3 ASPHALT

Asphalt is one of the two principal Major Topics on this Page

constituents of HMA. Asphalt functions as
an inexpensive (typically, $0.05/lb.), 3.1 Background
waterproof, thermoplastic, viscoelastic 3.2 Refining
adhesive. In other words, it acts as the glue
that holds the road together (Anderson, 3.3 Chemical Properties
Youtcheff and Zupanick, 2000). But just 3.4 Physical Properties
what is asphalt and how is it characterized?
Like many engineering substances, a 3.5 Grading Systems
vernacular definition of "asphalt" is rather 3.6 Asphalt Binder Modifiers
imprecise. For engineering purposes, the
3.7 Other Forms of Asphalt Used in Paving
definition needs to be more unequivocal.
ASTM D 8 provides the following definitions: 3.8 Summary

asphalt A dark brown to black cementitious material in which the

predominating constituents are bitumens, which occur in nature or
are obtained in petroleum processing.

asphalt A fluxed or unfluxed asphalt specially prepared as to quality and

cement consistency for direct use in the manufacture of bituminous
pavements, and having a penetration at 25° C (77° F) of between 5
and 300, under a load of 100 grams applied for 5 seconds.

bitumen A class of black or dark-colored (solid, semi-solid or viscous)

cementitious substances, natural or manufactured, composed
principally of high molecular weight hydrocarbons, of which asphalts,
tars, pitches, and asphaltenes are typical.

flux A bituminous material, generally liquid, used for softening other

bituminous materials.

This section uses the generic term, "asphalt binder", to represent the principal
binding agent in HMA. "Asphalt binder" includes asphalt cement as well as any
material added to modify the original asphalt cement properties. The term "asphalt
cement" is used to represent unmodified asphalt cement only.

3.1 Background
The first recorded use of asphalt by humans was by the Sumerians around 3,000
B.C. Statues from that time period used asphalt as a binding substance for inlaying
various shells, precious stones or pearls. Other common ancient asphalt uses were
preservation (for mummies), waterproofing (pitch on ship hulls), and cementing
(used to join together bricks in Babylonia). Around 1500 A.D., the Incas of Peru
were using a composition similar to modern bituminous macadam to pave parts of
their highway system. In more modern times, asphalt paving use first began with
foot paths in the 1830s and then progressed to actual asphalt roadways in the
1850s. The first asphalt roadways in the U.S. appeared in the early 1870s
(Abraham, 1929).

In the U.S., Trinidad (near the coast of Venezuela) was the earliest source of
asphalt binder. Trinidad supplied about 90 percent of all asphalt (worldwide) from
1875 to 1900 (Baker, 1903). The asphalt was produced from a "lake" (see Figure
3.18) with a surface area of 465,000 m2 (46.5 hectares or 115 acres) and a depth
of about 24 meters (75 feet). In 1900, Tillson estimated that this "lake" contained
about 8,000,000 tonnes of "asphalt" (compare this against 1990 consumption in
Europe and the U.S. of approximately 40,000,000 tonnes (tons)). This asphalt,
once free of water, was too "hard" to use in paving (Krchma and Gagle, 1974). In
fact, Trinidad Lake asphalt, when loaded into a ship’s holds for transport, would
fuse to the point that removal required chopping.

Figure 3.18: Trinidad Lake Asphalt

Typically, producers added flux, created from petroleum distillation, to Trinidad

Lake asphalt to soften it for use in early pavements. It appears that the earliest
use of asphalt binder in the U.S. was about 1874 for a project built in Washington,
D.C. This binder was a combination of Trinidad Lake asphalt and a flux distilled
from crude oil. Without question, these early asphalt binders were quite variable,
making pavement mix and structural design somewhat challenging. By the 1880s,
asphalt binders were regularly produced from crude oil in California and by 1902 in
Texas as well. In 1907, crude oil-based asphalt production surpassed "natural"
asphalt production (Krchma and Gagle, 1974). Today, asphalt binder for HMA
pavements is produced almost entirely from petroleum refining.

This section covers the following topics:

• Asphalt cement refining

• The chemical properties of asphalt binder

 • The physical properties of asphalt binder

• Asphalt binder grading systems

• Asphalt binder modifiers

• Other types of asphalt used in paving

3.2 Refining
In the simplest terms, asphalt binder is simply the residue left over from petroleum
refining. Thus, asphalt binders are produced mainly by petroleum refiners and, to a
lesser extent, by formulators who purchase blending stock from refiners. The
composition of base crude oil from which asphalt is refined can vary widely and
thus the asphalt yield from different crude oil sources can also vary widely.

The American Petroleum Institute (API) classifies crude oils by their API gravity.
API gravity is an arbitrary expression of a material’s density at 15.5° C (60° F) and
is obtained in the following equation:

⎛ 141.5 ⎞
API gravity = ⎜ ⎟ − 131.5
⎜ specific gravity ⎟
⎝ ⎠

API gravity can be used as a rough estimate of asphalt yield with lower API gravity
crude oils producing more asphalt (see Table 3.5). Figure 3.19 shows the
composition of three very different crude oils and their associated API gravities.

Table 3.5: API Gravities of Some Typical Substances

Substance Typical API Gravity

Water 10
Asphalts 5 – 10
Gasoline 55
Low API gravity crude oil < 25 (yields high percentages of asphalt)
High API gravity crude oil > 25 (yields low percentages of asphalt)
 Figure 3.19: Make-up of Crude Oil
(after Corbett, 1984)

3.2.1 Basic Refining Process

Crude oil is heated in a large furnace to about 340° C (650° F) and partially
vaporized. It is then fed into a distillation tower where the lighter components
vaporize and are drawn off for further processing. The residue from this process
(the asphalt) is usually fed into a vacuum distillation unit where heavier gas oils are
drawn off. Asphalt cement grade is controlled by the amount of heavy gas oil
remaining. Other techniques can then extract additional oils from the asphalt.
Depending upon the exact process and the crude oil source, different asphalt
cements of different properties can be produced. Additional desirable properties
can be obtained by blending crude oils before distillation or asphalt cements after
distillation.

Asphalt binder specifications used to be relatively lenient, and gave refiners a high
level of production flexibility. Therefore, refiners tended to view asphalt as a
simple, convenient way to use the residual material from the refinery operation.
Partially as a result of Superpave specifications, asphalt binder specifications are now
more stringent and asphalt refiners increasingly perceive asphalt as a value-added
product. Superpave specifications have also caused many refiners to reevaluate
their commitment to asphalt production; some have made a strategic decision to
de-emphasize or cease asphalt production, though others have renewed their
efforts to produce high-quality binders (Anderson, Youtcheff and Zupanick, 2000).

