ASPHALT

Asphalt – is a bituminous derivative of petroleum occurring as an industrial residue or naturally,

and containing varying properties of other organic and mineral materials, used principally for surfacing
roads.
As defined by specifications, Asphalt is a dark brown to black, highly cementitious material, solid
or semi-solid in consistency, in which the predominating constituents are bitumens which are found in
nature as a residue of petroleum refining.

Two Types of Asphalt /bitumen commonly used in Bituminous Concrete Surface Courses

1. Tar - a viscous liquid obtained from the distillation of coal and wood
2. Petroleum asphalts – are products of the distillation of crude oil. There are three major petroleum
asphalt products, namely

a) Asphalt Cements – as commercially produced is a highly viscous semisolid materials

available in several ranges of consistency or viscosity grades, the most common being
penetration grades 200/300 (softer), 120/150, 85/100, 60/70 and 40/50 (harder). Asphalt
exhibits thermoplastic properties; that is, it becomes less viscous when heated and returns
to a near solid state on cooling. An important use of asphalt cement is as a binder in hot
mix paving mixtures.

b) Liquid asphalt – It is a term applied to the asphaltic materials that behave essentially as
liquids at normal atmospheric temperature. The liquid state under these conditions may
be obtained by (1) selecting an asphaltic residue from the fractionating process that
already contains a suitable amount of a fluxing oil, (2) blending asphalt cement with a
petroleum distillate to make “cutbacks” or (3) emulsifying asphalt cement (or a heavier
cutback) and water.

Cutback asphalts are made by mixing asphalt cement of suitable composition with
one of the lighter fractions from the distillation process. It is mixed with solvents to
reduce their viscosity and make them easier to use at ordinary temperature. They may be

b.1 rapid curing – asphalt + gasoline

b.2 medium curing – asphalt + kerosene
 b.3 slow curing – asphalt + diesel oil

When the cutback asphalt is exposed to the atmosphere, the solvent evaporates
leaving the relatively hard asphalt cement. This is called “curing”.

Emulsified asphalt is one in which an asphalt cement has been emulsified in water
with the aid of a small amount of an emulsifying agent. Normally, water is the continuous
phase of the system, and the discontinuous or dispersed phase consists of very small
asphalt globules. The globules may be cationic emulsions (positively charged), anionic
emulsions (negatively charged) or nonionic. Three general types of asphalt emulsions are
commercially available, designated as rapid setting, medium setting, and slow setting.
Setting occurs when the water evaporates (or the charge on the surface of the globules is
neutralized) and the asphalt globules coalesce to form continuous films of asphalt
cement.

Uses of cutback/emulsified asphalt:

- binders in mixtures for surface treatments
- and for patching

c) Air-blown (also known as blown or oxidized) asphalt is prepared by blowing air through an
asphaltic residue while the residue is heated in a still. Such treatment gives the resulting materials
a higher softening temperature than asphalt cements have – a property that is desirable for various
industrial applications. Made in several grades, and used in roofing, coatings, and as linings of
canals and reservoirs; they are also used for undersealing portland cement concrete pavements.

Two main components of asphalts:

1. asphaltene – gives the color (dark brown to black) and hardness to asphalt
2. Maltene – which in turn is composed of
c) resin – which provides stickiness (adhesiveness)
d) oil – influences the viscosity of asphalt and impart softness

Chemical Property of Asphalt

Basically, asphalt is composed of various hydrocarbons, and traces of sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen
and other elements.

ASPHALT PROPERTIES AND TESTS

Several properties and tests under the following headings:

1. Physical properties
2. Composition
3. Consistency
4. Stability (of emulsions)
5. Ductility

Physical Characteristics of Asphalt

1. Density (ASTM D 70 or D 2170) or the relative density (still sometimes called “specific
gravity”) of asphalts is usually determined by the pychnometer method. Density values are
needed for making various mass-volume calculations in connection with the conduct of certain
 other asphalt tests and the proportioning of asphaltic mixtures. Also, since the densities of
asphaltic materials vary appreciably with temperature, the mass-volume relations at various
temperatures are useful in connection with shipping and purchasing.

