Children and Youth Services Review 115 (2020) 105092

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Children and Youth Services Review

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Vocational education in Indonesia: History, development, opportunities, and T

challenges
⁎
Suharno , Nugroho Agung Pambudi, Budi Harjanto
Mechanical Engineering Education, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Jl. Ir. Sutami 36A, Surakarta 57126, Indonesia

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study aims at comprehensively describing the ups and downs of vocational education in Indonesia, which
Vocational education includes its history, development, opportunities, and challenges. Researches in this field are rarely conducted,
Indonesia but necessary to be revealed in the midst of the incessant criticism. This study uses a qualitative approach with a
Government policy cross-sectional design. However, due to the complexity of the variables and the difficulty in accessing sources in
History
their original form (primary sources), this study utilizes policy documents and relevant research work. Data
Development
Opportunities
analysis has been added, including: inductive, deductive, and meta-analysis. Data were obtained from principals,
students and teachers of vocational high schools (SMK). Furthermore, purposive sampling was selected to obtain
data, giving a sample population consisting of 44 principals, 152 teachers, and 202 students. Purposive sampling
was chosen due to its in-depth understanding on vocational education. However, not all principals and teachers
in Indonesia are vocational based. Data were obtained from experts in the field of vocational education through
interview, observation, documentation, and questionnaire guidelines compiled and validation. The results
showed that vocational education in Indonesia has been in existence before the country gained independence,
and after reform. However, before independence, the Netherlands organized Vocational Education, known as the
Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB), which is still developing. Vocational education before independence was
divided into 4 areas of expertise, namely feminine, engineering, agriculture and trade schools.
After reform in 1998, the different schools were merged into one, namely vocational school (SMK) having 142
spectrums of skills. Furthermore, the development of vocational education was changed in 2008. The Indonesian
government changed the ratio of senior high schools: vocational schools from 70%: 30% to 30%: 70%. The
establishment of a new school was not balanced with a feasibility study, and this resulted in graduates finding it
difficult to get a job. They learned approaches which tended to be theoretical and less relevant in the labour
market. In addition, 74% of students were bored during learning due to the numerous social lessons. Some of the
challenges faced were the inadequate facilities, teachers and industry support. However, the clear regulation on
the industry's role is one of the important solutions. Strong industry support can be applied and vocational
graduates have the competence in accordance with the needs of the labour market.

1. Introduction results of a comprehensive investigation of the ups and downs of vo-

Historical and conceptual misunderstanding has led to a decrease in
the development of vocational education in Indonesia. History is used
in finding opportunities and challenges (Scott, 1974), while concepts
are used in carrying out innovation and development (Forster et al.,
2017). The high unemployment of vocational school graduates, in-
consistent policies, inadequate teacher competencies, and weak support
are crucial issues that have been criticized (Suharno, 2018), as in-
dustries employing the graduates require not only academic compe-
tencies, but also skills at work (Russell, 2018). This paper reveals the
cational education in Indonesia. This investigation is essential in facil-
itating the policy makers and implementers to have a strong commit-
ment towards innovating and developing this form of education which
requires considerable experience (Watson, 1954).
Vocational education is a form of education that focuses on mas-
tering skills to work. According to Malley and Keating (2000), the
better its implementation, the higher the level of industrial growth in a
country will be. Wardiman (1998) stated that when more of these
schools are established in regions, it gives in a better level of welfare of
the local community. It can be seen from the concept that a country

⁎
Corresponding author at: Head of the Mechanical Engineering Education Study Program, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Jl. Ir. Sutami 36A, Surakarta 57126,
Indonesia.
E-mail address: suharno_ptm@fkip.uns.ac.id (Suharno).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105092
Received 24 January 2020; Received in revised form 6 May 2020; Accepted 13 May 2020
Available online 14 May 2020
0190-7409/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Suharno, et al.
should invest more attention in the improvement of vocational educa-
tion. The nature of this education must be understood by stakeholders.
Many countries have not succeeded in holding this education because
their stakeholders do not understand its concept. In Indonesia, its sta-
keholders do not have the same understanding. The missing link of
organizational structure, learning dominated by theory, and ineffective
planning are problems that contribute to its unsuccessful implementa-
tion. However, the role of vocational higher education has not made
any significant contribution. Its learning curriculum is structured for
academic purposes. Vocational contents have not been entirely lacking,
but they are insufficient. It is essential to note that, academic success for
students includes not only theoretical values but also process, rea-
soning, and skill development (Moira Cachia, Lynam, & Stock, 2018).