3.3 Chemical Properties

Asphalt binders can be characterized by their chemical composition although they
rarely are for HMA pavements. However, it is an asphalt binder’s chemical
properties that determine its physical properties. Therefore, a basic understanding
of asphalt chemistry can help one understand how and why asphalt behaves the
way it does. This subsection briefly describes the basic chemical composition of
asphalts and why they behave as they do.

3.3.1 Basic Composition

Asphalt chemistry can be described on the molecular level as well as on the

intermolecular (microstructure) level. On the molecular level, asphalt is a mixture
of complex organic molecules that range in molecular weight from several hundred
to several thousand. Although these molecules exhibit certain behavioral
characteristics, the behavior of asphalt is generally ruled by behavioral
characteristics at the intermolecular level – the asphalt’s microstructure (Robertson
et al., 1991).

The asphalt chemical microstructure model described here is based on SHRP

findings on the microstructure of asphalt using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
and chromatography techniques. The SHRP findings describe asphalt
microstructure as a dispersed polar fluid (DPF). The DPF model explains asphalt
microstructure as a continuous three-dimensional association of polar molecules
(generally referred to as "asphaltenes") dispersed in a fluid of non-polar or
relatively low-polarity molecules (generally referred to as "maltenes") (Little et al.,
1994). All these molecules are capable of forming dipolar intermolecular bonds of
varying strength. Since these intermolecular bonds are weaker than the bonds that
hold the basic organic hydrocarbon constituents of asphalt together, they will break
first and control the behavioral characteristics of asphalt. Therefore, asphalt’s
physical characteristics are a direct result of the forming, breaking and reforming of
these intermolecular bonds or other properties associated with molecular
superstructures (Little et al., 1994).

The result of the above chemistry is a material that behaves (1) elastically through
the effects of the polar molecule networks, and (2) viscously because the various
parts of the polar molecule network can move relative to one another due to their
dispersion in the fluid non-polar molecules.

3.3.2 Asphalt Behavior as a Function of its Chemical

Constituents

Robertson et al. (1991) describe asphalt behavior in terms of its failure

mechanisms. They describe each particular failure mechanism as a function of an
asphalt’s basic molecular or intermolecular chemistry. This section is a summary of
Robertson et al. (1991).
 • Aging. Some aging is reversible, some is not. Irreversible aging is
generally associated with oxidation at the molecular level. This oxidation
increases an asphalt’s viscosity with age up until a point when the asphalt is
able to quench (or halt) oxidation through immobilization of the most
chemically reactive elements. Reversible aging is generally associated with
the effects of molecular organization. Over time, the molecules within
asphalt will slowly reorient themselves into a better packed, more bound
system. This results in a stiffer, more rigid material. This thixotropic aging
can be reversed by heating and agitation.
• Rutting and permanent deformation. If the molecular network is relatively simple
and not interconnected, asphalt will tend to deform inelastically under load
(e.g., not all the deformation is recoverable). Additionally, asphalts with
higher percentages of non-polar dispersing molecules are better able to flow
and plastically deform because the various polar molecule network pieces
can more easily move relative to one another due to the greater percentage
of fluid non-polar molecules.
• Fatigue cracking. If the molecular network becomes too organized and rigid,
asphalt will fracture rather than deform elastically under stress. Therefore,
asphalts with higher percentages of polar, network-forming molecules may
be more susceptible to fatigue cracking.
• Thermal cracking. At lower temperatures even the normally fluid non-polar
molecules begin to organize into a structured form. Combined with the
already-structured polar molecules, this makes asphalt more rigid and likely
to fracture rather than deform elastically under stress.
• Stripping. Asphalt adheres to aggregate because the polar molecules within
the asphalt are attracted to the polar molecules on the aggregate surface.
Certain polar attractions are known to be disrupted by water (itself a polar
molecule). Additionally, the polar molecules within asphalt will vary in their
ability to adhere to any one particular type of aggregate.
• Moisture damage. Since it is a polar molecule, water is readily accepted
by the polar asphalt molecules. Water can cause stripping and/or can
decrease asphalt viscosity. It typically acts like a solvent in asphalt and
results in reduced strength and increased rutting. When taken to the
extreme, this same property can be used to produce asphalt emulsions.
Interestingly, from a chemical point-of-view water should have a greater
effect on older asphalt. Oxidation causes aged (or older) asphalts to contain
more polar molecules. The more polar molecules an asphalt contains, the
more readily it will accept water. However, the oxidation aging effects
probably counteract any moisture-related aging effects.

In summary, asphalt is a complex chemical substance. Although basic chemical

composition is important, it is an asphalt’s chemical microstructure that is most
influential in its physical behavior. Although most basic asphalt binder failure
mechanisms can be described chemically, currently there is not enough asphalt
chemical knowledge to adequately predict performance. Therefore, physical
properties and tests are used.
3.4 Physical Properties
Asphalt binders are most commonly characterized by their physical properties. An
asphalt binder’s physical properties directly describe how it will perform as a
constituent in HMA pavement. The challenge in physical property characterization
is to develop physical tests that can satisfactorily characterize key asphalt binder
parameters and how these parameters change throughout the life of an HMA
pavement.

The earliest physical tests were empirically derived tests. Some of these tests
(such as the penetration test) have been used for the better part of the 20th century
with good results. Later tests (such as the viscosity tests) were first attempts at using
fundamental engineering parameters to describe asphalt binder physical
properties. Ties between tested parameters and field performance were still quite
tenuous. Superpave binder tests, developed in the 1980s and 1990s, were developed
with the goal of measuring specific asphalt binder physical properties that are
directly related to field performance by engineering principles. These tests are
generally a bit more complex but seem to accomplish a more thorough
characterization of the tested asphalt binder.

This subsection, taken largely from Roberts et al. (1996), describes the more
common U.S. asphalt binder physical tests. Asphalt binder tests specifically
developed or adopted by the Superpave research effort are noted by a " – Superpave" in
their title. Sections that discuss Superpave tests also discuss relevant field
performance information as well as the engineering principles used to develop the
relationship between test and field performance.

3.4.1 Durability

Durability is a measure of how asphalt binder physical properties change with age
(sometimes called age hardening). In general, as an asphalt binder ages, its
viscosity increases and it becomes more stiff and brittle. Age hardening is a result
of a number of factors, the principal ones being (Vallerga, Monismith and
Grahthem, 1957 and Finn, 1967 as referenced by Roberts et al., 1996):

• Oxidation. The reaction of oxygen with the asphalt binder.

