i n g s i n t h e s a m e w a y ; b u t n o b o d y
c a n b e s u r e t h a t w h a t y o u s e e as a r e d b a l l o o n i s q u i t e t h e s a m e
as w h a t o t h e r s s e e — y o u c a n ' t s e e w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e ' s e y e s .

^he,arrows show how light is reflected from the wall in every direction.
 H o w do eyes work?

T h e H n i n g a t t h e b a c k o f t h e eye is m a d e u p o f m i l h o n s o f cells,
called photo-receptors, w h i c h are very sensitive to hght. T h i s
l i n i n g is called t h e r e t i n a .
T h e o p t i c n e r v e is also at t h e b a c k o f t h e eye a n d t h i s sends
messages to the b r a i n about the h g h t that has h i t the retina. I n
t h e b r a i n , t h e m e s s a g e is t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n i m a g e o f w h a t _ w e
are l o o k i n g at,
T h e c o j o u c e d p a r t o f yjDur eye is c a l l e d t h e . i r i s . M o s t p e o p l e ' s
irises are b o t h the same colour, b u t some people have irises that
a r e d i f f e r e n t c o l o u r s . L o o k a t t h e p a t t e r n o f flecks a n d m a r k s i n
y o u r iris. N o t w o people have exactly the same pattern. T h e y
a r e as i n d i v i d u a l a s . f i n g e r p r i n t s . T h e m u s c l e s w h i c h a l t e r t h e
size o f t h e iris w o r k a u t o m a t i c a l l y . W e c a n n o t c o n t r o l t h e m . .
T h e y are arranged r o u n d the iris i n a circle.
T h e eyeball is m o v e d b y muscles w h i c h y o u can c o n t r o l . Y o u
.can r o U y o u r eyes r o u n d a n d r o u n d , look left, r i g h t , u p a n d
'down. B o t h e y e 3 should m o v e together foUowing the same
d i r e c t i o n . T h i s gives each eye a s h g h t l y different v i e w o f a n
object a n d the b r a i n uses the t w o messages to w o r k out the
object's exact position.

ys;cal

;ileris1

P^You^ce'ahJfi'to see things both near to yoiLand far away.U.'l

# i W h e n t f i a j T i u s c l e s a c o u n d t h e lens c h a n g e its s h a p e . ' '
^•^^l_ook'a1:,sonnething,fara and t h e n turn to look at the" :,
| | ^ : w r i t m g ; . i n . . t h i s b o o k , > Y o u m a y . . s e e t h e . p r i n t c o m e i n t o ' " ;.
lj#;/^focus as the m u s c l e s change the shape of the lens. '

[8
 Y o u r e y e w o r k s i n a s i m i l a r w a y t o a c a m e r a . L o o k a t a c a m e r a t o find t h e p a r t s d r a w n b e l o w .

Lens
Light travels through the lens
Lens in your eye and is focused on
Light travels ihmugh the lens the retina. The lensissoft.and
andis focused hy it on to the IS built up of many layers,^
aim. The curve of the lens rather like an onion skin. It is
affects how the light is held in place by musclesjvhich
focused. can make it change its shape,.
The shape of the lens in your
eye affects how light is focused
on to the retina..

' Film Retina

The light travels through the Like the film in your cameraj
lens and is focused on thefilm the retina in your eye reacts to
in thecamera. The film is the light which falls upon it.
coated liMJi special materials
which cause it to react to the
light which falls upon it.

Iris
^ Diaphragm The iris works in a similar way
"iv; The diaphragm rn_the_ rn the diaphragm vi a camera. I
%" camera opens and closesjo let can open and close to allow
different amouiits oJ light fall different amounts of lightjq fall
'^lon to the film. onjojhejetino The hole in the
iris, which STOWS larger or
smaller, is called the pupil'

mm mmm.
 Short and long sight
S o m e t i m e s t h e eye develops incorrectly a n d the lens has to
w o r k very h a r d to focus properly. T h i s can cause headaches and
bltijred v i ^ n .

S h o r t sight
S h o r t - s i g h t e d people can o n l y focus o n things close to t h e m .
E v e r y t h i n j g i n t h e distance is b l t i r r e d . . P e o p l e w i t h s h o r t s i g h t
find i t d i f f i c t i l t t o r e a d s i g n s a n d p o s t e r s a t a d i s t a n c e a n d o f t e n
t h e y can't recognize people t h e y k n o w u n t i l t h e y get close.
P e o p l e w i t h s h o r t sight n e e d spectacles w i t h concave lenses. Spectacles to correct short sight
T h e s e lenses are t h i n n e r i n t h e m i d d l e a n d t h i c k e r at t h e edges. have concave lenses that bend
T h e y b e n d the_Hght rays o u t w a r d s to strike the lens o f the short- the light rays apart.
s i g h t e d eye a t a d i f f e r e n t a n g l e . T h i s i s s o t h a t t h e l e n s i n t h e e y e
can focus a clear i m a g e i n t h e proper place o n the r e t i n a .

L o n g sight
P e o p l e w i t h l o n g s i g h t see e v e r y t h i n g i n t h e d i s t a n c e c l e a r l y b u t
m a y have to h o l d a b o o k w e l l a w a y f r o m t h e m to read it easily.
T h e y w i l l find i t d i f f i c u l t t o t h r e a d a n e e d l e a n d w i l l h a v e t o h o l d
i t as f a r f r o m t h e m as t h e y c a n .
' L o n g s i g h t i s c a u s e d b y t h e l e n s i n t h e e y e b e i n g t o o flat.
M a n y p e o p l e g e t l o n g s i g h t w h e n t h e y g e t o l d e r , as t h e e y e
m u s c l e s w e a k e n a n d find i t h a r d t o p u l l t h e l e n s i n t o a r o u n d e r
shape.
L o n g - s i g h t e d p e o p l e w e a r spectacles w i t h lenses w h i c h bulge
Spectacles for long sight have
i n the m i d d l e . T h e y are called c o n v e x lenses. T h e s e b e n d t h e . convex lenses that bend the
light rays i n w a r d s so t h a t t h e y s t r i k e the eye lens at t h e r i g h t , light rays inwards.
angle for a n i m a g e to be f o c u s e d o n t h e r e t i n a .