The government and higher education also have not provided guidance
to the public about opportunities. In addition, the community does not
have sufficient knowledge, which results in this being perceived as the
second-choice education. These problems are instigated by stake-
holders’ misunderstanding of the concept, history, and development of
vocational education.
The previous study has clearly revealed the conceptualization of
universal vocational education, while vocational education in Indonesia
requires critical thinking contributions. Historical review of the devel-
opment of vocational education and critical findings as suggestions to
the government is important to carry out. This study answers the
question “Does the government use vocational historical records to
develop vocational education in Indonesia? Does the development of
vocational education in Indonesia based on the opportunities and
challenges that exist? Does the Indonesian government involve industry
strictly? The contribution of this research is to provide critical thinking
and propose corrections to Indonesian stakeholders in developing vo-
cational education. Specifically, critical thinking is policy-making for a
less-integrated vocational education. The specific correction is the
learning content that less in links and match with the industrial world.
The government has not had strict regulations related to the role of
industry.
Education is a marketable service like any other (Russell, 2005), and
so marketing in the sector is essential for student recruitment (Ivy,
2001; Maringe & Foskett, 2002). As a result, TVET colleges, who face
the challenges of meeting enrolment targets, need to understand stu-
dents’ attitudes in order to develop effective marketing actions
(Binsardi & Ekwulungo, 2003). A positive perception as regards a col-
lege will help students make an informed decision as to which institu-
tion to choose, i.e. the college they are expect to satisfy their needs.
2. Literature review
History underlies every organization to develop itself (Abdullah &
Surjomihardjo, 1985; Frederick & Soeroto, 1984), as regards its vision.
Vocational education was established against the background of the
industry's need for a professional workforce (Finlay et al., 1999). It was
established with the aim of increasing a country's economic growth
through labour independence (Finlay et al., 1999). Its concept is
therefore, a form of education that prepares participants to be ready to
work (Suharno, 2018). Through the relevant agency, Indonesia devel-
oped this concept. Countries are able to successfully organize voca-
tional education when they are having a proper understanding of its
concept. Cantor (1991) states that vocational education and training
systems are seen to reflect the societies in which they have developed.
In Indonesia, it was established to meet the needs of the workforce in
the Dutch heritage industry (DTVE, 1976).
Linguistically, Vokasi comes from the word Vocation which means
jobs. This meaning can be determined in a professional sense.
Vocational or vocational education comes from English as well,
namely Vocational, with the verb “Juru”. Based on this terminology, it
can be seen that vocation and vocational have the same meaning, which
is an education to produce certain “experts” capable of executing a
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Children and Youth Services Review 115 (2020) 105092
specific work professionally. Conceptually, majority of experts in this
field call it the term Vocational Education. Nevertheless, other terms
used in referring to it include Vocational Education and Training,
Technological and Vocational Education, Technical Education and Training,
etc.
Conceptually, vocational education was defined by Ireland (2008)
as a wide range of courses/skills that help students to prepare for en-
tering employment. In addition, according to Clarke and Winch (2007),
technical and vocational education is confined to preparing young
people and adults for working life, a process that is often regarded as of
a rather technical and practical nature. Byram and Wenrich (1956)
stated that from a school perspective, it teaches people how to work
effectively. Based on the concept, it can be concluded that the estab-
lishment of the vocational education was aimed at preparing students to
be able to handle a particular job. In short, an individual learning how
to work will acquire vocational education, both at the secondary and
polytechnic (post-secondary) level (Djohar, 2007).
Finlay et al. (1999) discovered a number of evidences that show the
relationship between the level of a country's vocational education and
its economic growth. Countries where people have a better level of this
education have been shown to have better economic growth. Therefore,
for this purpose, countries make a hard effort to develop a qualified
vocational education. However, this is not easy to build. The public’s
perception is very entrenched. From a sociological point of view, peo-
ple's perceptions must also be considered. In Indonesia, it is still per-
ceived as a second-class education (Kurniawan, 2016). Perceptions
about an educational institution are influenced by an institutions'
image, branding and reputation, quality of teaching, financial aid and
scholarships, location of institutions, student support facilities, aca-
demic and administrative issues, admission requirements and Quality of
College Life (QCL) (de Jager & du Plooy, 2006; Ivy, 2001; Pillay, 2010;
Russell, 2005; Yu & Lee, 2008).