• Volatilization. The evaporation of the lighter constituents of asphalt
binder. It is primarily a function of temperature and occurs principally
during HMA production.
• Polymerization. The combining of like molecules to form larger
molecules. These larger molecules are thought to cause a progressive
hardening.
• Thixotropy. The property of asphalt binder whereby it "sets" when
unagitated. Thixotropy is thought to result from hydrophilic suspended
particles that form a lattice structure throughout the asphalt binder. This
causes an increase in viscosity and thus, hardening (Exxon, 1997).
Thixotropic effects can be somewhat reversed by heat and agitation. HMA
 pavements with little or no traffic are generally associated with thixotropic
hardening.
• Syneresis. The separation of less viscous liquids from the more viscous
asphalt binder molecular network. The liquid loss hardens the asphalt and is
caused by shrinkage or rearrangement of the asphalt binder structure due to
either physical or chemical changes. Syneresis is a form of bleeding (Exxon,
1997).
• Separation. The removal of the oily constituents, resins or asphaltenes
from the asphalt binder by selective absorption of some porous aggregates.

There is no direct measure for asphalt binder aging. Rather, aging effects are
accounted for by subjecting asphalt binder samples to simulated aging then
conducting other standard physical tests (such as viscosity, dynamic shear rheometer
(DSR), bending beam rheometer (BBR) and the direct tension test (DTT)). Simulating the
effects of aging is important because an asphalt binder that possesses a certain set
of properties in its as-supplied state, may possess a different set of properties after
aging. Asphalt binder aging is usually split up into two categories:

• Short-term aging. This occurs when asphalt binder is mixed with hot
aggregates in an HMA mixing facility.
• Long-term aging. This occurs after HMA pavement construction and is
generally due to environmental exposure and loading.

Typical aging simulation tests are:

• Thin-film oven (TFO) test

• Rolling thin-film oven (RTFO) test
• Pressure aging vessel (PAV)

3.4.1.1 Thin-Film Oven (TFO) Test

The thin-film oven (TFO) test simulates short-term aging by heating a film of
asphalt binder in an oven for 5 hours at 163° C (325° F). The effects of heat and
air are determined from changes incurred in physical properties measured before
and after the oven treatment by other test procedures.

The standard TFO test is:

• AASHTO T 179 and ASTM D 1754: Effects of Heat and Air on Asphalt
Materials (Thin-Film Oven Test)

3.4.1.2 Rolling Thin-Film Oven (RTFO) Test - Superpave

The rolling thin-film oven (RTFO) test (see Figure 3.20) simulates short-term aging
by heating a moving film of asphalt binder in an oven for 85 minutes at 163° C
(325° F). The effects of heat and air are determined from changes incurred in
physical properties measured before and after the oven treatment by other test
procedures. The moving film is created by placing the asphalt binder sample in a
small jar (see Figure 3.21) then placing the jar in a circular metal carriage that
rotates within the oven. The RTFO test is generally considered superior to the TFO
because:

• It achieves the same degree of hardening (aging) in less time (85 minutes
vs. 5 hours)
• It uses a rolling action that:
• Allows continuous exposure of fresh asphalt binder to heat and air
flow
• Allows asphalt binder modifiers, if used, to remain dispersed in the
sample
• Prevents the formation of a surface skin on the sample, which may
inhibit aging

Although it has been in common use by some western states for some time,
Superpave adopted the RTFO test to simulate short-term asphalt binder aging.

Figure 3.21: RTFO Samples

Figure 3.20: Rolling Thin-Film Oven (left - after aging in the RTFO, center
Test - before aging in the RTFO, right -
empty sample jar)

The standard RTFO test is:

• AASHTO T 240 and ASTM D 2872: Effects of Heat and Air on a Moving
Film of Asphalt ( Rolling Thin-Film Oven Test)

3.4.1.3 Pressure Aging Vessel (PAV) – Superpave

The pressure aging vessel (PAV) (see Figure 3.22) was adopted by Superpave to
simulate the effects of long-term asphalt binder aging that occurs as a result of 5 to
10 years HMA pavement service (Bahia and Anderson, 1994). Prior to Superpave,
the general concept of the pressure aging vessel had been used for many years in
rubber product aging. The PAV is an oven-pressure vessel combination that takes
RTFO aged samples (see Figure 3.23) and exposes them to high air pressure (2070
kPa (300 psi)) and temperature (90° C (195° F), 100° C (212° F)° or 110° C (230°
F) depending upon expected climatic conditions) for 20 hours.

Aging the asphalt binder samples under pressure is advantageous because:

• There is a limited loss of volatiles

• The oxidation process can be accelerated without resorting to extremely
high temperatures

The standard PAV test is:

• AASHTO PP1: Practice for Accelerated Aging of Asphalt Binder Using a

Pressurized Aging Vessel

Figure 3.22 (left): Pressure Aging Vessel

Figure 3.23 (above): PAV Sample

3.4.2 Rheology

Rheology is the study of deformation and flow of matter. Deformation and flow of
the asphalt binder in HMA is important in determining HMA pavement
performance. HMA pavements that deform and flow too much may be susceptible
to rutting and bleeding, while those that are too stiff may be susceptible to fatigue or
thermal cracking. HMA pavement deformation is closely related to asphalt binder
rheology. Since the rheological properties of asphalt binder vary with temperature,
rheological characterization involves two key considerations:

• To compare different asphalt binders, their rheological properties must be

measured at some common reference temperature.
• To fully characterize an asphalt binder, its rheological properties must be
examined over the range of temperatures that it may encounter during its
life.

3.4.2.1 Chewing

Originally, the degree of asphalt binder softening was determined by chewing

(Halstead and Welborn, 1974). A sample of asphalt binder was literally chewed to
subjectively determine its softness. This method is no longer in use today for
obvious reasons.

Figure 3.24: Penetration Test

3.4.2.2 Penetration Test

Aside from chewing, the penetration test is the oldest asphalt test. In 1888, H.C.
Bowen of the Barber Asphalt Paving Company invented the forerunner to the
penetration test, the Bowen Penetration Machine (Halstead and Welborn, 1974).
It’s basic principle, and the basic principle of the penetration test, was to determine
the depth to which a truncated No. 2 sewing needle penetrated an asphalt sample
under specified conditions of load, time and temperature. In 1915, ASTM even
went as far as specifying the brand of needle (R.J. Roberts Parabola Sharps No. 2)
(Halstead and Welborn, 1974).
The current penetration test (see Figure 3.24), first published in 1959, describes
the following basic procedure:

• Melt and cool the asphalt binder sample under controlled conditions.
• Measure the penetration of a standard needle into the asphalt binder
sample under the following conditions:
• Load = 100 grams
• Temperature = 25° C (77° F)
• Time = 5 seconds

The depth of penetration is measured in units of 0.1 mm and reported in

penetration units (e.g., if the needle penetrates 8 mm, the asphalt penetration
number is 80). Penetration grading is based on the penetration test.