2. Flash point – measures the possibility of the sample to form a flammable mixture with air under
controlled laboratory conditions. It indicates the temperature in which the asphalt may be heated
without danger of its catching fire. This is done by heating a specimen in a brass cup and playing
a small flame over its surface, until sufficient vapors are released to produce a sudden flash.

a) Cleveland open cup (COC) test (ASTM D 92) – is used for asphalt cements and slow-
curing cutback asphalts.
b) Tag open cup (TOC) test (ASTM D 1310) – indirect heating is used for faster-curing
cutback asphalts.
3. Spot Test – this test is applied only to asphaltic products derived from petroleum and not
applicable to natural asphalts containing non-bituminous material soluble in xylene. It will
determine whether the asphalt is properly prepared or overheated during production.

Composition of Asphalt

1. Solubility Test (ASTM D 2042) – determines the total amount of bitumen present in the mixture,
where the portion of asphalt that is soluble in petroleum solvent ( trichloroethylene ) represents
the active cementing constituents. In this test the insoluble residue is collected by filtering. The
test may be applied directly to asphalt cements, or to the asphalt cement portion remaining after
distilling off the diluents from cutbacks or evaporating the water from emulsified asphalts.

2. Distillation (ASTM D 402) – used to separate the asphaltic and the liquefying constituents and
thus determine their relative amounts. The relative amount of solvent that distills out at various
temperatures gives a measure of the volatility of the evaporable fraction, and it is considered a
rough indication of the curing characteristics of the material in the field. In the distillation tests,
the residue that remains in the flask at a temperature of 360 oC is considered to be asphalt cement.
The residue is then subject to solubility, penetration and ductility test.

3. Water-in-asphalt test (ASTM D 95) – to determine presence of more than some critical amount of
water in asphalt cement or cutback asphalts which may cause foaming above 100 oC (the boiling
of water) – a hazardous condition.

4. Particle charge test (ASTM D 244 ) – to determine whether or not an asphalt emulsion is of the
cationic type. Positive and negative electrodes are immersed in a sample of the emulsion and a
direct current is applied to them. If, at the end of a specified period, the cathode has accumulated
an appreciable layer of asphalt, the sample is a cationic emulsion.

Consistency

The concept of consistency has to do with the degree of resistance to continuing and/or
permanent deformation. Viscosity in its scientific sense is a basic expression of consistency. But because
of practical difficulties in measuring viscosity of asphalts in a near-solid state, arbitrary measures of
behavior, such as resistance to penetration or extrusion, were devised and used for special purposes.

1. Penetration test (ASTM D 5 ) – to determine the relative hardness and measure of consistency
and as basis in the classification of all solid and semi-solid asphalt. In this test, a needle of
prescribed dimensions weighted with a specified mass is brought into contact with a semisolid
 asphalt sample and allowed to settle for a prescribed duration. Penetration is measured in units of
0.1 mm; the lower the penetration value, the harder the asphalt.

2. Softening point (ASTM D 2398 and D 36) – used in asphalts harder than those used for paving .
Samples of asphalt are loaded with a steel ball and supported by a confining brass ring. This
assembly is suspended in water, which is gradually heated. When the softened asphalt and the
ball strike a plate suspended a certain distance (25mm) below the ring, the temperature of the bath
is measured and designated the “ring and ball” softening point of the asphalt.

3. Viscosity test – measures the resistance of a liquid or viscous substance to flow, may be
expressed as dynamic (absolute) viscosity or as kinematic (relative) viscosity. Fluids of stiffer
consistency require either higher pressure or more time to achieve a given flow, and dynamic
viscocity is dimensionally expressed as a product of pressure and time. Under certain condition of
gravitational flow it is convenient to divide this value by the density of the fluid; the resulting
ratio is known as the kinematic viscocity, which is dimensionally equal to length squared per unit
of time. The dynamic test (ASTM D 2171) for asphalt cements and cutback asphalts is conducted
at a temperature of 60 oC, which is about the maximum to which asphalt pavements are normally
subjected. The test uses capillary tube viscometer. A kinematic viscosity test (ASTM D 2170) is
performed at 135 oC, a normal temperature for mixing and laying hot mixtures for pavements.
In order to assess the effect on consistency of hardening conditions such as may exist in hot mix
plants, the procedures below are sometimes followed.