In Indonesia (Ministry of National Education, 2003), vocational
education is the implementation of formal education carried out at the
secondary level, namely: vocational secondary education named voca-
tional school (SMK), with various programs of expertise such as Me-
chanical, Automotive, Electrical Engineering, etc. This form of educa-
tion is the implementation of formal education held in higher
education, such as: polytechnics, diploma programs, etc. According to
Ministry of National Education and Culture (2016), the model of the
relationship between levels of education in schools and employment in
Indonesia is illustrated in Fig. 1.
Based on Fig. 1, it can be observed that vocational school is at level
2nd and vocational education is at level 3rd to 6th, indicating that
learning outcomes in vocational schools are different from vocational
education (Ministry of National Education and Culture, 2012). Higher
education prepares teachers for vocational schools, and this implies that
it is one of the vocational education entities and occupies a strategic
position (Suharno, 2016).
3. Method
The cross-sectional research design was used to identify key aspects
responsible for the difficulties associated with vocational education in
Indonesia. In addition, this design was chosen based on the number of
variables and data collection techniques, such as history, development,
opportunities, and challenges. The population in this study is principals,
teachers, and vocational students in Indonesia. Purposive sampling was
chosen to obtain valid data. The sample consisted of 44 school princi-
pals, 152 teachers, and 202 vocational students from 4 provinces in
Indonesia. Determination of sampling techniques and regions is based
on the competence and comprehensive understanding of respondents
towards vocational education in Indonesia. Data is collected through
observation, documentation, interviews, and validated questionnaires.
The validation of the observation, documentation and interview in-
struments is carried out with expert judgment. Meanwhile, the
Suharno, et al.
Fig. 1. Employment pyramid and school level education.
questionnaire uses expert judgment and product moment correlational
test statistics. The questionnaire was arranged in two forms, open and
closed. Open questionnaires are useful for expressing the natural opi-
nions of respondents, while closed questionnaires are useful for gen-
eralizing crucial issues that develop. The questionnaires in the form of
Likert scale are used to get answers to some problems in the vocational
education development in Indonesia. Observations were made to de-
termine and document the implementation of vocational education. To
obtain adequate information, interviews were conducted with school
principals, head of the education department, teachers and students.
However, the research variable is very complex, therefore, restriction is
needed. Furthermore, data were historically obtained by using in-depth
interviews, observations, and documentation. Meanwhile the develop-
ment, opportunity and challenge variables use all instruments. The
obtained data were analyzed using the deductive, inductive and meta-
analysis methods. These methods were used to examine various policies
and real practices, therefore the implications can be determined.
4. Results
4.1. History
Historically, the development of vocational education in Indonesia
has experienced both good and bad times. This situation began in pre-
independence times, especially since the launch of the Ethics Politics
(Etische Politic) in 1901 (Kurniawan, 2016). In the era of Dutch colonial
government, vocational education was carried out in a limited manner,
not aiming to educate the community, but to meet the needs of the
colonial government (Scott, 1974). Nevertheless, several vocational
schools which were based on religion and the struggle for independence
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Children and Youth Services Review 115 (2020) 105092
were established. Since the promulgation of ethical politics, the number
of students studying in these schools continued to increase.
The findings of this study revealed that vocational education was
not completely ignored in the Netherlands period. The results of in-
depth interviews with 5 senior school principals stated that the
Netherlands had instilled the importance of life skills through voca-
tional education. Although motivated by the subjective interests of the
European community, the Dutch government has organized vocational
education. The lack of skilled engineers and technicians encouraged the
Dutch government to establish vocational schools in Java Island to-
wards the turn of the 19th century. Several technical schools were es-
tablished during the first two decades of the 20th century. But not until
1919 was a technical high school (Technische Hogeschool) which can
also be referred to as engineering college established in Bandung. This
school is now well-known as Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB).
Indonesian people are allowed to enroll in this vocational higher edu-
cation, but very few are qualified. Moreover, this it has the same re-
quirements as the style of education in the Netherlands (Dutch style).
In the Japanese colonial era, vocational schools were established
having 3 groups, namely: feminine-style schools, technical schools, and
agriculture schools. During this period, vocational education was re-
named the Intermediate Technical School (STM) and this term was used
by the Indonesian government until 1998. In the era of Japanese, this
educational system experienced a period of collapse (Kurniawan,
2016). The system established by the Dutch government was no longer
valid, the teachers were forced to teach using Japanese, and the terms
of vocational/technical were replaced in Japanese language. This si-
tuation resulted in students dropping out, many teachers to be un-
employed, and many schools to be closed (Scott, 1974). The education
system began to be developed by Japan with the Japanese System,
Suharno, et al.