The standard penetration test is:

• AASHTO T 49 and ASTM D 5: Penetration of Bituminous Materials

3.4.2.3 Softening Point

The softening point is defined as the temperature

at which a bitumen sample can no longer support
the weight of a 3.5-g steel ball. Although it is
commonly used in Europe, it is mostly used for
roofing asphalts in the U.S. Basically, two
horizontal disks of bitumen, cast in shouldered
brass rings (see Figure 3.25), are heated at a
controlled rate in a liquid bath while each
supports a steel ball. The softening point is
reported as the mean of the temperatures at
which the two disks soften enough to allow each
ball, enveloped in bitumen, to fall a distance of
25 mm (1.0 inch) (AASHTO, 2000). Figure 3.25: Softening
Point Sample
The standard softening point test is:

• AASHTO T 53 and ASTM D 36: Softening Point of Bitumen (Ring-and-Ball

Apparatus)

3.4.2.4 Absolute (Dynamic) Viscosity at 60° C (140° F)

Viscosity is simply a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow and is described by the

following equation:
 τ
µ=
γ

where: µ = viscosity (in cgs units of poise). poise = dyne-sec/cm2 = g/cm-sec

(the SI unit of viscosity is the Pa-sec = N-sec/m2 = 10 poise)

τ = shear stress

γ = shear rate

Asphalt binder viscosity is typically measured at 60° C (140° F) because it

approximates the maximum HMA pavement surface temperature during summer in
the U.S.

The basic absolute viscosity test measures the time it takes for a fixed volume of
asphalt binder to be drawn up through a capillary tube by means of vacuum, under
closely controlled conditions of vacuum and temperature (ASTM, 2001). Although
absolute viscosity is an improvement over the penetration test, it still only measures
viscosity at one temperature and thus does not fully characterize an asphalt
binder’s consistency over the expected range of construction and service conditions.

The standard absolute viscosity test is:

• AASHTO T 202 and ASTM D 2171: Viscosity of Asphalts by Vacuum

Capillary Viscometer

3.4.2.5 Kinematic Viscosity at 135° C (275° F)

The kinematic viscosity of a liquid is the absolute (or dynamic) viscosity divided by
the density of the liquid at the temperature of measurement. The 135° C (275° F)
measurement temperature was chosen to simulate the mixing and laydown temperatures
typically encountered in HMA pavement construction.

The basic kinematic viscosity test measures the time it takes for a fixed volume of
asphalt binder to flow through a capillary viscometer under closely controlled
conditions of head and temperature (ASTM, 2001).

The standard kinematic viscosity test is:

• AASHTO T 201 and ASTM D 2170: Kinematic Viscosity of Asphalts

(Bitumens)

3.4.2.6 Ductility Test

The ductility test (see Figure 3.26) measures asphalt binder ductility by stretching a
standard-sized briquette of asphalt binder (see Figure 3.27) to its breaking point.
The stretched distance in centimeters at breaking is then reported as ductility. Like
the penetration test, this test has limited use since it is empirical and conducted at only
one temperature (25° C (77° F)).

Figure 3.26: Ductility Test Figure 3.27: Ductility Samples

The standard ductility test is:

• AASHTO T 51 and ASTM D 113: Ductility of Bituminous Materials

3.4.2.7 Rotational (or Brookfield) Viscometer (RV) –

Superpave

The rotational viscometer (RV) (see Figures 3.28 and 3.29) is used in the Superpave
system to test high temperature viscosities (the test is conducted at 135° C (275°
F)). The basic RV test measures the torque required to maintain a constant
rotational speed (20 RPM) of a cylindrical spindle while submerged in an asphalt
binder at a constant temperature (see Figure 3.30). This torque is then converted
to a viscosity and displayed automatically by the RV.
Figure 3.28: Rotational Figure 3.29: Rotational Figure 3.30: Rotational Viscometer
Viscometer (1) Viscometer (2) Schematic

The RV high-temperature viscosity measurements are meant to simulate binder

workability at mixing and laydown temperatures. Since the goal is to ensure the asphalt
binder is sufficiently fluid for pumping and mixing, Superpave specifies a maximum
RV viscosity. The RV is more suitable than the capillary viscometer (used for
kinematic viscosity) for testing modified asphalt binders because some modified asphalt
binders (such as those containing crumb rubber particles) can clog the capillary
viscometer and cause faulty readings.

The standard rotational (or Brookfield) viscometer test is:

• AASHTO TP 48 and ASTM D 4402: Viscosity Determination of Asphalt

Binder Using Rotational Viscometer

3.4.2.8 Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) – Superpave

The dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) (see Figure 3.31) is used in the Superpave system
for testing medium to high temperature viscosities (the test is conducted between
46° C (115° F) and 82° C (180° F)). The actual temperatures anticipated in the
area where the asphalt binder will be placed determine the test temperatures used.
Figure 3.31: Dynamic Shear
Figure 3.32: Dynamic Shear Rheometer Samples
Rheometer

Figure 3.33: Dynamic Shear Rheometer Schematic

The basic DSR test uses a thin asphalt binder sample (see Figure 3.32) sandwiched
between two plates. The lower plate is fixed while the upper plate oscillates back
and forth across the sample at 1.59 Hz to create a shearing action (see Figure
3.33). These oscillations at 1.59 Hz (10 radians/sec) are meant to simulate the
shearing action corresponding to a traffic speed of about 90 km/hr (55 mph)
(Roberts et al., 1996). The following equations are then used to determine a
complex shearing modulus, G* and a phase angle, δ:

2T θ r τ max
τ max = γ max = G* = δ = time lag
πr 3 h γ max

where: τ max = maximum applied shear stress

T = maximum applied torque

r = radius of binder specimen (either 12.5 or 4 mm)

γ max = maximum resulting shear strain

θ = deflection (rotation) angle

h = specimen height (either 1 or 2 mm)

 G* = complex shear modulus

δ = phase angle. This is the time lag (expressed in radians) between

the maximum applied shear stress and the maximum resulting
shear strain. For a typical neat asphalt (no modifiers) the phase
angle is about 88 - 89°, while some modified binders can have
phase angles as low as 60°.

Asphalt binders in the medium to high temperature range behave partly like an
elastic solid (deformation due to loading is recoverable – it is able to return to its
original shape after a load is removed) and a viscous liquid (deformation due to
loading is non-recoverable – it cannot return to its original shape after a load is
removed). By measuring G* and δ , the DSR is able to determine the total complex
shear modulus as well as its elastic and viscous components (see Figure 3.34).