A) Thin film oven test (ASTM 1754) – a 50cm 3 sample of asphalt cement is placed on a flat
dish 140 mm in diameter, then put on a rotating shelf in an oven and kept at 163 oC for
five hours.
B) Loss on heating test (ASTM D 2872 – similar to the thin film oven test, differing mainly
in the specimen dimensions, and is used for blown asphalt for a similar purpose. This test
determine the loss in mass (exclusive of water) of oil and asphaltic compounds (volatiles)
when heated and the change in penetration caused by excessive heating.

Stability

Since the emulsified asphalts are suspensions of asphalt globules in water, the emulsions may
have a tendency to separate or break down, owing to a variety of causes. Instability may take place in
storage or in mixing.

1. Settlement test determines the tendency of asphalt globules to settle

2. Sieve test detects the presence of undesirably large globules
3. Demulsibility and cement mixing test indicate the rate at which the colloidal asphalt particles
will coalesce, that is, break, when the emulsified asphalts are spread in thin films over
aggregate.

Ductility

The ability of asphaltic mixtures in a layered pavement system to undergo flexure without
cracking is an important quality. Ductility test (ASTM D113) is made by subjecting a standardized
briquet molded under stated conditions to a kind of horizontal tension test, at a specified strain rate and
temperature ( usually 25 oC). The total elongation to the breaking point, in cm, is reported.

Composition of Bituminous Mix

 1. Asphalt – 5 – 8 % of the mix
2. Aggregates – 92-95% of the mix.
Classification according to source
a.) Pit-run or bank run aggregates include sands and gravels found in natural deposits.
b.) Processed aggregates are made by crushing natural rock or gravel, they are more angular
in shape and usually have rougher particle surfaces than the more-rounded natural sands
and gravels
c.) Synthetic and artificial aggregates includes slags, mine tailing, cinders and fused clays.
Classification according to size
d.) coarse aggregates (CA) - aggregates retained at NO 8 (2.36 mm) sieve
e.) fine aggregates (FA) – aggregates passing sieve no 8 and retained in sieve no. 200 (0.075
mm)
f.) mineral filler (MF) – material passing sieve no. 200
3. Additives shall consist not more than 2%.
Note: The exact percentage to be used is established by your Job-Mix Formula.
Bituminous Mix composes the asphaltic materials, aggregates and additives
Bituminous materials refers to the bitumen or asphaltic materials only

Characteristics of Aggregates

1. Density, moisture content and absorption, void content – select aggregates that do not absorb too
much water
2. Size and gradation of particles – aggregates should meet the grading specifications
3. Particle shape, surface texture, and surface area
4. Toughness and abrasion resistance
5. Soundness – select aggregates that could withstand the changing weather conditions
6. Cleanness– aggregates should be cleaned/washed so that they can be thoroughly coated with
asphalt
7. Mineral composition and surface chemistry

Properties of the Bituminous Mix

1. Stability – the resistance to displacement of compacted bituminous mixture caused by stationary

or moving loads
2. Durability – the resistance to disintegration due to the detrimental effects of traffic
3. Flexibility – the ability of the pavement to bend repeatedly without cracking and to conform to
gradual settlements and movements of the underlying base
4. Skid resistance – resistance offered by the pavement to slipping or skidding of vehicle tires (50%
of aggregates is crushed)
5. Fatigue resistance – ability of the pavement to withstand repeated flexing caused by the passage
of wheel loads
6. Workability – the ease by which a material can be placed to its desired uniformity and compacted
to the required density

Factors Which Affect the Stability of Bituminous Mix

1. Gradation of aggregates
2. Shape and surface texture of aggregates
3. Hardness of aggregates ( Abrasion Test)
4. Quantity of Asphalt (5-8%)
 5. Degree of compaction (Marshall Stability Test)

