Learning Outcomes: "The Art of Teaching Is The Art of Assisting Discovery." - Mark Van Doren

SC-ENG 1Teaching English in the Elementary Grades (Language Arts)
MODULE 5 – The Approaches for Language Arts Teaching

1st Semester, AY 2020-2021
“The art of teaching is the art of assisting discovery.”

-Mark Van Doren
Learning Outcomes
After studying this module, you should be able to:
1. Provide background information about the different teaching approaches used for
teaching English; and
2. Select approaches that support learner understanding, participation , engagement
and achievement towards promoting literacy skills and English language fluency..
Lesson Proper
The Approaches for Language Arts Teaching
Ever heard the saying, “There’s more than one way to crack an egg”? For the flexible
language teacher, that’s certainly the case. You can deftly weave through the challenges
of teaching like Jackie Chan. You have a blast with any random props that happen to be
in sight, and come up with new ideas at the drop of a hat.
Would you like to be so nimble and flexible that you can surmount any challenge
that comes up in the classroom?
Would you like to be the teacher students turn to when they really want to learn?
You’ll likely notice that the approaches have some interesting relationships with
each other. They overlap, support, complement and even contradict each other.
It’s safe to say that no single approach can answer all of every teacher’s questions,
so it’s in your best interest to be open-minded enough to try all of them and begin to see
which one works best in which situations.
They all do have their own merits and minuses. It’s up to you, the teacher, to use
the proper approach to get the job done given your unique classroom and assortment of
students.
In this module, you will be able to understand the following approaches for language
arts teaching – Communicative, Language Scaffolding, Cooperative Learning,
Situational, Functional-notional, Content-based, and Task-based.
This material has been prepared and communicated to you by or on behalf of

Palawan State University South Campuses for educational purposes only.
DO NOT REPRODUCE OR COMMUNICATE.
Prepared by Jenelle Vera M. Diaz PSU South Campuses | 1 / 16

1. Communicative Approach
What is benefit could it give to your learner if they know all the different ways of
conjugating a verb but fail to communicate a coherent message?
Communication is essentially the rationale for language and the Communicative
Approach seeks to develop those skills that enable students to meaningfully engage with
each other.
Interactive activities are the hallmark of this approach. As the teacher, your
responsibility is to give the students as much opportunity to give and receive meaningful
communication as possible. For example, you can let students introduce themselves,
share their hobbies using the target language. Instead of just presenting the language,
you’re giving them a task that can only be accomplished by using the target language.
The difference between statements shared in a round of show and tell and those
found in textbooks is that the former are much more meaningful to your students. They’re
purposeful and in context—not a list of discordant sentences used to illustrate a rule of
grammar. Authentic materials are used every so often.
A poster touting a concert or a flyer about some huge sale at a mall can be fertile
ground for learning. In the Communicative Approach, students experience the target
language as experienced by native speakers.
The Communicative Approach is based on the idea that learning language

successfully comes through having to communicate real meaning. When learners are
involved in real communication, their natural strategies for language acquisition will be
used, and this will allow them to learn to use the language.
In the classroom
Classroom activities guided by the communicative approach are characterized by
trying to produce meaningful and real communication, at all levels. As a result, there may
be more emphasis on skills than systems, lessons are more learner-centered, and there
may be use of authentic materials.