Japanese Language, and Japanese-style educational ethics. During this
period, there was a decrease in vocational education.
After the independence of Indonesia, vocational education was de-
veloped in two stages, namely: independence until the reform era
(1945–1998) and post-reform (1998-present). In the reform era, the
number was limited (Jalal & Supriadi, 2001) due to insufficient re-
sources to provide vocational education. At that time, there were still
many Dutch people living in Indonesia, but they did not want to in-
tervene. Until the reform era, in 1998, this form of education remained
limited in number. The government still focused on developing basic
and general education instead of vocational education due to lack of
human resources mastering the latter. Besides, the industry was yet to
be developed, the budget was still limited, and the industry partners
were not adequate at this time. The current ratio between high edu-
cation and vocational education was 70%: 30%.
Since the reform era, the government has recognized the importance
of vocational education (Finlay et al., 1999) and changed the ratio of
senior high schools (SMA) to vocational schools (SMK) to 30%: 70%.
The Long Term National Education Development Strategic Plan men-
tioned that in 2009, the target ratio for the number of senior high
schools to vocational schools was 60:40, in 2015 amounting to 50:50,
40:60 by 2020, and 30:70 by 2025 (Ministry of National Education,
2005). This program was motivated by the high rate of high school
graduates who did not continue to pursue higher education. Many of
them had the intention of working, but did not have the skills, even at
the basic level. By 2015, the government succeeded in conducting vo-
cational programs, and making them the main pillar of national de-
velopment. New schools were established immediately, and each region
with the authority of regional autonomy had open opportunities to
establish vocational high schools.
In 2018, the target of reversing the ratio shows a positive trend,
with a ratio of senior high schools: vocational high schools of 49.2%:
50.8%. However, the establishment of new school units was not mat-
ched by the availability of infrastructures, teachers and industry sup-
port. Theoretical learning fails to fulfill the needs of the workforce, and
as a result, this education is undergoing a very large intervention in
Indonesia. It is perceived as a second-class school, such as its existence
in a less developed country (Mason, Mbambo, & Pillay, 2018). Ex-
cessive graduates trigger the decline of the quality of vocational edu-
cation in Indonesia. Meanwhile, several countries succeed in holding
this form of education, but they lack labours (Reys-Nickel & Lasonen,
2018).
4.2. Development
Table 1 demonstrates the development of vocational education
since pre-reformation period. It is clear from the table that the devel-
opment is explained in five-year average intervals.
Based on the information in Tables 1 and 2, it can be seen that the
development of vocational education in Indonesia experiences dynamic
ups and downs. The fall in vocational education from 1979 to 1984, was
due to low teacher salaries, poor welfare, facilities, competencies, and
recognition. However, over the years, the Indonesian government has
tried to develop vocational education, by increasing the number of
schools in all regions is real evidence of success. This success was stated
in the strategic planning of the ministry of education which targeted the
ratio of general and vocational education to 30%: 70% as shown in
Table 2 number 3.
4.3. Opportunity
It is evident that Indonesia can prove the practicability of the Finlay
theory. The results proved that cities where vocational school student
population is higher than the population of senior high school have
higher economic development and gross regional domestic product.
Based on the assumption, it is fair that in academic years 2008/2009
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Children and Youth Services Review 115 (2020) 105092
government did not determine the policy of senior high school: voca-
tional school ratio change from 70%:30% to 30%:70% (Ministry of
National Education and Culture, 2016). Initially, the target seemed ir-
rational and fringe. Some arguments including those about the con-
tribution of vocational education on economic development of a nation
arose. However, the results of this research proved that such policy is
rational. Approximately 72% of teachers are optimistic that Indonesia
has the ability to improve the quality of vocational education.
One of the findings of the research which should be of concern is the
survey results of high school students in Indonesia. The results con-
cluded that 83% of vocational school students chose to attend the
school due to their intention to work after graduating, while 64% of
junior high school students chose to attend senior high school because
of their friends. Furthermore, the results indicated that only 27% of
senior high school graduates continued to higher education, while the
rest chose to work without being equipped with any skill. This supports
the arguments of why the government launched the reversal of senior
high school: vocational school ratio. Based on the 2018 data of the
Directorate of Vocational Education, the senior high school: vocational
school ratio reached 49%:51%, and this proves that this form of edu-
cation in Indonesia has an opportunity to be developed.