Factors Which Affect the Durability of Bituminous Mix

1. Density of compacted pavement – should be 97% of the laboratory compaction

2. Properties of the aggregates – hardness, shape and texture, cleanliness of aggregates
3. Quality of asphalt

Factors Which Affect the Flexibility

1. Quality of asphalt
2. Quantity of mineral filler

Factors Affecting Workability

1. Gradation of aggregates
2. Consistency of asphalt
3. Temperature of Mix 107 oC min

Quality Control Measures in Asphalt Pavement Construction:

1. Selection of Materials
- It is important that only those of satisfactory quality are used, as the quality of the
mix is greatly dependent on the properties of its individual composition.
- Aggregates should be of the highest quality available as they constitute about 95% of
the bituminous mix. They should be hard, durable and not water-preferential.
- If necessary, an additive should be used for better bonding between the aggregates
and the asphalt.
- Crushed aggregates are better than rounded aggregates.
- Bituminous material should satisfactorily pass specification requirements prior to
incorporation in the design.

2. Design of Bituminous Mixture

- The proportioning of aggregates and asphalt should be based on laboratory trial
mixes.
- A job-mix formula should be set and strictly followed in all batches of bituminous
mix.
- The formula should include provision on: grading of aggregates, percentage of
asphalt, temperature of aggregates and asphalt, temperature of asphalt mix at the time
of compaction.
- The asphalt supplier or the contractor shall submit the job-mix formula in writing
three (3) weeks prior to production for the approval of the project engineer or the
materials engineer.
- The job-mix formula is the primary quality control mechanism for the production of
asphalt mixes, which shall conform with the following ranges of tolerances
Passing No. 4 (4.75mm) and larger sieve +7%
Passing No. 8 (2.36mm) to No. 100 (0.15mm) sieves +2%
Bituminous Material +0.45
Temperature of Mixture +10oC
- The mixture shall have a minimum dry compressive strength of 1.4 MPa (200 psi).
- The mixture shall have and index of retained strength of not less than 70
 - The marshall stability method is the most commonly used method in the design and
evaluation of bituminous mixes.

3. Aggregate Production Control

- periodic checking of weighing scales and volume controls
- Constant checking on the gradation and cleanliness of the aggregates.

4. Asphalt Mix Production Control

- The measuring scales should be checked and calibrated periodically.
- Constant checking of the proportion of asphalt to aggregates.
- Checking of temperature of the mixture for compliance with the job-mix formula.
- Checking on the stability of the mix, as often as required and whenever there is any
noticeable variation in the mixture.

5. Sampling and Testing of the Mixture

- The asphalt batching plant shall be equipped with necessary testing equipment and
manned by a competent engineer/technician to perform the necessary control tests.
- At least one (1), but not more than three (3), core samples shall be taken for each full
day’s operation. These samples shall be subjected to bulk specific gravity tests to
determine the degree of compaction of the bituminous mix in-place.
- Samples should also be taken for extraction, grading and immersion-compression
tests.

6. Construction Control
- Asphalt work should be done only in fair and sunny weather.
- Asphalt mix should be spread uniformly on a dry base which has been applied with
prime or tack coat. It should not be spread on a damp base or directly on standing
water.
- At the time of compaction, the temperature of the mixture should be in accordance
with the job-mix formula.
- The control of the temperatures during mixing and compaction is of great
significance in the strength of the resulting pavement.
- In asphalt construction, there are three (3) phases of rolling:
Breakdown Rolling – done by a pneumatic-tired roller, initially compacts the
asphalt pavement to the required density.
Intermediate Rolling – for the purpose of eliminating roller marks.
Final Rolling – is done by a tandem smooth-wheeled roller, not less than 10
Tons.
- The speed of the roller shall not exceed 5 kph.
- After final rolling, the degree of compaction should be checked. The compacted
pavement shall have a density equal to, or greater than 97% of the laboratory
compacted density.
- No traffic shall be allowed on the finished pavement until after it has cooled to
atmospheric temperature.