Contact lenses
Contact lenses can help people w i t h l o n g or short sight w h o Testing lenses
prefer n o t t o w e a r spectacles. T h e s e lenses are t i n y circles o f • ; Cut t h r e e parallel slitsin.a piece
shaped plastic w h i c h cover t h e iris a n d the p u p i l o f each eye. : ' of black card.
T h e c o n t a c t l e n s e s float o n t h e w a t e r y s u r f a c e o f t h e e y e s . S o m e •• S h i n e a beam o f light t h r o u g h
people w e a r special coloured contact lenses t o m a k e t h e colour t h e u p r i g h t slits.
o f their irises look stronger. ^» ' H o l d a c o n v e x l e n s b e h i n d t h e
M a n y ^ f tHe problems w e have w i t h o u r eyesight are because card s o that the light shines
w e expect too.much of our eyes.^Humans originaUy developed through the lens a swell as the
as a n i m a l s w h i c h l i v e d o u t o f d o o r s . O u r e y e s w e r e n o t i n t e n d e d slits.
t o b e u s e d . f o r fine n e e d l e w o r k , b u i l d i n g m i c r o c i r c u i t s o r h o u r s • What happens t o the rays o f
,,of r e a d i n g ; s i i i a U p r m t . light?
r • N o w repeat the activity w i t h a
concave lens. W h a t happens?
 tear g l a n d
sphincter cornea
of pupil

walery
fluid

ligaments ^luscl
holding
lens

YOUR WELL-PROTECTED EYE

S t r o n g skull b o n e s s u r r o u n d your e'
tough, transparent c o r n e a protects
tear a n d the l e n s . Your b r o w a n d l a s h e s
ducts k e e p dirt out. Your tear g l a n d c o n s t a r
lo n o s e p l i e s m o i s t u r e to k e e p the c o r n e a cl€
fluid e m p t i e s t h r o u g h y o u r tear d u c t ii
n a s a l cavity.

Your Eyes ' -
O f all t h e senses, e y e s i g h t i s o f t e n c o n s i d e r e d t h e
m o s t important. Your eyes i n f o r m your brain about
e v e r y t h i n g y o u look at. T h r o u g h reading, your eyes
bring y o u a w e a l t h o f information f r o m other eyes and
brains. A c c o r d i n g t oo n e estimate, four fifths o f e v e r y -
thing w e k n o w reaches our brains tfirough our eyes.
People often compare t h e e y e t o a camera. B o t h
have lenses t h a t b r i n g images o f objects into focus.
B o t h have lens openings that can b eadjusted t o admit
the proper a m o u p t o flight. T h e e y e transmits a con-
s t a n t s t r e a m o fi m a g e s t ot h e b r a i n b y electrical signals
— j u s t as a t e l e v i s i o n c a m e r a t r a n s m i t s i m a g e s t o y o u r
h o m e screen. T h e eye, h o w e v e r , is far m o r e sopliisti-
cated than any T V camera.
Information from Light Rmjs
E y e s receive i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m light rays. Light rays
travel f r o m the sun o ranother light source t o objects
around you. T h e light rays are either absorbed o r re-
flected. O b j e c t s t h a t a b s o r b all the light r a y s appear
black, w h e r e a s t h o s e t h a t reflect all t h e r a y s appear
w h i t e . Colored objects absorb certain parts of the spec-
t r u m and reflect others.
W h e n y o u look at something, the light rays reflected
from t h e - o b j e c t p a s s t l i r o u g h y o u r t r a n s p a r e n t c o r n e a .
T h e n your lens focuses the light rays o n your r e t
f o r m i n g a nimage in r e v e r s e and upside d o w n . F i
the retina, electrical signals t r a n s m i t tlie image t o y
brain, w h i c h " s e e s " it as r i g h t side up.
T h e iris is the part o fy o u r e y e— b r o w n , blue
s o m e other color — s u r r o u n d i n g y o u r pupil. L o o l
tlirough y o u r pupil w i t h a s t r o n g light, a doctor can
the blood vessels r u n n i n g across your retina.
Y o u r l e n s i s p r o t e c t e d i n front b y fluid b e t w e e n i t
t h e c o r n e a . B e h i n d t h e l e n s t h e e y e b a l l i s filled w i
clear, j e l l y l i k e s u b s t a n c e . I n a h e a l t l i y y o u n g pers
the muscles o fdie elastic lens can change its shapi
b r i n g objects a t d i f f e r e n t distances i n t o s h a r p focus
t l i e r e t i n a . H o w e v e r , i f t h e e y e b a l l is s h a p e d s o t h a t
r e t i n a i s t o o n e a r o r t o o f a r from t l i e l e n s , o b j e c t s
appear out o f focus. |
W h e n a doctor tests your eyesight, h eo rshe i
report the results in numbers that compare your
with the normal eye:
20 means that your e y e sees a t2 0 l
40 w h a t the n o r m a l eye sees at 4 0 feet
20 means n o r m a l vision,
20
20 m e a n s legal blindness.
200
RCOUR P U P I L A D M I T S L I G H T RAYS YOUR LENS FOCUSES LIGHT RAYS
he pupil is the hole through the c o l o r e d iris. A r o u n d the pupil is a If you are looking at a n e a r b y object, your lens thickens. If the
p p h i n c t e r m u s c l e . W h e n it c o n t r a c t s , your pupil g e t s smaller. object m o v e s farther a w a y , your l e n s thins out. This c h a n g e of
Pother m u s c l e s r e a c h from the pupil to the outer rim of your iris. s h a p e b e n d s the light r a y s to k e e p the object in focus on your
E v h e n they c o n t r a c t , your pupil e n l a r g e s . retina.