Figure 3.34: Complex Shear Modulus Components

G* and δ are used as predictors of the following two HMA parameters:

1. Rutting. In order to resist rutting, an asphalt binder should be stiff (not

deform too much) and it should be elastic (it should be able to return to
its original shape after load deformation). Therefore, the complex shear
modulus elastic portion, G*cosδ (see Figure 3.34), should be large.
Therefore, when rutting is of greatest concern (during an HMA
pavement’s early and mid life), Superpave specifies a minimum value for
the elastic component of the complex shear modulus. Intuitively, the
higher the G* value, the stiffer the asphalt binder is (able to resist
deformation), and the lower the δ value, the greater the elastic portion
of G* is (able to recover its original shape after being deformed by a
load).

2. Fatigue. In order to resist fatigue cracking, an asphalt binder should be

elastic (able to dissipate energy by rebounding and not cracking) but not
too stiff (excessively stiff substances will crack rather than deform-then-
rebound). Therefore, the complex shear modulus viscous portion,
G*sinδ (see Figure 3.34), should be small. Therefore, when fatigue
cracking is of greatest concern (late in an HMA pavement’s life),
Superpave specifies a maximum value for the viscous component of the
complex shear modulus. This relationship between G*sinδ and fatigue
cracking is more tenuous than the rutting relationship discussed in #1.

Note that although they appear similar, specifying a large G*cosδ and a small
G*sinδ are not the same. They both involve small phase angles (δ ) but the key is
getting an asphalt binder whose complex shear modulus (G*) is neither too large
nor too small.

The standard dynamic shear rheometer test is:

 • AASHTO TP 5: Determining the Rheological Properties of Asphalt Binder
Using a Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR)

3.4.2.9 Bending Beam Rheometer (BBR) – Superpave

The bending beam rheometer (BBR, see Figure 3.35) is used in the Superpave system
to test asphalt binders at low temperatures where the chief failure mechanism is
thermal cracking. The BBR basically subjects a simple asphalt beam to a small (100-g)
load over 240 seconds (see Figure 3.36). Then, using basic beam theory, the BBR
calculates beam stiffness (S(t)) and the rate of change of that stiffness (m-value)
as the load was applied.

PL3
S (t ) =
4bh 3δ (t )

where: S(t) = creep stiffness at time, t = 60 seconds

P = applied constant load (980 ± 20 mN), obtained

using a 100 g load. Note that 100 g multiplied by
the force of gravity (9.8 m/s2) = 0.98 N, or 980
mN

L = distance between beam supports, 102 mm

b = beam width, 12.5 mm

h = beam thickness, 6.25 mm

δ = deflection at time, t = 60 seconds

(t)

The m-value is simply the rate of change of the stiffness at time, t = 60 seconds
and is used to describe how the asphalt binder relaxes under load.
 Figure 3.35: Bending Beam Rheometer

Figure 3.36: Bending Beam Rheometer Schematic

The BBR test is meant to simulate asphalt binder stiffness after two hours of
loading at the minimum HMA pavement design temperature. Creep stiffness (S(t))
is related to thermal stresses in an HMA pavement due to shrinking while the m-
value is related to the ability of an HMA pavement to relieve these stresses. Thus,
Superpave binder specifications require a maximum limit on creep stiffness
(thermal stress not too great) and a minimum limit on m-value (must have some
minimum ability to relieve thermal stresses without cracking).

The standard bending beam rheometer test is:

• AASHTO TP1: Method for Determining the Flexural Creep Stiffness of

Asphalt Binder Using the Bending Beam Rheometer

3.4.2.10 Direct
Tension Tester
(DTT) – Superpave

The direct tension tester

(DTT) (see Figure 3.37)
is used in the Superpave
system to compliment the
BBR in testing asphalt
binders at low
temperatures. The DTT
is used because creep
stiffness, S(t), as
measured by the BBR is
not sufficient to predict
thermal cracking in some
Figure 3.37: Direct Tension Tester Apparatus
asphalt binders that
exhibit high creep stiffness (> 300 MPa). Recall that a high creep stiffness BBR test
value implies that the asphalt binder will possess high thermal stresses in cold
weather as a result of shrinkage. The assumption is that the asphalt binder will
crack because of these high thermal stresses. However, some asphalt binders
(especially modified asphalt binders) may be able to stretch far enough before breaking
that they can absorb these high thermal stresses without cracking. The DTT
identifies these asphalt binders. The DTT is only used for testing asphalt binders
with a high BBR creep stiffness (300 – 600 MPa); asphalt binders with BBR creep
stiffness values below 300 MPa are assumed satisfactory and the DTT is not
needed.

The DTT basically loads a small sample of asphalt binder in tension until it breaks
(see Figure 3.38). The failure strain is then calculated from the following equation:
where: ε f = failure strain

∆L = change in length corresponding to the specimen’s maximum

loading

Le = effective length

Figure 3.38: Direct Tension Tester Schematic

If a particular asphalt binder has a high BBR creep stiffness (indicating high thermal
stress), it must have a minimum failure strain (indicating it will stretch rather than
crack) to meet Superpave binder specifications.

The standard direct tension tester procedure is:

• AASHTO TP 3: Method for Determining the Fracture Properties of Asphalt

Binder in Direct Tension (DT)

3.4.3 Safety Tests

Asphalt cement like most other materials, volatilizes (gives off vapor) when
heated. At extremely high temperatures (well above those experienced in the
manufacture and construction of HMA) asphalt cement can release enough vapor to
increase the volatile concentration immediately above the asphalt cement to a point
where it will ignite (flash) when exposed to a spark or open flame. This is called
the flash point. For safety reasons, the flash point of asphalt cement is tested and
controlled. The fire point, which occurs after the flash point, is the temperature at
which the material (not just the vapors) will sustain combustion.

A typical flash point test involves heating a small sample of asphalt binder in a test
cup. The temperature of the sample is increased and at specified intervals a test
flame is passed across the cup. The flash point is the lowest liquid temperature at
which application of the test flame causes the vapors of the sample to ignite. The
test can be continued up to the fire point – the point at which the test flame causes
the sample to ignite and remain burning for at least 5 seconds.

Standard flash point tests are:

• AASHTO T 48 and ASTM D 92: Flash and Fire Points by Cleveland Open
Cup (more common for asphalt cement used in HMA)
• AASHTO T 73 and ASTM D 93: Flash-Point by Pensky-Martens Closed Cup
Tester
3.4.4 Purity

Asphalt cement, as used for HMA paving, should consist of almost pure bitumen.
Impurities are not active cementing constituents and may be detrimental to asphalt
cement performance. Mineral impurities can be quantified by dissolving a sample
of asphalt cement in trichloroethylene or 1,1,1 trichloroethane through a filter mat.
Anything remaining on the mat is considered an impurity. Water impurities are
quantified through distillation.