Principles Related to Communicative Learning Teaching

1. Learner-centered Teaching – as the name implies, the learner is the center of teaching
in contrast to the teacher as center of teaching. Learner-centered teaching makes
use of:
a. techniques that focus on learners’ needs, goals and styles
b. techniques that give some control to the students
c. techniques that allow students’ creativity and innovation
d. techniques that enhance student’s sense of competence self-worth
2. Cooperative Learning – language teaching and learning emphasize collaborative
efforts of students and teacher working together to pursue goals and objectives.
Students work together in pairs or in groups. Teamwork is evident in choice of
techniques and in evaluating progress.
3. Interactive Learning – communication is essentially interactive in nature and so
necessarily, language classes must be highly interactive. Most likely to be found in
interactive language classes are:
a. doing a significant amount of pair work and group work
b. receiving authentic language in real world contexts
c. producing language for genuine, meaningful communication
d. performing classroom tasks that prepare them for actual language use out there
e. practicing oral communication through the give and take and spontaneity of
actual conversations.
f. writing to and for real audiences, not contrived ones.
4. Whole Language Education – this emphasizes:
a. the wholeness of language as opposed to views that fragmented language into
phonemes, graphemes, morphemes, and words;
b. the interaction and interconnections among the macroskills listening, speaking,
reading, and writing; and
c. the importance of the written code as natural and developmental, just like the
oral code.
5. Content-centered Education – content learning is integrated in language teaching. It
is the study of language and subject matter at the same time with the form and
sequence of language presentation depending on content material. This is the
contrast of teaching language skills in isolation from content or subject matter.
6. Task-based Learning – learning is focused on tasks. The learning process is a set of
communicative tasks the completion of which leads to the realization of learning goals
such as communicative competence.


2. Language Scaffolding
Scaffolding theory was first introduced in the late 1950s by Jerome Bruner, a
cognitive psychologist. He used the term to describe young children’s oral language
acquisition. As young children are first learning to speak a language, their parents and
caregivers provide informal frameworks that facilitate the children’s learning.
Teachers and other adults modify their language to match the language level of
students. This type of modification is called “scaffolding”. All students (including adults)
learn better when the teacher scaffolds or adjusts his/her instruction to the level of the
student.
Effective communication occurs when an adult speaks in language a child can
understand yet still challenges learning. The goal is to speak slightly above the child’s level
so he/she can learn and grow. When a deaf student’s language is similar to his/her
classmate’s, the interpreter can relay the teacher’s words and peer interaction without
modifications.
When a student does not have language skills comparable to those of his/her hearing
classmates, an interpreter may need to scaffold or support language learning. It may be
important for the interpreter to modify the teacher’s language to make it more appropriate
for a student with delayed language.
Scaffolding can involve making language and vocabulary simpler. The interpreter
may change a teacher’s long and complicated sentences into simpler, shorter sentences.
The interpreter may add definitions of terms that she/he anticipates might be new or difficult
for the student. She/he may use several words that mean the same thing. Interpreters also
may provide more explanation than the teacher does by providing background information.
Scaffolding techniques when used strategically and correctly does take time, but it
is well worth it! Through scaffolding, English Language Learners are given the
opportunity and the necessary support to acquire language while meeting rigorous
academic standards.
Here are some benefits of scaffolded instruction:
1. Students experience a supportive learning environment
2. Students feel free to ask questions, provide feedback, and support their peers
3. Teachers become facilitators of knowledge rather than content “experts”
4. Students take a more active role in learning
5. Students are able to take ownership of the learning and their classroom as a
community of learners


Two Types of Scaffolds:
1. Verbal Scaffolds
How information is verbally presented or explained to the students during instruction.
Here are ways to provide verbal scaffolds:
 Model the “think-a-loud”
 Slow your speech and enunciate
 Reinforce contextual definitions
 Simplify questions
 Engage in read-alouds in which you model correct pronunciations and prosody
2. Procedural Scaffolds
Tools and resources to support the students as they gain access to the learning. Here
are ways to provide procedural scaffolds:
 Provide explicit modeling through visuals, gestures, and realia
 Allow for visual tools (organizers) as students manipulate information
 Use wait-time when asking questions to give all students an opportunity to
respond
 Provide discussion prompts (sentence frames) to support discussions
 Allow students to collaborate with other students often as they discuss the
learning
3. Cooperative Learning
Cooperative Language Learning (CLL) is part of a more general instructional
approach also known as Collaborative Learning (CL). CLL refers to a variety of teaching
methods in which students work in small groups to help one another and to accomplish
shared learning goals. This means that interaction within one heterogeneous group can
lead to a maximum of language learning, if the students work collaboratively. To do so,
they have to use the second language (L2) and share the idea of achieving a common
goal, which is not on the first side the learning the language, but solving the exercises.
The approaches of these are from the theory of language that is communication as
a primary purpose of language and cooperative nature of language, and the theory of
learning is that learners develop communicative competence and critical thinking
skills.