If y o u r v i s i o n is o u t o f focus, y o u r o w n lenses can be

assisted b y o t h e r l e n s e s : e y e g l a s s e s o r contact lenses.
A s t i g m a t i s m is c a u s e d b y a n i r r e g u l a r shape o f e i t h e r
die c o r n e a o r t h e l e n s . I t c a n a l s o b e c o r r e c t e d w i t h .
eyeglasses.
T n e retina lines the inside o f y o u r eyeball. I n the
retina a r e s p e c i a l i z e d r e c e p t o r c e l l s , c a l l e d r o d s a n d
»nes, t h a t c o n t a i n l i g h t - s e n s i t i v e c h e m i c a l s . T h e r o d s
'about 1 2 0 m i l l i o n i n e a c h e y e ) a r e u s e d f o r b l a c k - a n d -
optic
vhite v i s i o n i n d i m light. T h e cones (about 7 million in chiasm
a c h e y e ) f u n c t i o n i n full light a n d enable y o u t o p e r -
ceive c o l o r s .
C o l o r b l i n d n e s s is d u e t o defects o f t h e c o n e cells. optic
tract
Different c o n e s a r e s e n s i t i v e t o different colors, so that
a color-blind p e r s o n m a y b e able t o perceive s o m e
»lors b u t n o t o t h e r s . C o l o r b l i n d n e s s i s i n h e r i t e d a n d
^ e l y occurs in w o m e n . ...
A n e w b o r n b a b y is n a t u r a l l y f a r s i g h t e d a n d c a n n o t
[focus o n n e a r b y o b j e c t s f o r s e v e r a l m o n t h s . Y o u n g c h i l -
|ren usually have n o r m a l eyesight, but this m a y change
p they grow.
I S o m e older people m a y have hrouble focusing o n
Both n e a r a n d f a r o b j e c t s b e c a u s e t h e i r l e n s e s h a v e l o s t
IJie n a t u r a l e l a s t i c i t y . T h i s p r o b l e m c a n b e c o r r e c t e d optic
f,with b i f o c a l l e n s e s . radiation

|: T i n y m u s c l e s c o n t r o l t h e m o v e m e n t s o f t h e e y e b a l l s . .
iTlie b r a i n s e n d s m e s s a g e s t o these muscles, causing
t h e m to m o v e b o t h e y e s in the same direction at once.
W h e n there is an imbalance in the strength o f these M E S S A G E S F R O M E Y E TO BRAIN
The visual information entering your e y e s p a s s e s to '.he v^sua'
'muscles, a p e r s o n m a y a p p e a r c r o s s - e y e d o r w a l l e y e d ,
cortex at the b a c k of your h e a d . Your left eye a n d vC'^r - 3 - : e . e
c- P r o p e r n u t r i t i o n i s i m p o r t a n t t o p r e s e r v e g o o d e y e - see the s a m e object but from slightly different a n g ' 5 5 at'cn
sight. P e o p l e w h o g e t t o o l i t t l e v i t a m i n A c a n n o t s e e from the right s i d e of your left e y e a n d from the f-g^: s ; e .
well at night. Y o u g e t v i t a m i n A in c a r r o t s and g r e e n , right eye r e a c h e s the rigtit s i d e of your visual ccte- "^e -'zr-
mation from your left e y e c r o s s e s over in the opt-c :r. a s ~ .
leafy v e g e t a b l e s .
77
 Sight and aids to vision f Smell and Jsr^qthing

Name. Date.
There are many a n s w e r s to these questions.
Write what you think and not what a friend writes.

1 Adjustment of the eye

W h e n y o u g o t o t h e c i n e m a y o u w a l l < f r o m t h e l i g h t i n t o t h e 3 a r k . 'cnooi

What happens to your vision?

H o w does your eye change as y o u go into the dork?

2 S p e c i a l vision aids

W h a t does an astronomer use to help see the planets?

W h o m i g h t u s e e a c h of t h e s e a n d w h a t for?-

binoculars a magnifying glass a microscope

Who? ^ _

What for?.

Ginn Science Ginn & Company 1990. Copying p e r m i t t e d for p u r c l n a s i n g s c f i o o l o n l y . T h i s m a t e r i a l i s n o t c o p y r i g h t free.

 Year 5 ^
SET 1 Sight and aids to vision ^ Smell and breathing

3 Parts of the e y e

R e w r i t e e a c h o f t h e s e n t e n c e s b e l o w t o m o k e it c o r r e c t :

T h e c o l o u r e d p a r t o f t h e e y e is c a l l e d t h e c r o c u s .

T h e p u p i l of t h e e y e g r o w s larger s o t h a t y o u c o n s e e in t h e d i s t a n c e .

Y o u o r e ' s h o r t - s i g h t e d ' if y o u c a n ' t s e e n e a r o b j e c t s c l e a r l y .

4 Breathing mask

T h i s a e r o p l a n e pilot is w e a r i n g a b r e a t h i n g m a s k . W h y '

41 A

G i n n S c i e n c e Ginn & C o m p a n y 1990. Copying permitled for purchasing school only. This material is not copyright free
 Our pulse rate increases
ACTIVITY SHEET 3 as activity Increases.

^ How fit are you?

Sit q u i e t l y for a f e w
minutes and measure
y o u r p u l s e rate.