The induced effect of the program is that local government and
private companies competed to establish vocational schools. Many
properties of these schools can be found. The public interest towards
them is also drastically increasing. On one side, the increase in public
interest indicates the success of the promotion by National Education
Department, while on the other side, the phenomenon shows public
pragmatic tendency to prefer vocational schools. It cannot be separated
from the fact that these schools produce skilled workers and play a
significant role in reducing unemployment. In reference to the data of
Vocational Education Directorate, the absorption of vocational school
graduates in 2016 reached 85% with an average duration of 3 months
of unemployment. This proved vocational education roles in attempting
to improve the economic well-being of the society.
Considering the positive trends, the president issued the policy No.
9 of 2016 (Indrijarso, 2016) as regards the Revitalization of Vocational
Schools, and this policy synergized four ministries to support the re-
vitalization. Since the issuance, these schools have attempted to im-
prove their performance. Also, the government made regulations ben-
efiting the students, as it continues to give special attention to the
graduates of the school. After graduating, they can choose to work,
continue to higher school, or run a business. Senior high school students
are not given the chance to choose.
4.4. Challenges
The challenge is how the government manages vocational schools
and shows concerns to the graduates. This has been a critical question.
At the moment, the government should encounter challenges such as
low quality and relevance of the graduates, as well as unavailability of
productive teachers for these schools. In spite of sufficiently-high rate of
absorption in employment (85%), many industrial circles complain
about the graduates’ unreadiness for work. According to interviews
conducted on 6 different company managers, vocational graduates
currently have skills level below one. This means that their skills are
inadequate. They demand and accept these graduates, but still com-
plain about their incompetence (Russell, 2018). The World Economic
Forum Sweden 2016 mentioned that their current competitiveness in
the global world is of concern (35% at ASEAN level and 10% at global
level) (Schwab, 2016). If the government in collaboration with all
stakeholders does not solve the problem, Indonesian vocational schools
graduates will lose 65% of employment opportunity in the ASEAN
Economic Society Era. Hence, vocational education is currently
growing and developing proudly, but the quality and relevance of the
graduates is still low.
Based on the data, at least 8 key challenges were found:
Suharno, et al. Children and Youth Services Review 115 (2020) 105092

Table 1
The staging and development of vocational education in Indonesia.
No Periods The Focus of Development

1 1967–1974 The implementation of vocational education is directed to prepare to supply human resource needs for national development.
2 1974–1979 Supporting national industrialization program. The development prioritizes attempts to continue development and improvement of technical and vocational
education as well as training facilities to support the economic development.
3 1979–1984 (1) Laying the foundation of industrialization considering that at this time the economy grew up to 7%. The strategy was to construct a curriculum of
vocational education which is linked to, and matches the industry, and as a result, a new curriculum (the 1996/1977 Curriculum) was put together.
Surprisingly, the results were beyond expectations: all graduates were absorbed in the world of work. A tracer study was conducted in cooperation with
industries through a special committee. The length of study of 3 and 4 years was found out.
(2) Improving capacity and quality of vocational school teachers through several programs. At that time, a number of 23,846 teachers were needed, but only
8,961 were available (37%). In fact, 3,785 of them did not meet the competency standards. At present, the teaching career is less interesting. Teachers earn
low salary, making them switch industries. Their career development still emphasizes on the completion of administrative procedures instead of
competencies.
4 1984–1989 (1) Directed to the improvement of relevance of education with the needs of world of business/industries.
(2) Local wisdom-based curriculum organization was developed.
(3) Several challenges in the development of vocational education were found:
– Qualitative matter: the construction of curriculum, the improvement of teacher competencies, etc.
– Quantitative matter: the addition of a number of schools/ school buildings, infrastructures, the appointment of new teachers, etc.
5 1989–1994 (1) The construction of outlook for industrialization
(2) The improvement of world of business/industries
(3) The improvement of cooperation with international institutions.
6 1994–1998 (1) Reviewing the staging of the development of vocational education due to reformation movement.
(2) Government reexamined the implementation of the five-stage-education system. The results were:
– The world of work tended to employ senior high school graduate workers having the same salary as vocational school graduate workers.
– The learning process in vocational school tended to be theoretical and did not match with competencies at work field.
– The curriculum was constructed by teachers and education experts who had no experience in the industry, and tended to be supply-driven and school-based.
– The learning behaviours in schools were perceived as the world of school and were far different from those in the world of industries.
– Internship/practice programs for students, as the core of vocational school, were constructed by schools and the implementation did not involve supervision.
As a result, the program was not related to the field, and the students did not get the benefits.
– The total number of contact hours per week (42 contact hours = 31.5 h @ 60 min) did not guarantee students’ readiness to enter the real world of industries.