Standard purity tests are:

• AASHTO T 44 and ASTM D 2042: Solubility of Bituminous Materials

• AASHTO T 55 and ASTM D 95: Water in Petroleum Products and
Bituminous Materials by Distillation
• AASHTO T 110 and ASTM D 1461: Moisture or Volatile Distillates in
Bituminous Paving Mixtures

3.4.5 Specific Gravity Test

Because the specific gravity of asphalt binders change with temperature, specific
gravity tests are useful in making volume corrections based on temperature. The
specific gravity at 15.6° C (60° F) is commonly used when buying/selling asphalt
cements. A typical specific gravity for asphalt is around 1.03.

The standard specific gravity test is:

• AASHTO T 228 and ASTM D 70: Specific Gravity and Density of Semi-Solid
Bituminous Materials

3.4.6 Spot Test

The spot test is used to determine whether or not an asphalt cement has been
damaged during processing due to overheating. This damage, called "cracking",
occurs because the actual molecules are thermally broken apart. Cracked asphalt
cements tend to be less ductile and more susceptible to aging effects. Since modern
refining practices rarely cause cracking, the spot test is not often specified.

Basically, the spot test is a form of paper chromatography (a method for analyzing
complex mixtures by separating them into the chemicals from which they are
made). A small drop of prepared asphalt cement is dropped onto a filter paper. If
the spot formed is uniformly brown then the test is negative. If the spot formed is
brown with a black center then the test is positive. Today, the spot test is rarely
used.
The standard spot test is:

• AASHTO T 102: Spot Test of Asphaltic Materials

3.5 Grading Systems

Rather than refer to an extensive list of its physical properties, asphalt binders are
typically categorized by one or more shorthand grading systems. These systems
range from simple (penetration grading) to complex (Superpave performance grading) and
represent an evolution in the ability to characterize asphalt binder. This subsection
briefly describes the major grading systems and discusses what they use to grade
asphalt and how prevalent they are in the U.S. today.

3.5.1 Penetration Grading

The penetration grading system was developed in the early 1900s to characterize
the consistency of semi-solid asphalts. Penetration grading quantifies the following
asphalt concrete characteristics:

• Penetration depth of a 100 g needle 25° C (77° F)

• Flash point temperature
• Ductility at 25° C (77° F)
• Solubility in trichloroethylene
• Thin-film oven test (accounts for the effects of short-term aging)

• Retained penetration

• Ductility at 25° C (77° F)

Penetration grading’s basic assumption is that the less viscous the asphalt, the
deeper the needle will penetrate. This penetration depth is empirically (albeit only
roughly) correlated with asphalt binder performance. Therefore, asphalt binders
with high penetration numbers (called "soft") are used for cold climates while
asphalt binders with low penetration numbers (called "hard") are used for warm
climates. Penetration grading key advantages and disadvantages are listed in Table
3.6.

Table 3.6: Advantages and Disadvantages of the Penetration Grading

(from Roberts et al., 1996)

Advantages Disadvantages

The test is done at 25° C (77° F), The test is empirical and does not
which is reasonably close to a typical measure any fundamental engineering
pavement average temperature. parameter such as viscosity.
 Shear rate is variable and high during
May also provide a better correlation
the test. Since asphalt binders typically
with low-temperature asphalt binder
behave as a non-Newtonian fluid at
properties than the viscosity test,
25° C (77° F), this will affect test
which is performed at 60° C (140° F).
results.

Temperature susceptibility (the

Temperature susceptibility (the change
change in asphalt binder rheology with
in asphalt binder rheology with
temperature) can be determined by
temperature) cannot be determined by
conducting the test at temperatures
a single test at 25° C (77° F).
other than 25° C (77° F).

The test is quick and inexpensive. The test does not provide information
Therefore, it can easily be used in the with which to establish mixing and
field. compaction temperatures.

Penetration grades are listed as a range of penetration units (one penetration unit
= 0.1 mm) such as 120 – 150. Penetration grades specified in AASHTO M 20 and
ASTM D 946 are listed in Table 3.7.

Table 3.7: AASHTO M 20 and ASTM D 946 Penetration Grades

Penetration Grade Comments

40 – 50 Hardest grade.

60 - 70
Typical grades used in the U.S.
85 - 100

120 – 150

Softest grade. Used for cold climates such as

200 – 300
northern Canada (Roberts et al., 1996)

A few states still have provisions for the penetration grading system. These will
most likely disappear as the Superpave PG system becomes more prevalent.

3.5.2 Viscosity Grading

In the early 1960s an improved asphalt grading system was developed that
incorporated a rational scientific viscosity test. This scientific test replaced the
empirical penetration test as the key asphalt binder characterization. Viscosity grading
quantifies the following asphalt binder characteristics:

• Viscosity at 60° C (140° F)

• Viscosity at 135° C (275° F)
• Penetration depth of a 100 g needle applied for 5 seconds at 25° C (77° F)
• Flash point temperature
• Ductility at 25° C (77° F)
• Solubility in trichloroethylene
• Thin film oven test (accounts for the effects of short-term aging):
• Viscosity at 60° C (140° F)
• Ductility at 25° C (77° F)

Viscosity grading can be done on original (as-supplied) asphalt binder samples

(called AC grading) or aged residue samples (called AR grading). The AR viscosity
test is based on the viscosity of aged residue from the rolling thin film oven test. With
AC grading, the asphalt binder is characterized by the properties it possesses
before it undergoes the HMA manufacturing process. The AR grading system is an
attempt to simulate asphalt binder properties after it undergoes a typical HMA
manufacturing process and thus, it should be more representative of how asphalt binder
behaves in HMA pavements. Table 3.8 lists key advantages and disadvantages of
the viscosity grading system.

Table 3.8: Advantages and Disadvantages of Viscosity Grading

(from Roberts et al., 1996)

Advantages Disadvantages

The principal grading (done at 25° C

Unlike penetration depth, viscosity is a (77° F)) may not accurately reflect
fundamental engineering parameter. low-temperature asphalt binder
rheology.

Test temperatures correlate well with:

When using the AC grading system,
• 25° C (77° F) – average thin film oven test residue viscosities
pavement temp. can vary greatly with the same AC
• 60° C (140° F) – high grade. Therefore, although asphalt
pavement temp. binders are of the same AC grade they
• 135° C (275° F) – HMA may behave differently after
mixing temp.
construction.

Temperature susceptibility (the change

in asphalt binder rheology with
temperature) can be somewhat
The testing is more expensive and
determined because viscosity is
takes longer than the penetration test.
measured at three different
temperatures (penetration only is
measured at 25° C (77° F)).
 Testing equipment and standards are
widely available.