Now do s o m e exercise
and measure your
p u l s e rate a g a i n .

Keep taking your pulse

rate at o n e m i n u t e
i n t e r v a l s to s e e w h e n
y o u r p u l s e rate r e t u r n s
to n o r m a l .

G e t e v e r y o n e in y o u r
g r o u p to d o t h i s a n d
fill in t h e c h a r t b e l o w .

I
E
M
Name Rate After After After After
>•
co at rest exercise 1 min. 2 mins. 3 mins.

I 3CL
s

Q.
E
<3

o
T h e q u i c k e r y o u r p u l s e rate r e t u r n s to n o r m a l t h e fitter y o u a r e .

o O n t h i s e v i d e n c e w h o is t h e fittest p e r s o n in y o u r g r o u p ?
(N
rsi
u
1/1
o
a.

A l 3
4>
Phases of the moon, page 105

Investigating the phases of the moon

Night 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Shape
of
Moon () V J () V J o ()
Dote
Night 8 9 10 ' 11 12 13 14

() () () () o o
Shape <
of
Moon

Date
Night 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

o o () ()
Shape
of
Moon

Date
Night 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

( ) ( ) ( ) C) o o
*

Shape
of
Moon V J
Date
Night 29 30 31 32 33 34 35

() () o o o
Shape
of
Moon V J
Date
faring for minibeasts
people enjoy studying minibeasts. W h e n you begin t o
t u d y t h e m ^ r e m e m b e r that they are l i v i n g creatures like,
o u r s e l f — l o o k after t h e m and treat t h e m gently.
H e r e are s o m e rules to r e m e m b e r w h e n s t u d y i n g minibeasts.

• Minibeasts can be h u r t o rdamaged very easily. N e v e r pick

t h e m u p w i t h ^ o u r fingers. Y o u c a n p i c k t h e m u pw i t h the
bristles o fa small p a i n t b r u s h , o ry o u can suck t h e m u p
gently u s i n g a 'pooter'. I t ' s easy to m a k e a pooter like the one
in the picture.

• W h e n y o u collect minibeasts f r o m under a rock, stone o r log,

p u t i t b a c k asy o u f o u n d i t so that y o u d o n o t d i s t u r b o t h e r
creatures that live there.

• I f y o u collect m i n i b e a s t s f r o m p l a n t s , p i c k s o m e o f the leaves

f r o m the plants they were o n so that they have s o m e food.

• D o n o t k e e p d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f m i n i b e a s t s t o g e t h e r as t h e y
m i g h t h a r m each other. F o r instance, some minibeasts m a y
get s t u c k i n t h e s l i m y trails t h a t snails a n d slugs p r o d u c e .

• D o n o t k e e p minibeasts i n captivity too long. W h i l e they are

i n captivity., m a k e sure that they have enough o fthe correct
food, w a t e r a n d a s h a d y p l a c e w h e r e t h e y c a n h i d e .

• W h e n y o u h a v e finished s t u d y i n g y o u r m i n i b e a s t s , p u t t h e m
back exactly w h e r e you found t h e m .

Plea to an Enthusiastic Minibeast Collector

with Magnifying G lass and Match Box

Leave m e be!

I m n o c"^ n e c'^ '^'e muslin

some day soon I'll

u n z i p this k n i t t e d coat
a n d soar a w a y o n silk
screen-printed wings.

Don't bug me!

Moira Andrew
 I f y o u w a n t t ocollect and study s o m e minibeasts, here are
some ways y o u can 'trap' t h e m .
V
A pitfall trap
T h i s trap isv e r y easy t om a k e . Y o u ' l l n e e d t o m a k e a s m a l l hole
i n the g r o u n d i n a place w h e r e y o u t h i n k there are s o m e
minibeasts. P u t a carton o r a jar i n the g r o u n d so that the top o f
its sides are b e l o w t h e level o f t h e soil. P u t s o m e bait i n t h e t r a p
s u c h as bits o f vegetable o r b r e a d , o r s m a l l s c r a p s o f m e a t . P u t
s o m e stones a r o u n d the trap a n d rest a card o r tile o n t h e m t o
cover the trap, leaving r o o m for the minibeasts t ogo under it.
Y o u r pitfall t r a p s h o u l d attract s o m e m i n i b e a s t s i f y o u leave i t
undisturbed overnight o rfor a few hours.
Y o u could m a k e a survey b y p u t t i n g pitfall traps i n different
areas o f t h e s c h o o l g r o u n d s a n d seeing w h i c h o n e attracts t h e
most minibeasts. D o different types o f bait attract different
types o f minibeast?

Polythene
Leave a piece o f card o r black p o l y t h e n e o n the g r o u n d for a few
days. D o not disturb it d u r i n g that t i m e . A f t e r a few days, pick
it u p a n d see w h a t m i n i b e a s t s are u n d e r i t .

Trees
Place a sheet o f c l o t h o r plastic u n d e r a b r a n c h o f a tree. G i v e
the branch a k n o c k and s o m e minibeasts w i l l fall f r o m the tree
o n t o the sheet below. D o different trees have d i f f e r e n t
minibeasts?
Y o u can also tie a large bag over t h e e n d o f a b r a n c h o f a tree
o r b u s h . S h a k e t h e b r a n c h g e n t l y a n d see w h a t h a s f a l l e n i n t o
the bag.

sheet
 MmBBs o f minibeasts
Invertebrates
A l l minibeasts are
invertebrates, that
is 5 a n i m a l s w i t h o u t
backbones.