(3) In reference to the reexamination, Indonesian government reconstructed an educational system directed to reliable, flexible, adaptive, and anticipative
vocational education.

(1) Uncontrollable vocational school establishment.
Since the implementation of vocational school improvement, most
regions competed to establish them. Unfortunately, it was not ba-
lanced with an in-depth fit test, and as a result, certain major
dominated. For example, the number of vocational schools in
Central Java reaches 1,490 with a total number of 688,784 stu-
dents, but 49.76% of these students major in automotive en-
gineering program. This also occurs in almost all provinces in
Indonesia, resulting in a huge number of graduates not absorbed in
the world of work. On one side, the demand for workers in the
automotive sector has exceeded 729,000 persons. On the other side,
many vacant jobs were left unfilled due to resource scarcity in
sectors such as maritime sector, renewable energy, tourism, and
creative industry.
(2) Teacher availability in number and competence.
Has the establishment of new vocational schools been followed by
the teacher fulfillment? The fact is that up to now, the government
has not made an attempt to nominate teachers in this aspect of
education, especially those who teach in regions. The policy of in-
creasing the number of these schools was not balanced with teacher
availability, both in number and competencies. Moratorium on
teacher nomination in the last several years led to the lack of expert
vocational school teachers. Each year, many teachers retire as the
number of students continues to increase. Such situation is of major
concern since the industry demands high quality for employee
competencies.
(3) The absence of several study programs in higher education.
Many vocational school majors are available, but not higher edu-
cation graduated teachers. A number of majors such as welding
technology, renewable energy engineering, and catcher fleet nau-
tical science have not been available in higher education. Referring
to Letter of Decision of Directorate General of Primary and
Secondary Education No. 8275 of 2016 (Amin, 2016) regarding the
spectrum of these schools; it has been determined that this

Table 2
The staging and development of vocational education in Indonesia after reformation.
No Periods The focus of development

1 After Reformation (after 1998) Government changed the national development system (with exclusion of the five-year plans) and the regional autonomy policy (the
change in autonomy from the central government to local government). The lack of human resources in regions led to less developed
vocational education.
2 1998–2001 The quantitative development of vocational school was stagnant due to the policy of regional autonomy. Each region competed to commit
short-term development, leading to a decrease in vocational education, in terms of both quantity and quality.
3 2008 Government made fundamental change on vocational education system: determining strategic plans to change the ratio of senior high
schools: vocational schools of 70%:30% to 30%:70% and with the aim of achieving it in 2025. The impact of the policy is that the regional
government competed to establish new vocational schools which the students preferred going to.
4 2012 With the slogan of “SMK bisa”, there was an improvement in the readiness of vocational school students, and a number of new vocational
schools were established.
5 2016 Government was serious in developing the sector of vocational education. The President issued Inpres (President Instruction) No. 9 of 2016
regarding revitalization of vocational education.
6 2018 Data of vocational school and the students showed positive trends. In 2018, the ratio of senior high schools: vocational schools was
49.2%:50.8%. Since the Reformation Era, many policies of vocational education development have been made, including that of
curriculum change: Competency-based Curriculum (2004), School-based Curriculum (2006), and the 2013 Curriculum (2013).

5
Suharno, et al.
spectrum comprises of 9 skill-based competencies with 142 spec-
trums of skills. Up to 2018, there have been 80 spectrums of which
teachers’ majors are available in higher education. According to
data collected from Directorate of Vocational Education, the
shortfall in the number of vocational school teachers hits 91,861,
and that of graduates who are yet to be nominated as teachers is
17,246. Hence, the unavailability and incompetence of teachers
have been a serious threat.
(4) Facilities and infrastructures.
Similar with the teacher availability, facilities and infrastructures of
vocational schools are insufficient, both in their quatity and ad-
vancement. Most of these schools, especially those in remote areas,
both in Java and out of Java have insufficient facilities, whereas in
fact heavy equipment and industrial machines are getting sophis-
ticated. Such condition is worsened by the weak competencies of
Indonesia vocational school graduates.
(5) Vocational learning.
Curriculums developed by vocational schools are sometimes not
demand-driven. There is an impression that demand should adapt
to graduates of this school and not vice versa. This clearly contra-
dicts the logic of demand and supply. These schools focus only on
skill-based competencies, whereas the industry has rapidly changed
and developed over time. At present, there has been a gap between
maturity level of graduates and job demands. This situation is also
occur in France about Mismatch of vocational graduates (Béduwéa
& Giret, 2011:78). The rate of graduation from an education unit is
extremely high (almost 100%), but the competencies of the grad-
uates are not in accordance with job demands due to theory-based
learning. Work/project-based learning is yet to be applied in rea-
lity, whereas in fact such method is appropriate for vocational
learning (Heaviside, Manley, & Hudson, 2018).