7. Foundation Control
The stability of any engineering structure is strongly dependent on its foundation. In an
asphalt pavement whose thickness is relatively thin, (usually 4-6”), its strength is
primarily dependent on foundation, therefore, it is important that the base and/or subbase
should not have only sufficient thickness but should also be properly constructed to attain
high stability.
 8. Drainage Control
Drainage is more critical in asphalt pavement than in Portland cement concrete pavement.
An asphalt mixture which has been submerged in water, although compacted to the
required degree of compaction can lose 50 to 75% of its dry strength. An asphalt mixture
in order to be acceptable should not lose more than 25% of its dry strength when
subjected to the standard immersion-compression test.
- Surface drainage system is important to prevent intrusion of water into the pavement
since water softens the base/subbase course including the subgrade.
- The underground surface drainage system is likewise important to prevent the
intrusion of water from outside the road.
- Slope drainage system should also be provided to protect the slope from erosion.
- Periodic inspection of drainage facilities is necessary in order to monitor and
maintain the existing drainage facilities.

Some indications in hot asphalt mixes that may require investigation and corrective action:

1. Blue smoke – very hot, overheated. Thermometer should be inserted at least 6” below the surface
2. Stiff appearance – cold mixture, below heating temperature.
3. Mix slumped in truck – mix contains too much asphalt
4. Lean, dull appearance – mix has insufficient asphalt
5. Rising steam – excess moisture of mix
6. Segragation – improper handling

Common distresses in asphalt concrete pavements, their possible causes and corresponding
corrective measures:

1. Potholes – Weakness in the pavement resulting from too little asphalt, too thin asphalt surface,
failure of the base, or poor drainage. Temporary repair through filling with a pre-mixed asphalt
patching material. Permanent repair through filling with new base and surface material.

2. Alligator cracking – excessive deflection of the surface over unstable subgrade or lower courses
of the pavement and repeated loads that exceed the load carrying capacity of the pavement. In
case of saturated bases or subgrade, remove the wet material and install needed drainage.
Temporary repair can be made by applying aggregate seal coat to the affected area. In case of
cracking from overloading, a properly designed overlay will correct the condition.
3. Raveling (scaling of surface, exposure of aggregates) – insufficient compaction, construction of a
thin lift during cold weather, dirty or disintegrating aggregate, too little asphalt in the mix, or
overheating of the asphalt mix. Surface treatment such as seal coating, surface dressing and thin
overlaying.

4. Corrugation and shoving (tiremarks visible in pavement) – Lack of stability of asphalt layers
caused by too rich asphalt mix, too high proportion of fine aggregate, too round or too smooth
texture of fine and coarse aggregate, too soft asphalt cement, excessive moisture, contamination
due to oil spillage, or lack of aeration during placing of mixes using emulsified or cutback
asphalts. If the corrugation has an aggregate base with a thin surface treatment, scarify the surface
then mix it with the base and recompact the mixture before resurfacing. If the pavement has more
than 2” of asphalt surfacing and base, remove the shallow corrugations by pavement planning
machining, then overlay with a seal coat or plant-mixed surface treatment. Shoved areas must be
removed and patched.

5. Rutting (longitudinal depression of surface) – consolidation or lateral movements under traffic in

one or more of the underlying courses or displacement in asphalt layer itself. Level the pavement
by filling the channels with hot plant-mixed asphalt material. Follow with a thin asphalt plant-mix
overlay.
6. Bleeding – improperly constructed seal coat, too rich mix, and/or too heavy a prime or tack coat,
high asphalt content. When bleeding is light, a plant-mixed surface treatment or an aggregate seal
coat, using absorptive aggregate, is the only treatment needed. Heavily over-asphalted surfaces
should be removed and replaced.

7. Reflection cracking – vertical or horizontal movements in the pavement beneath the overlay,
brought about by expansion and contraction with temperature or moisture changes, loss of
moisture in subgrades of high clay contents. Medium-sized cracks are cleaned, sealant applied,
from the bottom up and the sealant material sprinkled with clay sand to prevent pick-up by traffic.
Large cracks (more than ¾” wide) are filled with an asphalt emulsion slurry or fine hot plant mix
prior to asphalt overlay or surface treatment.