Annelids
M a n y minibeasts have soft bodies w h i c h
are divided i n t o rings. T h e n a m e for
minibeasts o fthis type is anneUds.
W o r m s are annelids. T h e r e are various
types o fw o r m s such asleeches, w o r m s
w h i c h live i n water and earthworms.
Arthropods
T h e biggest g r o u p o f m i n i b e a s t s is one i n w h i c h s
t h e a n i m a l s h a v e j o i n t e d legs. T h e y are called
a r t h r o p o d s . T h e a r t h r o p o d g r o u p i n c l u d e s .•
insects, spiders, centipedes a n d woodlice, m a n y
w a t e r a n i m a l s such ascrabs a n d lobsters, a n d
a n i m a l s s u c h as s c o r p i d n s w h i c h a r e c o m m o n i n
w a r m countries.

Insects
A r t h r o p o d s that have six legs are called insects. T h e i :
l e g s a r e a r r a n g e d i n t h r e e p a i r s . B e e t l e s , a n t s a n d flies
insects — t h e y all h a v e six legs.

/fir.
 Molluscs
S o m e minibeasts have soft bodies w h i c h
are n o t d i v i d e d i n t o r i n g s . T h e y are
called molluscs. M a n y molluscs have a
protective shell. Shellfish and octopuses
a r e m o l l u s c s , so a r e s n a i l s a n d s l u g s .

Arachnids
A r t h r o p o d s t h a t have^eight legs are called a r a c h n i d s .
T h e i r legs are a r r a n g e d i n j o u r pairs. T h e arachnids y o u
are p r o b a b l y m o s t familiar w i t h are spiders.
^hat is y o u r minibeast?
'lay t h i s g a m e w i t h a p a r t n e r . O n e o f y o u t h i n k s o f a m i n i b e a s t
at l i v e s i n t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m . T h e o t h e r p e r s o n w i l l
e n t i f y w h i c h class o f m i n i b e a s t i t b e l o n g s to by a s k i n g t h e
llowing questions and following the trail.
Has it act =
soft boc 7 ~

Start
Ask your friend to
think carefully about
their minibeast and
to answer the following
qijestions by
saying only yes or
no. W h i c h e v e r
answer they give,
follow the branch
and ask the next
question.
 - .'T,

. vHas it got
; i t w o pairs of
•r l e g s on e a c h
segment?

L o o k carefully!
H a s it got one Is it g r e y ,
pair of legs on armour-plated
each s e g m e n t ? and w i t h seven
pairs of l e g s ?

AZjO 25
ForrA la caja c o n los p a n u e l o s u otros ApoyA la hoja de l e c h u g a sobre el
papeles humedecidos. p a p e l c u a d r i c u l a d o , y m a r c ^ c o n el
l i p i z el c o n t o r n o .
Por\i la hoja d e l e c h u g a e n la caja y
al caracol sobre ella, y l u e g o tap5 la
caja. Hacele a la t a p a varios orificios para
q u e el c a r a c o l respire. P o n i la caja en u n
lugar tranquilo d u r a n t e u n a s seis h o r a s .

N E C E S I T A S

9 U n caracol

(seguro que
HERBiyORO$
e n tu jardin

e n c o n t r i s uno; s i
COLO$0$
no, e n alguna OS c a r a c o l e s son

1herblvoros: c o m e n
plaza).
plant^s. Prefieren las hojas
Una caja con tapa o
tiernas y jugosas, p o r q u e c o m e
recipiente similar.
no t o m a n agua, l asacan d e
© Panuelos d e papel, papel,
alias. Repetf e l
secante o toallas d e papel.
P a s a d o e s e t i e m p o , s a c 5 la hoja d e experimento con
® Una hoja grande, entera y
l e c h u g a y apoyala sobre el papel otro tipo d e
bien fresca d e lechuga o repollo,
cuadriculado. i C u ^ n t o s cuadritos c o m i 6 ? hojas y sabres
® Una hoja d e papel cuadriculado curies prefiere
0 m i l i m e t r a d o . tu caracol.
® U n lapiz.
^ ; L :—

CO 00 CD
zr o o
CD CL D D'
CQ CQ CD"
C/5 V)
(S
1. CO CQ
<_ CO
3
5' zr CQ
Q
GO GO' Q!

"D cr CD-
CD
cr
Q CD"
CD
Q
CO
I
.;:rf i s n a i l . r-h V mmm
•f:
O
earthworm z r
Q
. j : i r , centipede
;4
spider
-
beetle
f^.^'; butterfly
wood louse
 ;

SCIENCES
CP
GEf
PROPRIETES D E LAIR LA MATIERE

D n n s c e l t e f i c h e , l em o n c i e e n v i r o n n n n l esl I ' o b j e l cJ'un npprenlissage

m e t h o d i q u e . Par Line serie d em a n i p u l a t i o n s , d'hypolheses e td e d e d u c - OBIECTIFS
tions, I'eleve v a d e c o u v r i r Ics proprietes essenlielles d e i'air. - Percevoir l ap r e s e n c e d e l'air.
- D e c o u v r i r lesproprietes d e I'a:'.