(6) Cost.
Vocational schools require higher costs than high schools due to
high operational cost (consumables). The government is still yet to
come up with a standard formula in implementing education in
both high school and vocational school. As a result, the budget of
high schools is in excess, unlike that of vocational schools. Optimal
learning is thus implemented, and the competencies of the gradu-
ates are not realized.
(7) Principal’s management.
Prosser and Quigley (1950) mentioned that vocational education
will be effective only if it is properly managed. In fact, a study
conducted by the national education department in 2010 on prin-
cipal management competency proved that 30% of the principals
are competent, while 70% others are not. A principal must properly
construct school planning, but in reality, most of them do not un-
derstand what they are required to do for their school. They lack
vision, planning, etc., and as a result, the school is not significantly
improving. Appropriate planning in procedure will lead to effective
actions (Suharno, 2016).
(8) Involvement of industry.
So far, concepts such as link and match have not been carried out in
integral and comprehensive manners, although they are present as
a slogan. In fact, no industry in Indonesia is ready and willing to
collaborate with vocational schools in consistent and continuous
manners.
5. Discussion
Historically, Vocational Education has been held since the Dutch
Colonial era (Djohan, 1993). Despite its objective aims, the Dutch has
succeeded in educating the Indonesian people about the importance of
life skills through vocational schools (Khurniawan, 2015). The Bandung
Institute of Technology (ITB) is one of the historical institutions still
recognized. During the Dutch era it was called School Technic. There-
fore, curricula that focuses on mastering skills in the Dutch era need to
6
Children and Youth Services Review 115 (2020) 105092
be adopted.
The development stages, shows the challenges associated with vo-
cational education in Indonesia. The increase in this educational
method, started when Japan ruled Indonesia. It rose again at the be-
ginning of independence and experienced a decrease from 1979 to
1984. In early 2008, it resurrected with the formulation of a national
ministry of education strategic plan by increasing the number of vo-
cational schools. The increase in peak was in 2015 when a good number
of students migrated from general to vocational education. However, at
the beginning of 2016, a decline was experienced till 2019 (Ministry of
National Education and Culture, 2016).
Nowadays, it can be concluded that vocational education in
Indonesia experienced an extraordinary setback. The lack of facilities,
teacher competence, and the role of industry become the triggers. Many
observers and researchers have criticized government policies, but have
not received a serious response (Suharno, 2018). Nevertheless, this
study has revealed the optimism of teachers and students, which are
72% believe vocational education in Indonesia will rise again. This
finding is unique and is strong capital as well. Despite many criticisms,
there is still optimism. The government needs to plan development of
vocational education by referring to the history of its development.
The Presidential Instruction No. 9 of 2016 on the Revitalization of
Vocational High Schools is an opportunity for a rise (Khurniawan,
2015). In this instruction, the president has clearly described the duties
and responsibilities of each ministry, institution, and governors. The
problem is that: can related stakeholders execute in a real, transparent,
quick, and integral program? Such instruction proves that the govern-
ment has made serious attempts to clear up and improve the quality of
vocational schools Previously, many people assumed Vocational Edu-
cation was identical with schools for poor and naughty, however, the
government has succeeded in shifting that mindset. Vocational Schools
produce outstanding graduates that are ready to work. Currently, many
junior high school graduates are interested in continuing their studies at
vocational high schools, thereby leaving some schools closed due to
lack of students. This is an extraordinary input, therefore, the govern-
ment need to ensure it is properly managed. Industry leaders need to be
invited to carry out discussions related to this opportunity. A special
institution that handles the role of the industry needs to be formed.
Industrial Revolution Era 4.0 is a real challenge for Vocational
education in Indonesia. The number of unemployed people in Indonesia
is 8.1 million. Meanwhile, unemployment in vocational school gradu-
ates in August 2019 was 10.24% (BPS, 2019). This condition is sus-
pected because vocational school graduates are unable to compete with
foreign workers due to their low skills (Béduwéa & Giret, 2011). The
findings in the field, shows that low skills of vocational graduates is
adequate, because the curriculum contains unnecessary social learning.
In addition, ethical learning and norms need to be achieved by im-
proving the syntax, ethics and morals.
