Chapter 8 – Highway Materials

020ROUGS4 – Road and Pavement Engineering

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Introduction
 From the early days of the Roman Empire to the interstate highway system
in the United States, roadway networks have been developed to support
military operations.
 Over the years, however, the materials used for roadway construction have
progressed with time.
 This advancement in materials has been accompanied with corresponding
advancements in methods with which these materials are characterized and
applied to pavement structural design.
 Currently, there are two primary types of pavement surfaces — Portland
cement concrete (PCC) and hot-mix asphalt concrete (HMAC).

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Introduction
 Below this wearing course are material layers that provide
structural support for the pavement system.
 These may include either (a) the aggregate base and subbase
layers, or (b) treated base and subbase layers, and the underlying
natural or treated subgrade.
 The treated layers may be cement-treated or asphalt-treated.
 There are various methods by which pavement layers are
designed.
 For example, HMAC may be designed using the Marshall, Hveem,
or Superpave mix design systems.
 PCC may be designed using the American Concrete Institute
(ACI) or the Portland Cement Association (PCA) method.

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Outline
 8.1 Hot-Mix Asphalt Concrete
 8.2 Portland Cement Concrete

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8.1 Hot-Mix Asphalt Concrete
 HMAC consists primarily of mineral aggregates, asphalt cement
(or binder), and air.
 It is important to have suitable proportions of asphalt cement and
aggregates in HMAC so as to develop mixtures that have desirable
properties associated with good performance.
 These performance measures include the resistance to the three
primary HMAC distresses: permanent deformation, fatigue
cracking, and low temperature cracking.

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8.1 Hot-Mix Asphalt Concrete
 Permanent deformation refers to the plastic deformation of HMAC
under repeated loads. This permanent deformation can be in the form
of rutting (lateral plastic flow in the wheelpaths) or consolidation
(further compaction of the HMAC after construction).
 Aggregate interlock is the primary component that resists permanent
deformation with the asphalt cement playing only a minor role.
 Angular, rough-textured aggregates will help reduce permanent
deformation. To a significantly lesser extent, a stiffer asphalt cement
may also provide some minor benefit.

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8.1 Hot-Mix Asphalt Concrete
 Cracking can be subdivided into two broad categories: load associated
cracking and non-load associated cracking.
 Load associated cracking has traditionally been called fatigue cracking.
In this scenario, repeated stress applications below the maximum tensile
strength of the material eventually lead to cracking.
 Non-load associated cracking has traditionally been called low-
temperature cracking. During times of rapid cooling and low
temperatures, the stress experienced by the HMAC may exceed its
fracture strength.This leads to immediate cracking.

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8.1 Hot-Mix Asphalt Concrete
a. Mineral Aggregates
 Mineral aggregates make up 90 to 95% of a HMA mix by weight or
approximately 75 to 85% by volume. Their physical characteristics are
responsible for providing a strong aggregate structure to resist
deformation due to repeated load applications.
 Aggregate mineralogical and chemical makeup are important in
evaluating characteristics such as hardness (toughness), soundness
(durability), and shape.
 These aggregates can be divided into three main categories — natural,
processed, and synthetic (artificial) aggregates.

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8.1 Hot-Mix Asphalt Concrete
a. Mineral Aggregates
 Natural aggregates are mined from river or glacial deposits.
 Processed materials include gravel or stones that have been
crushed, washed, screened, or otherwise treated to enhance
the performance of HMAC. Processed materials tend to be
more angular and better graded.
 There has been an increase in the use of waste products in
HMAC. Scrapped tires and glass are the two most commonly
used waste products that have been “disposed of ” in HMAC.
Some of these waste products enhance the performance of
HMA concrete while others neither benefit nor adversely
affect its performance.
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 8.1 Hot-Mix Asphalt Concrete
a. Mineral Aggregates
 Traditional aggregate specifications for HMA include the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
M29 (ASTM D1073) “Standard Method of Test for Fine Aggregate for
Bituminous Paving Mixtures,” ASTM D692 “Standard Specification for
Coarse Aggregate for Bituminous Paving Mixtures,” and ASTM D242
“Standard Specification for Mineral Filler for Bituminous Paving
Mixtures.”
 The properties that should be determined are:
coarse aggregate fine aggregate flat, elongated clay content
angularity angularity particles
deleterious particle index plasticity index affinity for
materials (PI) asphalt
Toughness soundness absorption

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 8.1 Hot-Mix Asphalt Concrete
b. Asphalt Cement
 Asphalt cement is a dark brown- or black-colored bituminous material used in
HMA paving. It occurs naturally in geologic strata and was used in the late
19th century for paving roads.
 Asphalt cement can also be derived synthetically from the petroleum refining
process. Since asphalt cement consists primarily of the highest boiling fraction
of petroleum, it is captured as the residue from the vacuum tower.
 Asphalt cement is a viscoelastic material. This means that asphalt cement
exhibits both viscous and elastic behavior. However, the extent to which
asphalt cement behaves as a viscous material or an elastic material is
dependent on the temperature and rate of loading.
 For example, asphalt cement at 60°C (140°F) may flow the same amount in 1
h as it would at 25°C (77°F) in 5 h. This behavioral relationship is sometimes
called time – temperature superposition.