Viscosity is measured in poise (cm-g-s = dyne-second/cm2, named after Jean Louis

Marie Poiseuille). The lower the number of poises, the lower the viscosity and thus
the more easily a substance flows. Thus, AC-5 (viscosity is 500 ± 100 poise at 60°
C (140° F)) is less viscous than AC-40 (viscosity is 4000 ± 800 poise at 60° C (140°
F)). Table 3.9 shows standard viscosity grades for the AC and AR grading systems
from AASHTO M 226 and ASTM D 3381. Typical grades used for HMA paving in the
U.S. are AC-10, AC-20, AC-30, AR-4000 and AR 8000.

Table 3.9: AASHTO M 226 and ASTM D 3381 Viscosity Grades

Standard Grading based on Original Asphalt (AC) Grading based on Aged Residue (AR)
AASHTO
AC-2.5 AC-5 AC-10 AC-20 AC-30 AC-40 AR-10 AR-20 AR-40 AR-80 AR-160
M 226
ASTM
AC-2.5 AC-5 AC-10 AC-20 AC-30 AC-40 AR-1000 AR-2000 AR-4000 AR-8000 AR-16000
D 3381

3.5.3 Superpave Performance Grade (PG)

Although in common use throughout the U.S., the previous grading systems are
somewhat limited in their ability to fully characterize asphalt binder for use in HMA
pavement. Therefore, as part of the Superpave research effort new binder tests and
specifications were developed to more accurately and fully characterize asphalt
binders for use in HMA pavements. These tests and specifications are specifically
designed to address HMA pavement performance parameters such as rutting, fatigue
cracking and thermal cracking.

Superpave performance grading (PG) is based on the idea that an HMA asphalt
binder’s properties should be related to the conditions under which it is used. For
asphalt binders, this involves expected climatic conditions as well as aging
considerations. Therefore, the PG system uses a common battery of tests (as the
older penetration and viscosity grading systems do) but specifies that a particular
asphalt binder must pass these tests at specific temperatures that are dependant
upon the specific climatic conditions in the area of use. Therefore, a binder used in
the Sonoran Desert of California/Arizona/Mexico would have different properties
than one used in the Alaskan tundra. This concept is not new – selection of
penetration or viscosity graded asphalt binders follows the same logic – but the
relationships between asphalt binder properties and conditions of use are more
complete and more precise with the Superpave PG system. Information on how to
select a PG asphalt binder for a specific condition is contained in Module 5, Section 5,
Superpave Method. Table 3.10 shows how the Superpave PG system addresses
specific penetration, AC and AR grading system general limitations.
 Table 3.10: Prior Limitations vs. Superpave Testing and Specification
Features
(after Roberts et al., 1996)
Limitations of Penetration, AC and AR
Grading Systems
Penetration and ductility tests are
empirical and not directly related to HMA
pavement performance.
Tests are conducted at one standard
temperature without regard to the climate
in which the asphalt binder will be used.
The range of pavement temperatures at
any one site is not adequately covered. For
example, there is no test method for
asphalt binder stiffness at low
temperatures to control thermal cracking.
Test methods only consider short-term
asphalt binder aging (thin film oven test)
although long-term aging is a significant
factor in fatigue cracking and low temperature
cracking.
Asphalt binders can have significantly
different characteristics within the same
grading category.
Modified asphalt binders are not suited for
these grading systems.
Superpave performance grading uses the following asphalt binder tests:
• Rolling thin film oven (RTFO)
• Pressure aging vessel (PAV)
• Rotational viscometer (RV)
Superpave Binder Testing and
Specification Features that Address
Prior Limitations
The physical properties measured are
directly related to field performance by
engineering principles.
Test criteria remain constant, however, the
temperature at which the criteria must be
met changes in consideration of the binder
grade selected for the prevalent climatic
conditions.
The entire range of pavement
temperatures experienced at a particular
site is covered.
Three critical binder ages are simulated
and tested:
1. Original asphalt binder prior to mixing
with aggregate.
2. Aged asphalt binder after HMA
production and construction.
3. Long-term aged binder.
Grading is more precise and there is less
overlap between grades.
Tests and specifications are intended for
asphalt "binders" to include both modified
and unmodified asphalt cements.
 • Dynamic shear rheometer (DSR)
• Bending beam rheometer (BBR)
• Direct tension tester (DTT)

Superpave performance grading is reported using two numbers – the first being the
average seven-day maximum pavement temperature (°C) and the second being the
minimum pavement design temperature likely to be experienced (°C). Thus, a PG
58-22 is intended for use where the average seven-day maximum pavement
temperature is 58°C and the expected minimum pavement temperature is -22°C.
Notice that these numbers are pavement temperatures and not air temperatures
(these pavement temperatures are estimated from air temperatures using an
algorithm contained in the LTPP Bind program). As a general rule-of-thumb, PG
binders that differ in the high and low temperature specification by 90°C or more
generally require some sort of modification (see Table 3.11).

Table 3.11: Prediction of PG Grades for Different Crude Oil Blends

The standard method for PG asphalt binder grading is:

• AASHTO PP6: Practice for Grading or Verifying the Performance Grade of

an Asphalt Binder

3.6 Asphalt Binder Modifiers

Some asphalt cements require modification in order to meet specifications. Asphalt
cement modification has been practiced for over 50 years but has received added
attention in the past decade or so. The added attention can be attributed to the
following factors (Roberts et al., 1996):

• Increased demand on HMA pavements. Traffic volume, loads and tire

pressures have increased substantially in recent years, which can cause
increased rutting and cracking. Many modifiers can improve the asphalt
binder's stiffness at normal service temperatures to increase rut resistance,
while decreasing its stiffness at low temperatures to improve its resistance
to thermal cracking.
• Superpave asphalt binder specifications. Superpave asphalt binder specifications
developed in the 1990s require asphalt binders to meet stiffness
requirements at both high and low temperatures. In regions with extreme
climatic conditions this is not possible without asphalt binder modification.
• Environmental and economic issues. It is both environmentally and
economically sound to recycle waste and industrial byproducts (such as
tires, roofing shingles, glass and ash) in order to gain added benefit. Thus,
when they can benefit the final product without creating an environmental
liability they are often used as additives in HMA.
• Public agency willingness to fund higher-cost asphalt additives. Modified
asphalt cement is usually higher in initial cost than unmodified asphalt
cement, but it should provide a longer service life with less maintenance.