The goals of CLL in language teaching:

1. To provide opportunities for naturalistic second language acquisition through the use
of interactive pair and group activities.
2. To provide teachers with a methodology to enable them to achieve this goal and one
that can be applied in a variety of curriculum settings (e.g., content-based, foreign
language classrooms).
3. To enable focused attention to particular lexical items, language structures, and
communicative functions through the use of interactive tasks.
4. To provide opportunities for learners to develop successful learning and
communication strategies
5. To enhance learner motivation and reduce learner stress and to create a positive
affective classroom climate.
From the table below, we can easily see understand the characteristics of cooperative language learning.
No Characteristics Cooperative Language Learning
1 Objective To develop critical thinking skills and communicative competence

through socially structured interaction activities
2 Learner roles Active participator, individual needs, and learning centered.
3 Teacher roles Organizer and counselor of group work, facilitator of the communication
tasks, intervener to teach collaborative skills.
4 Materials Materials are arranged according to purpose of lesson. Usually one

group shares a complete set of materials.
5 Syllabus CLL doesn’t assume any particular form of language. It is an alternative

to teacher-fronted teaching.
6 Types of activities
Task, group work and sharing session.
7 Room arrangement Moving to create collaborative small groups.
8 Student
All members in some way contribute to success of group.
expectations
9 Teacher-student
Cooperating and equal.
relationship


There are 5 Key Elements of Successful Group-Based Learning in CL (Olsen and Kagan):
1. Positive interdependence: Group members realize that their success is linked with each
other. It means building a spirit of mutual support within the group.
2. Group formation: Creating positive interdependence by deciding size of the group,
assigning students to groups, and make sure students participate in the group.
3. Individual accountability: The performance of each individual is assessed and the
results are given back to the group and the individual in order to determine who
needs more assistance, support, and encouragement in learning.
4. Social skills: The way students interact with each other as teammates.
5. Structuring and Structures: The ways of organizing student’s interaction. The teachers
can enable student’s different interaction ways in the group.
There are some advantages and disadvantages of cooperative language learning.

Advantages Disadvantages
Comfortable in small groups because If teacher selects group randomly and

students teach one another and explain there is a group with weak students may
material in their own words. not work well together.
Students help each other finish the task. The classroom will be noisy.
Allow teachers to pull individual or group It is difficult for the teacher to be sure that
ability because teacher monitoring them the groups are discussing the academic
during cooperative learning. content rather than something else.
Sharing session makes all students Lesson planning and preparation can take
understand the task. longer.


4. Situational Language Teaching
“When we acquire our primary language, we do so by learning how to behave in

situations, not by learning rules about what to say” (M.A.K. Halliday et al. 1964:179)
HISTORY AND BACKGROUND

 called oral approach.
 British applied situational approach developed by linguists.
 It dated from 1930s to the 1960s and which had an impact on language courses.
Many teachers are still using this approach.
 There are 2 main contents: grammar control and vocabulary control.
GOALS
The situational language teaching focused on the need to practice language in
meaningful situation-based activities.
TEACHER ROLES
The teacher serves as a model (setting up situation) then he becomes like the skillful
conductor.
LEARNER ROLES
In the initial stages, the learner is required simply to listen and repeat what the
teacher says and respond the questions and commands
PRINCIPLES OF SITUATIONAL LANGUAGE TEACHING

1. Language learning is just a habit formation.
2. The mistakes should always be avoided because they create bad habit among
learner.
3. The language skill can be learnt more effectively if they are presented orally first
and after in written form.
4. Similarity is better foundation for language learning than analysis.
5. The meaning of the words can be learnt only in a linguistic and cultural context.


CHARACTERISTICS
1. Begins with the spoken language. Material is taught orally before it is presented in
written form.
2. The target language is the language of the classroom.
3. New language points are introduced and practiced situationally.
4. Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general
service vocabulary is covered.
5. Items of grammar are graded following the principle that simple forms should be
taught before complex ones-inductively.
6. Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis
is established.
ADVANTAGES
1. The subject matter can be explained easily.