DECOUVRIR l A P R E S E N C E D E L'AIR ( g r o u p e s : 1 0 m i n )
COMPiTENCES
• Repnrtir leseleves par groupes d equatre etlesplacer devant u n e bas-
- Emettre d e s iiypothcses et les
sine r e m p l i e d'eau. L egroupe possede u n flacon a c o lctroit. Presenter
verifier.
alors u nflacon " v i d e " a la classe etd e m a n d e r c equ'il contlent. Certains
- Faire des observations.
eleves reponclront "rien", d'autres preciseroni qu'il y a d e "I'air".
- Trailer I'information.
• D e m a n d e r alors d echcrcher a m o n t r e r l a jjresence d e I'air dans leur
f l a c o n e n utilisant l abassinc. Lors d e I ' i m m e r s i Q n d uf l a c o n , d e s bulles MATERIEL
d'airs'echappent.
Par uroupes d e 4 eleves
• Di.stribuer a chaque eleve laphotoco|jie d uverso e ldemander a u x
- P o m p e a bicyclette.
eleves d erepondre a la ciuestion a)d e I'exercice 1.Pour laquestion b),
- C h a m b r e ."i a i r .
inviler les, e l e v e s . ' 0 experimenter avant d e repondre a l a ciuestion.
- Cuvette contenani d e I'eau.
Proceder a une correction collective.
- Deux flacons : u n a c o le i r o i t ,
I'aulre'a c o l large.
T R A N S V A S E R ET R E C U P E R E R L'AIR (groupes, c o l l e c l i f : 15 min) - Boule d epapier, ruban adhcsif.
• Demander d'experimenter le schema a) donne clans I'exercice 2. - Bougie.
Laisser l e s (Aleves o b s e r v e r , [)uis c o m m e n l e r . I I e n r e s s o r t C|ue l e f l a c o n - Sac: o n p l a s t i c | u e .
l a r f ^ c s e v i d e d ' e a u e t s e r e n i p l i t d ' a i r a l o r s C|ue c e l u i a c o l e t r o i l s e r e m - - Eponge a table.ui.
plit d ' e a u e ts e v i d e d e I'air. - Photocopies d u verso d o la
• Distribuer alors u n e c h a m b r e a air par ^roupe avec u n e pcjmpe a bicy- fic:lie.
clelte. G u n f l e r cette c h a m b r e etdemander d etrouver comment savcjir
q u ' e l l e c o n t i e n t cleI'air : quancl o n a p | x i i e sur l av a l v e , (jn sent cle I'air
sur l e visa^je. E x p e r i m e n t e r alors l e s c h e m a b) et arriver a uconstat :
" L ' a i r p e u t e t r e r e c u p e r e t " . R e p o n d r e a u x c|uesti()ns ccjllectivemenl.

D E C O U V R I R IA C O M P R E S S I B I U T E D E L ' A I R ( g r o u p e s , i n d i v i d u e l : 1 5 m i n )
• E x p l i c j u e r c e C j u ' e s l l a c o m p r e s s i b i l i l c : d ' u n c j b j e l a I ' a i d e d ' u n e cl'pon^;e Corrigc des cxerciccs
dont on.expulse I'eau. D e m a n d e r alors d e rechercher si I'air esl c o m - 1. a) L'air s'ecliapix' d u t h u u i i . Ij) Lii
1.)()UIL' CIC [ j L i p i e r r i ' s i i ' s i ' c h c , l ' a i r L i
pressible a I'aide d e lap o m p e . A r r i v e r a u c o n s t a t c|ue s i T o n b o u c h e
prolcge.
I ' e x t r e m i t e d e l ap o m p e o n p e u t e n f o n c e r l ep i s t o n , m a i s il y a u n e resis-
2. n ) L c f l a c o n I n r j i c s e v i d t ' d i ' T e n u e l
t a n c e (d.'ailleurs, d e sC|u'on l e lache;. i l r e v i c n l a s a j j l a c e ) .
SL" r t M u p l i l ( I ' . i i r . h ) L ' a i r s ' l k h . i p p L ' d e l . i
• Fairc, I'expcjriente similaire. a I'aide d ' u n s a ce n plasticjue q u e T o n c h a m b r e e l est r O c u | K ' r c ' d a n s l e fiacon.
o u v r e e t C|uc T o n i - e f e r m e . L ' a i r c|ui s e t r o u v e a l o r s e m p r i s o n n c } n e p e r - 3 . a ) Dv I ' a i r d a n s l a p o m p e ; l ' a i r e s l
m e l p a scriiplatlr le'sac. coinprussihie. h ) L'air oppo.se u n e
• F a i ' r e fa.ii-6 I ' e x e r c i i c t ^ 3 i n c i i v i d u c l l e m e n i , p u i s l e c o r r i g e r . rcsislance.
4. L'air esl i n v i s i b l e ; t'sl t o n i p r c s s i b l L - ;
p c u l C'Iru I r a n s v a s e ; ( K ' l i n e i l . i C'DHIIHI.S-
MONTRER Q U E L'AIR PERMET l A C O M B U S T I O N ( c o l l e c l i f , i n c l i v i d u c l : 2 0 m i n )
lion ; peiil resiskv.
• Placer sur u n e table u n e bougie a l k i m c e visible d etous leseleves. L a
recouvrir d'un flacon etdemander c e C|ui v a s e p a s s e r ; a uIxuit d'un
Prolongement . '^•X;^",.- '
m o m e n t l ab o u g i e v a s'eteinclre. U n e fois ci'teinte, r e c : o m m e n c e r I'expe-
Lors d'une seaoce/iillerleure; n i u n l r e r
rience e n soulevant d etemps a autre J c flacon. L'air entrant p e r m e t a l a
C|uc I ' a i r p o s s e d e u n p o i d s a I ' a i d e
b o u g i e d e rester a l l u m e e .
d ' c i n b a l l o n p l u s p i j : i i H j i n s ^^onflc,
• C l o r e l a s e a n c e e n p r o p o s a n t a.ux (?leves d e r e p o n d r e a u x c j u e s t i o n s d e d'une balance e l d'une tare loujours
i'exercice 4 . Proceder a u n ecorrection collective e nrevenant sur les icienliciue.
diverses exporiences vecues.

SI J D I • N - 6 > 11,VKII-t: 2 0 0 2

/ 1 2 . 3
D E C O U V R I R LES P R O P R I E T E S D E L'AIR SCIENCES
Exercices

1. O b s e r v e les schemas a) ct b). Reponds a la question a). Realise I'experience b), puis reponds a la question.
ruban adhcsif
air

—- eau

- Q u e fail l'air contenu dans le flacon ? , - Q u e se passe-l-il pour la boule de papier ?