There are numerous binder additives available on the market today. The benefits
of modified asphalt cement can only be realized by a judicious selection of the
modifier(s); not all modifiers are appropriate for all applications. In general,
asphalt cement should be modified to achieve the following types of improvements
(Roberts et al., 1996):

• Lower stiffness (or viscosity) at the high temperatures associated with

construction. This facilitates pumping of the liquid asphalt binder as well as
mixing and compaction of HMA.
• Higher stiffness at high service temperatures. This will reduce rutting and
shoving.
• Lower stiffness and faster relaxation properties at low service
temperatures. This will reduce thermal cracking.
• Increased adhesion between the asphalt binder and the aggregate in the
presence of moisture. This will reduce the likelihood of stripping. Figure 3.39
shows two aggregate samples from the same source after they have been
coated with asphalt binder. The asphalt binder used with the sample on the
left contain no anti-stripping modifier, which resulted in almost no
aggregate-asphalt binder adhesion. The asphalt binder used with the
sample on the right contains 0.5% (by weight of asphalt binder) of an anti-
stripping modifier, which results in good aggregate-asphalt binder adhesion.
 Figure 3.39: Anti-stripping Modifier Example.

3.7 Other Forms of Asphalt Used in

Paving
Although asphalt cement is probably the most well known type of asphalt, three
other forms of asphalt that are used prominently in the paving industry are
emulsified asphalt, cutback asphalt, and foamed asphalt. These types of asphalt are not used
in HMA pavements but are used extensively in pavement repairs, supporting layer or
subgrade stabilization, bituminous surface treatments (BSTs), slurry seals, tack coats, fog seals, hot in-
place recycling (HIPR), cold in-place recycling (CIR) and full depth recycling (FDR).

3.7.1 Emulsified Asphalts

Emulsified asphalt is simply a suspension of small asphalt cement globules in water,

which is assisted by an emulsifying agent (such as soap). The emulsifying agent
assists by imparting an electrical charge to the surface of the asphalt cement
globules so that they do not coalesce (Roberts et al., 1996). Emulsions are used
because they effectively reduce asphalt viscosity for lower temperature uses (tack
coats, fog seals, slurry seals, bituminous surface treatments (BST), stabilization material).
Emulsions are typically either anionic (asphalt droplets are negatively charged) or
cationic (asphalt particles are positively charged).

Generally, emulsions appear as a thick brown liquid when initially applied (see
Figure 3.40). When the asphalt cement starts to adhere to the surrounding
material (aggregate, existing surface, subgrade, etc.) the color changes from brown
to black (see Figure 3.41) and the emulsion is said to have "broken" (see Figure
3.42). As water begins to evaporate, the emulsion begins to behave more and
more like pure asphalt cement. Once all the water has evaporated, the emulsion is
said to have "set". The time required to break and set depends upon the type of
emulsion, the application rate, the temperature of the surface onto which it is
applied and environmental conditions (TRB, 2000). Under most circumstances, an
emulsion will set in about 1 to 2 hours (TRB, 2000). ASTM D 3628 contains
guidance on selection and use of emulsified asphalt.

Figure 3.40 (upper left): Freshly

Placed Emulsion Tack Coat. The
brown color indicates that it has not
yet broken.

Figure 3.41 (upper right): The Same

Tack Coat After 23 Minutes. The
brown color now appears in
splotches indicating it is beginning
to break.

Figure 3.42 (left): Tack Coat Using

an Asphalt Emulsion. The black
color indicates it has broken.

3.7.2 Cutback Asphalts

A cutback asphalt is simply a combination of asphalt cement and petroleum

solvent. Like emulsions, cutbacks are used because they reduce asphalt viscosity
for lower temperature uses (tack coats, fog seals, slurry seals, stabilization material). Similar
to emulsified asphalts, after a cutback asphalt is applied the petroleum solvent
evaporates leaving behind asphalt cement residue on the surface to which it was
applied. A cutback asphalt is said to "cure" as the petroleum solvent evaporates
away. The use of cutback asphalts is decreasing because of (Roberts et al., 1996):
 • Environmental regulations. Cutback asphalts contain volatile chemicals
that evaporate into the atmosphere. Emulsified asphalts evaporate water
into the atmosphere.
• Loss of high energy products. The petroleum solvents used require higher
amounts of energy to manufacture and are expensive compared to the
water and emulsifying agents used in emulsified asphalts.

In many places, cutback asphalt use is restricted to patching materials for use in
cold weather.

3.7.3 Foamed (Expanded) Asphalt

Foamed asphalt is formed by combining hot asphalt binder with small amounts of
cold water. When the cold water comes in contact with the hot asphalt binder it
turns to steam, which becomes trapped in tiny asphalt binder bubbles (World
Highways, 2001). The result is a thin-film, high volume asphalt foam with
approximately 10 times more coating potential than the asphalt binder in its normal
liquid state (World Highways, 2001). This high volume foam state only lasts for a
few minutes, after which the asphalt binder resumes its original properties.
Foamed asphalt can be used as a binder in soil or base course stabilization, and is
often used as the stabilizing agent in full-depth asphalt reclamation.

3.8 Summary
Humans have used asphalt for thousands of years. In the HMA paving industry,
asphalt functions as an adhesive that holds aggregate together. Currently, HMA
use exceeds 500,000,000 tonnes (tons) per year at a cost of almost $3 billion per
year (Anderson, Youtcheff and Zupanick, 2000). Although natural sources still
exist, today’s asphalt is almost entirely produced from petroleum refining. Asphalt
cement can also be modified using certain chemical and organic products to alter its
behavior. Modern asphalt binder produced using the PG system is often modified.

Asphalt binders can be characterized by chemical and physical properties.

Chemically, asphalt is a mixture of polar and non-polar complex organic molecules.
The microstructure of these molecules tends to govern asphalt’s physical behavior.
Since chemical knowledge and testing is limited, asphalt is most commonly
described by its physical attributes. Over the years many tests have been
developed to fully characterize asphalt’s physical attributes. To date, these tests
have reached an apogee with the Superpave binder tests. Superpave tests
measure specific asphalt binder physical properties that are directly related to field
performance by engineering principles. Thus, theoretically they offer the best and
most complete asphalt binder characterization. They are also the most complex
and the most expensive.
Using the tests discussed in this section, asphalt binders are classified for use
(graded) based on their physical properties as measured through testing. The most
common asphalt binder classifications are: penetration grade, viscosity grade and
performance grade (from Superpave). These asphalt grades are what is generally
specified in HMA mix design.

Although this section has concentrated on asphalt binder characterizations and

tests associated with HMA, asphalt binder is also used in other road-related
products: emulsions, cutbacks and foamed asphalt. These products are often used
in an HMA pavement's supporting layers as well as by themselves for low-volume
roads.

Of all the HMA pavement constituents, we have the most control over the asphalt
binder. Generally, roads will be built where they can or need to be regardless of
the subgrade, and aggregate is usually taken from the closest source as long as it
meets minimum standards. However, we generally specify asphalt binder
characteristics for each and every HMA pavement. This is reflected in the
substantial level of effort put forth to accurately characterize asphalt binder.