2. It helps to introduce the vocabulary including abstract vocabulary by using rear as
well as planned situation.
3. Teaching becomes very effective, interesting and alive instead of a burdensome
process
4. meaning is cleaner and easier to understand, which facilitates the students in
learning the language knowledge by heart.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Teachers found it very difficult to present all the items in appropriate situations,
and this form an extra burden for teachers.
2. A boring teacher who is not sure about what he is teaching.
3. The learner has no control over the contents of the learning. Not account for the
fundamental characteristics of language namely the creativity and uniqueness of
individual sentences.


5. Functional-notional Approach
The Functional-notional Approach recognizes language as purposeful

communication. That is, we talk because we need to communicate something. There’s
purpose and meaning behind the sounds that come out of our mouths.
In essence, we have verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives and so on in order to
express language functions and notions.
When we speak, we do it to inform, persuade, insinuate, agree, question, request,
evaluate and perform other “functions.” We do it to talk about concepts (“notions”) like
time, events, action, place, technology, process, emotion, etc.
So a teacher’s first stop when using this approach is to evaluate how the students
will be using the language.
For example, when teaching very young kids, you might want to teach them
language skills that would help them communicate with mommy and daddy, or with their
friends. So, you can teach them key social phrases like “thank you,” “please” or “may I
borrow.”
You can certainly teach grammar and sentence patterns, but they’re always
subsumed by the purpose for which language is used.


6. Content-based Approach
Content-Based Instruction is an approach to language teaching that focuses

not on the language itself, but rather on what is being taught through the language; that
is, the language becomes the medium through which something new is learned. In the
CBI approach the student learns the TL by using it to learn some other new content. For
example, by studying the French Revolution while using the French language. The
language being learned and used is taught within the context of the content. The theory
behind CBI is that when students are engaged with more content, it will promote intrinsic
motivation. Students will be able to use more advanced thinking skills when learning new
information and will focus less on the structure of the language. This approach is very
student-centered as it depends entirely on the students’ ability to use the language.
How can CBI be used in the language classroom?
It is not enough to simply integrate content into the language classroom, it must be
done effectively. Stoller (2002) lists eight practices that allow for natural content
integration:
1. Extended input, meaningful output, and feedback on language and grasp of content
2. Information gathering, processing, and reporting
3. Integrated skills (using reading, writing, speaking and listening in natural classroom
activities)
4. Task-based activities and project work, enhanced by cooperative learning principles
5. Strategy training (to produce more metacognitively aware strategic learners)
6. Visual support (ie. Images, graphic organizers, language ladders etc.)
7. Contextualized grammar instruction
8. Culminating synthesis activities (knowledge is displayed in writing and orally)


Principles and distinctive characteristics of CBI

1. Base instructional decisions on content rather than language criteria. It is true
that most books for second language instruction are designed by course planners
and material designers, not by language teachers. It is also true that the responsibility
to choose and adapt the material to be used in the classroom falls on the language
instructor, especially when working with CBI. In fact, CBI permits the choice of
content. It is the content itself that determines the pedagogical decisions on selection
and sequencing. With regard to this, Brinton (2003) points out that CBI “allows the
choice of content to dictate or influence the selection and sequencing of language
items”
2. Integrate skills. CBI advocates for an integrated skills approach to language
teaching. For example, a regular lesson may begin with any skill or focus such as
intonation or any other linguistic feature. This approach also involves the teaching of
multiple skills simultaneously, just as in the real world.
3. Involve students actively in all phases of the learning process. One of the main
characteristics of the CBI classroom is that it is learner-centered, not teacher-
centered. Students do not depend on the teacher to control the learning experience.
Students play a more active role in the CBI classroom, creating and participating
actively in the construction of knowledge. Peer correction and peer input are also
significant in this approach.
4. Choose content for its relevance to students’ lives, interests, and/or academic
goals. Content is closely related to the students’ needs and instructional settings. For
instance, in high schools and universities content parallels the several subjects that
learners study. The only difference is that they are taught from a different perspective
and with different instructional objectives.
5. Select authentic texts and tasks. Authenticity is another significant feature of CBI.
Texts and tasks used in CBI come from the real world. It is true that bringing and
using authentic material in the class modifies its original purpose (Hutchinson &
Waters as cited in Brinton, 2003), but it is also true that the use of authentic material
promotes the learning of the culture of the target language.