2. O b s e r v e les schemas a) et b). Realise I'experience a), puis i'experience b)

— • air

O
O
o
a) ' b)
— can
valve

- - J chambre a air

- D e c r i s ce qui se passe. - Decris oii va I'air.

3. O b s e r v e ces schemas des experiences rcalisccs puis rcponds aux questions.

- doi^l

a) sac en plasticine

- Q u ' y a-t-i! dnns la pompe ? - Pourquoi ne peut-on pas aplatir le sac ?

I 1 de I'eau ! : de l'air
Q u e peux-tu cxpliquer ?

4. C o c h e les bonnes cases.

} I l'air est invisible j ; l'air permet la combustion

I I l'air peut etre transvase *• I i l'air esl compressible

I \r a une odeur I : l'air peut rcjsisler

52
 OrCOUVERTE DU MONDIE

ATELIERS POUR OBSERVER L'EXISTENCE ET LES CARACTERISTIQUES DE L'AIR

ATELIER 1
I ATELIER 2

Materiel Materiel
Un pallon de baudruche. Un gant e n caoutchouc.
Deroulement Deroulement
1. G o n f l e l e ballon avec la bouche. 1. Gonfle legerement le gant.
2. iBche le ballon. 2. Pais u n nceud p o u r e m p r i s o n n e r l'air.
Observe ce qui se passe. 3. A p p u i e sur u n e p a r t i e d u g a n t .
Observe ce qui se passe.

! I

ATELIER 3 ATELIER 4

Materiel Materiel
Une bouteille e n plastique e tson bouchon. - Deux doubles decimetres identiques.
Deroulement - U n s a c eri p l a s t i q u e t r e s f i n .
1. A p p u i e sur l a bouteille e n plastique lorsqu'elle - Du ruban adhesif. |
n'a pas d e b o u c h o n . Deroulement •:. • I
Observe ce qui se passe. • 1 . Colle a v e c I'adKesif les anses d u s a c a u x e x t r e - j
2. A p p u i e sur l a b o u t e i l l e e n p l a s t i q u e lorsque son mites d udouble decimetre. |
bouchon est visse. 2. L a n c e I ' e n s e m b l e l e plus h a u t possible. 1
Observe ce qui se passe. Observe ce qui se passe.
3. L a n c e l e s e c o n d d o u b l e decimetre l e plus h a u t
possible.
Observe ce qui se passe.

• I

ATELIER 5

Materiel
- U n cahier.
- Des p e t i t s m o r c e a u x d e papier.
Deroulement
A v e c le c a h i e r , fais d u v e n t e n d i r e c t i o n des p e t i t s p a p i e r s .
Observe ce qui se passe.

jDi • 0 > ^v'::ii 2003 >0 /1^s

'^^3.3 Composi9ao do ar ^ . ,
^m^rc '_ O a r e c o m p o s t o d e v a r i o s g a s e s , v a p o r d e a q u a , p n p i r a P m i r r n h i n s

Os gases mals importantes sao:

Mitroqenio - e x i s t e e m m a i o r q u a n t l d a d e n o a r e n a o e a p r o v e l t a v e l n a

Iragao.

PMili? i • Oxiqenio - e o a a s m a l s i m p o r t a n t e d a a t m o s f e r a p a r a o homem,

^#:^^[jT^^]^^^v;ggetai5^ O sseres vivos

^yabsorvem oxiaenio, p r o d u z e m e eliminam aas cBrhonIco nara n m e l n amhientp

|?^^^2-^Mjm__ga5_ c o m b ^ ^ pois alimenta o fogo. 5em ele o s seres vivos

•MnTorrerlam.

li^-'-f^'J";"? ^ Gas carbonico - E u m g a s e l i m i n a d o p e l o s s e r e s v i v o s n o p r o c e s s o da

j^resplra<;ao e utillzado pelas plantas n a fotossintese. F o r n a ofavorecer as

i ' c o r n b u s t o e s , e utillzado n o s extlntores de ln,cendio.

E X P E R I E N C I A 3 - C Q M P O S I C A O DO AR ( O X I G E N I Q )
Material - duas velas, fosforos, dois vidros de diferentes t a m a n h o s .

Conclusao: C '4L

2J 426
3.2 Propriedades do ar
• Compressibilidade: quando u m a grande quantldade de c' =

c o l o c a d a e m u m espac^o pequeno.

• Elasticidade: q u a n d o o a r v o l t a a o c u p a r o e 5 p a < ; o I n l c l a l , d e p o ' s d e

t e r 5ido c o m p r i m i d o .

• Expansibilidade: q u a n d o o ar said e u m espago pequeno e s e

espaiha no.amblente. •

E X P E R I E N C I A 2 - P R O P R I E D A D E S DO AR
.

Pegue u m a seringa, dessas d e apiicar injegao. Encha-a

de ar. T a p e c o m o d e d o o f u r i n h o o n d e s ecoloca a a g u l h a . A p e r t e o

embolo (parte movel d a seringa) c o m bastante forga, apoiando-o

sobre a mesa. Segure o e m b o l o nessa posigao e retire o dedo. Observe que sal

uma " f u m a c i n h a " d a s e r i n g a q u a n d o , d e v a g a r i n h o , s e c o n t i n u a a a p e r t a r o e m b o l o

depois de s e u f u r i n h o ser destapado.

t

C U I D A D O ! N A OU S E S E R I N G A S D E V I D R O !

Procure explicar a origem e a natureza dessa "fumacinha".

P e g u e a s e r i n g a d aexperiencia anterior. Encha-a c o m ar, t a p a n d o o f u r i n h o . A p e r t e

o e m b o l o e solte-o, m a n t e n d o 0 furinho.tapado. , .• , , ^ y,

Escreva o que voce observou.