Based on the description above, it is concluded that vocational
education in Indonesia plays a huge impact in educational advance-
ment, however some challenges have not been resolved. Although the
government has conducted programs, such as the establishment of new
Vocational High Schools, link and match-based learning, dual expertise
teacher programs, and industry involvement, the study still experiences
limitations.
The establishment of vocational schools should consider both ben-
efits and drawbacks. The provision of skill-based competencies should
pass through the analysis process of potentials in each region. It is ex-
pected that the skill-based competencies are not overlapping; each
vocational school can focus on its skill-based competencies. This at-
tempts to maintain competent and ready-to-work graduates as well as
reduce unemployment.
One of the causes of weal link and match between vocational
schools and industries is the absence of intensive communication be-
tween both sectors. The schools are not well connected with industrial
development, whereas, the students involved should have adequate
Suharno, et al.
experience to explore their skills in an industry. The learning process
(curriculum) of these schools should be in line with
Education—Educational Personnel Institution (LPTK) to get teachers
having qualifications relevant with vocational programs in these
schools.
The limitation of productive teachers is caused by two matters: (1)
the limitation of government budget for teacher nomination, (2) the
unavailability of teachers for 62 skill-based competencies, some of
which are in fields such as tourism, creative economy, food security,
maritime sector, etc. To cope with the first problem, the government
should maintain budget allocation for important and urgent matters.
And to deal with the second problem, the government recommends that
some universities provide the required study programs. Even, both
government and universities can initiate acceleration programs to fulfill
the demand on teachers. The proposed solutions require time, and the
government needs to consider an alternative, for example, reviving a
mentoring program. Such program is recommended to cope with the
insufficient number of the teachers. This program which involves final
semester students has many strategic benefits: (1) tackling the issue of
insufficient number of teachers, (2) getting teaching experience in the
real world of work, (3) raising love to the homeland, since they are
spread all over regions in Indonesia, (4) actualizing pillars of national
education in terms of quality improvement and distribution of educa-
tion access.
Teacher fulfillment through multiple skill pathways should be re-
examined. The program seems positive, but a serious question comes
up: Can this program solve the issue of lack of teachers, or is it merely a
strategy to fulfill teaching hours for certified adaptive teachers having
less teaching hours? Teacher fulfillment and teaching hour fulfillment
are two different things. The lack of teachers should be resolved either
through rationalization of skill-based competencies in vocational
schools or increasing the number of teachers, while the lack of teaching
hours particularly for certified teachers should be solved with propor-
tional distribution according to their performance. It was observed in
several schools implementing this program that teachers with multiple
skills can only add to the number of teachers, but do not have the re-
quired competencies. The teachers with multiple skills were only given
quick education and skill training. They can teach a course after joining
education and training, and receiving a certificate. This contradicts the
principle of vocational learning that practical work in the schools will
be more effective when taught by teachers with expert skills gained
from continuous trainings.
Industries should be encouraged to be involved in vocational edu-
cation development. There is an impression that industries in Indonesia
only demand for the availability of skilled workers, but do not con-
tribute to making this happen, which is different from practices in de-
veloped countries. Germany, the USA, the UK, Japan, Singapore, and
Scotland are some of the countries which enforce strict sanctions for
companies that do not contribute to vocational schools. The low ab-
sorption of vocational school graduates in industries should be con-
sidered in comprehensive manners so that all parties can give feedback
in this same manner. In recruiting workers, industries consider not only
hard skills but also soft skills.
6. Conclusion
In conclusion, there is a long history associated with vocational
education in Indonesia with various challenges. The Netherlands in-
stilled the pillars of this education in Indonesia during the colonial
period. However, the current conditions experience an alarming de-
crease, with stigma of unemployment and incompetent graduates due
to unplanned development, miss matched learning, and the low role of
industry. Although the government has compiled various programs, it is
yet to address the existing opportunities and challenges. Therefore, high
public optimism and interest need to be used as development capital.
Furthermore, a long-term orientation towards the availability of skilled
7
Children and Youth Services Review 115 (2020) 105092
labor has not been addressed. Therefore, government needs to strictly
regulate the role of industry, like other developed countries through the
formation of a vocational education revitalization team which is fi-
nanced with an adequate budget. Governments, academics, practi-
tioners, and other communities need to conduct discussions on com-
prehensive and effective development plans. A complete understanding
of history, development, opportunities, and challenges helps to de-
termine effective planning, which leads to appropriate actions. This
research, is therefore, unable to determine the role of industry for vo-
cational education in Indonesia.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
Gratitude is expressed to the Ministry of Research, Technology, and
Higher Education for the research funding.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105092.
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