7. Task-based Approach
Task-based language learning is an approach where the planning of learning materials

and teaching sessions are based around doing a task. In education, a task refers to an
activity where communication is necessary: for example; deciding something, solving a
problem, designing or organizing something, or telling someone to do something.
Task-based learning is the approach that Net Languages applies to most of its material
design. A different approach would be to design a course around a grammar syllabus and
grammar practice activities, like practicing the past simple or conditional sentences,
where the aim of each activity is just to practice one particular aspect of language. To
understand this difference, we can use the analogy of learning to drive. Imagine if you
just study the road rules and the instruction manual for the car. Would you then be able
to drive? What about if you learnt to drive by actually driving? Well, in the same way, task-
based learning is based on the idea that you learn a language by using it, rather than by
studying its different components in isolation.
How does it work?
In a task-based approach, learners learn by doing. Task activities are usually rich in
language, involving a wide variety of language areas, as well as all the skills; reading,
writing, listening and speaking. By definition, a task must involve the processing of
information, and some kind of communication or interaction. And a task can be something
that you do alone, or that you do with someone else or in a group.
What is the aim of a task-based course?
In task-based learning, a lesson or unit is designed to help learners to complete a task:
for example; write a letter, make a reservation, plan a trip, collaborate to design
something, or hold a meeting. In task-based learning the language content is defined, not
by a grammar syllabus, but by what learners need to complete the task. The tasks
themselves can reflect real-life situations, for example in educational or work contexts;
giving an academic presentation, attending an interview or meeting, applying for a job, or
dealing with the public – things that people need to do every day in different fields like
tourism, health services, business and education. Because it is closely linked to learners’
real needs, task-based learning can be highly motivating for learners and extremely
useful.


GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TASK-BASED LEARNING

1. Relevant tasks
Task-based Learning tasks can be categorized by the type of mental processes
used in the activity, such as listing, comparing, problem-solving, creative thinking, and
sharing personal experiences.
2. Tasks are extremely varied, but all share several common features
They must focus on meaning and comprehension, rather than repetition and
recitation. There must be a clearly defined outcome to determine the task’s effectiveness
and the student’s success. For example, the task could be to book a transportation ticket
over the phone. In this case, the outcome would be to successfully book the ticket. There
must be a gap between teacher instruction, student performance, and end analysis.
Lastly, it is highly effective if students are allowed to choose and utilize the resources that
they deem necessary to complete the task.
3. Students learn by interacting
Sitting in a classroom and being lectured at for an hour is not conducive to language
acquisition and production- nor is it good for confidence and a sense of enjoyment! Each
student needs to be engaged and encouraged to participate.
4. Focus on using and eliciting authentic language
So many textbooks and foreign language classes center around memorizing and
mimicking awkward grammar patterns that aren’t typically used in real life situations. The
language that you use with students and that you want to instill in them needs to be
genuine and viable in order for the experience to be effective and useful for them.
5. Errors are a natural part of the learning process
While correcting them is important to a certain degree, you do not want to embarrass
or dissuade students from trying to communicate. Praise students for task successes
instead of picking out each tiny error. Errors can be fixed with time, but confidence can
be shattered in a second.
6. Focus on the process as a whole rather than the end product
Learning is just that: a process. Teachers must provide students with the tools that
they need, give guidance, and encourage students to call upon previous language and
personal experiences. This methodology does not result in a multiple-choice test grade.
Each step of the process is equally important to task triumphs and, eventually, real world
language success.
7. Participation in and completion of tasks is extremely motivational
Tasks address real life needs and allow students to use their bag of language tools
to meet those needs. Additionally, the use of tasks allows variation in the classroom, omits
boredom (if planned properly), and encourages students to use a wide variety of
communication styles and techniques, such as comparing, debating, and persuading.


8. Tasks provide two key processing elements that are necessary for language
learning: input and output
Copying lines and reciting a song or poem are incapable of meeting this criterion in
their very design. Incorporating opportunities for both input and output into every task
enable language learners to practice negotiation, listening and re-defining, rephrasing,
and on-the-spot thinking- all things that occur naturally in our lives on a daily basis.