2 0

3' serie
 How Much
Oxygen
in the Air?
You will need: Candle, empty milk bottle, dish of water.

• A i r is composed approximately of one-fifth oxygen and four-fifths

nitrogen, with traces of a few other gases. Experiments with convection
currents prove that a flame must have a constant supply of air if it is to
remain alight. W i t h this knowledge, you can find out how much oxygen
m there is i n a irdlk bottle full of air.
F i l l a dish with water, hght a stub of candle and carefully float it in the
dish. W h e n the flame has established itself arid is burning steadily, cover
it with the upturned milk bottle.
T h e candle will continue to burn for a few seconds because it has a
small supply of oxygen available i n the air now trapped inside the bottle.
However, the flame will use this oxygen quite quickly and will then be
extinguished. A t the same time, because the oxygen content of the bottle
has been used, an area of low pressure wLQ result. T h e outer air, pressing
down upon the surface of the water in the dish i n its endeavor to enter,
wiU instead, force water up into the bottle, thus inchcating the amount
of the oxygen which has been used.

Water rises
about
one-fifth

30
 Miniature
Iceberg
You will need: B o w l of water,
plastic m u g .
M a n y ships have been wrecked
by icebergs which drift southward
from the A r c t i c regions. Icebergs
are huge, floating islands of ice
which present a great threat to
shipping.
Because of the relative density of
ice and water, some seven-eighths
of an iceberg is beneath the surface
as it floats and only one-eighth can
be seen above the surface. A ship can
be hundreds of feet away from the
visible part of an iceberg and still
From a ship you cannot see all the iceberg
run against ice below the surface as
shown above.
T e s t this for yourself by filling a
plastic cup with water and freezing
it sohd in the refrigerator. Remove
the cup and allow warm water to
run over the outside for a few
moments. T h i s will loosen the
block of ice and enable you to r e -
move it.
F i l l a bowl with water and float
the ice i n the bowl. Y o u will quickly
see how much of the ice is below
the surface when your miniature
iceberg is floating.
59
 Use observations to
support conclusions:

Evaporation

S o m e children are investigating the evaporation of water.

T h e y h a v e put the s a m e a m o u n t of w a t e r in t h e saucer,
the j a m jar and the vase. T h e y w a n t to find out w h i c h will
evaporate quickest.

Try the investigation with a few friends.

Place y o u r containers on a w i n d o w ledge.
C o m p l e t e t h e s t a t e m e n t s b e l o w as y o u d o y o u r test.

I t h i n k w h a t w i l l h a p p e n is t h a t .

What happened was

I think this shows that

T h i s is t h e s a m e a s I e x p e c t e d

T h i s i sd i f f e r e n t f r o m w h a t I e x p e c t e d because
 SKILLS SUPPORT SHEET 17 Considering evidence

Dissolving sugar

You w i l l n e e d t w o c u b e s o f s u g a r a n d t w o p l a s t i c j a r s o f t h e s a m e
size. H a l f fill e a c h jar w i t h w a t e r .

P u t t h e c u b e o f s u g a r i n t o J a r A . T i m e h o w l o n g it t a k e s t o d i s s o l v e .
Write d o w n the result. '

Break up the second cube of sugar into granules. (Put the cube
>
o f s u g a r o n a s a u c e r t o d o t h i s , s o t h a t y o u d o n ' t l o s e a n y o f it.)
c
o
o
P u t t h e g r a n u l e s i n t o J a r B. T i m e h o w l o n g t h e y t a k e t o d i s s o l v e .
o
Write d o w n the result.
• at <o
r> « 4-
O ) x: OJ
t- o -c
Can you think of any reasons for w h a t happens?
II? Write t h e m d o w n . Repeat your investigation three times.

•a 0) -c
c Q. Q
Ol to

0)

m
u
 Year 4
Hot and cold SETT

Name Date

There are many answers to these questions.

Write what you think and not what a friend writes. Q
«•

1 Hot and cold

N a m e t w o things that a r e hot.
N a m e t w o things that a r e cold.

2 Getting warm
Give t w o w a y s of making your hands w a r m o n a cold wintry d a y .
1 2 w

Write w h y each w a y makes your hands warmer.

1 ^ 2

3 Using a thermometer
To find o u t h o w h o t s o m e water w a s -
Kirsteen put the Caroline took the
t h e r m o m e t e r still thermometer out
inside its plastic of t h e w a t e r
cover in t h e t o r e a d it.
water.

Did e a c h girl u s e t h e t h e r m o m e t e r correctly? W h y or w h y not?

Kirsteen
Caroline

4 Using a thermometer
Write h o w y o u would u s e a thermometer and what y o u would expect to
h a p p e n , w h e n y o u p u t it i n h o t w a t e r .

13
 5 Cooking
W h a t happens to chocolate w h e n
m a k i n g chocolate crispy c a k e s ? _

6 Changes
W r i t e w h a t is n e e d e d to m a k e t h e c h a n g e o n e a c h line.
Water needs . to become steam.
Steam needs to become water.
Water needs to b e c o m e ice.
Ice n e e d s 1 to become water.

7 Cooking pans
W h a t o r e most cooking pans made of?
Why?
S h o u l d t h e h a n d l e b e m a d e of this t o o ? _
Why or w h y not? ,

8 Keeping warm
Draw a room
in y o u r h o u s e .

N a m e o b j e c t s i n it
which help to keep
you w a r m .

14
133
Ginn Science Ginn &Company 1 9 8 9 , C o p y i n g p e r m i t l e d f o r p u r c h a s i n g s c h o o l o n l y , i h i s m a t e r i a l i s .not c o p y r i g h t free