References
Book
Corpuz B.; G. Salandanan (2014). Principles of teaching 2. Quezon City, Philippines:
Lorimar Publishing.
Electronic References
https://www.fluentu.com/blog/educator/language-teaching-approaches/
https://ontesol.com/communicative-approach/
https://www.whatiselt.com/single-post/2018/08/23/What-is-the-Communicative-Approach
https://www.asian-efl-journal.com/main-editions-new/scaffolding-language-scaffolding-
writinga-genre-approach-to-teaching-narrative-writing/
http://asian-efl-journal.com/June_2008_EBook_editions.pdf
https://www.classroominterpreting.org/Interpreters/children/Interpreting/scaffolding.asp#:~:t
ext=Teachers%20and%20other%20adults%20modify,the%20level%20of%20the%20stude
nt.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0172
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276247788_The_Effectiveness_of_Using_the_Co
operative_Language_Learning_Approach_to_Enhance_EFL_Writing_Skills_among_Saudi_
University_Students
https://putriamilia.wordpress.com/cooperative-language-learning/
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0174
https://ontesol.com/task-based-learning/
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SC-ENG 1Teaching English in the Elementary Grades (Language Arts)

MODULE 5 – The Approaches for Language Arts Teaching

“The art of teaching is the art of assisting discovery.”

This material has been prepared and communicated to you by or on behalf of

Prepared by Jenelle Vera M. Diaz PSU South Campuses | 1 / 16

The Communicative Approach is based on the idea that learning language

This material has been prepared and communicated to you by or on behalf of

Prepared by Jenelle Vera M. Diaz PSU South Campuses | 2 / 16

Principles Related to Communicative Learning Teaching

This material has been prepared and communicated to you by or on behalf of

Prepared by Jenelle Vera M. Diaz PSU South Campuses | 3 / 16

This material has been prepared and communicated to you by or on behalf of

Prepared by Jenelle Vera M. Diaz PSU South Campuses | 4 / 16

Two Types of Scaffolds:

This material has been prepared and communicated to you by or on behalf of

Prepared by Jenelle Vera M. Diaz PSU South Campuses | 5 / 16

The goals of CLL in language teaching:

No Characteristics Cooperative Language Learning

1 Objective To develop critical thinking skills and communicative competence

2 Learner roles Active participator, individual needs, and learning centered.

4 Materials Materials are arranged according to purpose of lesson. Usually one

5 Syllabus CLL doesn’t assume any particular form of language. It is an alternative

7 Room arrangement Moving to create collaborative small groups.

This material has been prepared and communicated to you by or on behalf of

Prepared by Jenelle Vera M. Diaz PSU South Campuses | 6 / 16

There are some advantages and disadvantages of cooperative language learning.

Comfortable in small groups because If teacher selects group randomly and

This material has been prepared and communicated to you by or on behalf of

Prepared by Jenelle Vera M. Diaz PSU South Campuses | 7 / 16

4. Situational Language Teaching

“When we acquire our primary language, we do so by learning how to behave in

HISTORY AND BACKGROUND

PRINCIPLES OF SITUATIONAL LANGUAGE TEACHING

This material has been prepared and communicated to you by or on behalf of

Prepared by Jenelle Vera M. Diaz PSU South Campuses | 8 / 16

1. The subject matter can be explained easily.

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The Functional-notional Approach recognizes language as purposeful

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Content-Based Instruction is an approach to language teaching that focuses

How can CBI be used in the language classroom?

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Prepared by Jenelle Vera M. Diaz PSU South Campuses | 11 / 16

Principles and distinctive characteristics of CBI

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Task-based language learning is an approach where the planning of learning materials

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GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TASK-BASED LEARNING

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Made by Freepik from www.flaticon.com

Retrieved from https://deeperlearning4all.org/

Retrieved from https://www.kissclipart.com/thank-you-and-question-slide-

This material has been prepared and communicated to you by or on behalf of

Prepared by Jenelle Vera M. Diaz PSU South Campuses | 16 / 16

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