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 8.1 Hot-Mix Asphalt Concrete
b. Asphalt Cement
 At high temperatures under slow loading conditions (e.g. slow moving traffic),
asphalt cements behave like a viscous fluid and flow. This is often called plastic
behavior because after the asphalt cement has flowed, it does not return to its
original position. This may lead to permanent deformation in the asphalt mix.
It should be noted that aggregates play a significant role in resisting permanent
deformation.
 At low temperatures under rapid loads (e.g. fast-moving traffic), asphalt
cements behave like elastic solids. They will deform under loads and return to
their original position after the load is removed. If the load applied causes
stresses greater than the strength of the mix, then low temperature cracking
will occur.
 At intermediate temperatures, asphalt cements exhibit both viscous and plastic
behavior.

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 8.1 Hot-Mix Asphalt Concrete
b. Asphalt Cement – Specifications and Tests
 Over the years, there have been a number of methods for classifying
asphalt cement.
 The following sections will discuss some of the different asphalt cement
specifications and the tests associated with them.

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 8.1 Hot-Mix Asphalt Concrete
b. Asphalt Cement – Specifications and Tests
 Penetration Test: Penetration is the number of units of 0.1 mm penetration
depth achieved during the penetration test. It is an empirical measure of the
asphalt cement’s hardness. This property is determined using AASHTO T49
(ASTM D5) “Standard Method of Test for Penetration of Bituminous Mixtures”
(AASHTO, 2003).
 In this procedure, a needle is typically loaded with a 100-g weight and allowed
to penetrate into an asphalt cement sample for 5 sec. Prior to conducting the
test, the asphalt cement sample is brought to the testing temperature, typically
25°C (77°F). A harder asphalt cement will have a lower penetration while a
softer asphalt cement with have a higher penetration.

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 8.1 Hot-Mix Asphalt Concrete
b. Asphalt Cement – Specifications and Tests
 Flash Point Test: Flash point is the temperature to which asphalt cement may
be heated without the danger of causing an instantaneous flash in the presence
of an open flame.
 This property is determined using AASHTO T48 (ASTM D92) “Standard
Method of Test for Flash and Fire Points by Cleveland Open Cup” (AASHTO,
2003). In this procedure, a brass cup partially filled with asphalt cement is
heated at a given rate.
A flame is passed over the surface of this cup periodically
and the temperature at which this flame causes an
instantaneous flash is reported as the flash point. Minimum
flash point requirements are typically incorporated into
asphalt cement specifications for safety reasons. However, a
change in flash point may indicate the presence of
contaminants.
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 8.1 Hot-Mix Asphalt Concrete
b. Asphalt Cement – Specifications and Tests
 Ductility Test: Ductility is the number of centimeters a standard briquette of
asphalt cement will stretch before breaking.
 This property is determined using AASHTO T51 (ASTM D113) “Standard
Method of Test for Ductility of Bituminous Mixtures” (AASHTO, 2003). In
this procedure, a standard briquette is molded such that its smallest cross-
section is 1 cm2. This sample is brought to test temperature in a water bath
maintained at 25°C. This briquette is then stretched at a rate of 5 cm/min
until it breaks.

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 8.1 Hot-Mix Asphalt Concrete
b. Asphalt Cement – Specifications and Tests
 Solubility Test: Solubility is the percentage of an asphalt cement sample that
will dissolve in trichloroethylene. This property is determined using AASHTO
T44 (ASTM D2042) “Standard Method of Test for Solubility of Bituminous
Materials” (AASHTO, 2003).
 In this procedure, an asphalt cement sample is dissolved in trichloroethylene
and then filtered through a glass-fiber pad where the weight of the insoluble
material is measured. The solubility is calculated by dividing the weight of the
dissolved portion by the total weight of the asphalt cement sample. This test is
used to check for contamination in asphalt cement.
 Most specifications require a minimum of 99% solubility in trichloroethylene.
Technicians conducting this test need to take the necessary precautions while
handling trichloroethylene, as it is a carcinogen.

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 8.2 Portland Cement Concrete
 PCC is one of the most widely used construction materials. It is
used in used in all types of structural elements (e.g. bridges,
tunnels, subways) as well as in pavement applications (e.g.
highways).
 This section will provide a brief discussion on the constituents of
PCC and mix design procedures.
 PCC is composed of cement paste and aggregates. The cement
paste consists of Portland cement mixed with water while the
aggregates are composed of fine and coarse fractions.
 Within the PCC lies entrained and entrapped air. The following
section provides a brief discussion on the primary constituents in
PCC.

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 8.2 Portland Cement Concrete
a- Portland Cement
 In the modern plant, Portland cement is manufactured by pulverizing clinker
consisting primarily of hydraulic calcium silicates along with some calcium aluminates
and calcium minoferrites with one or more forms of calcium sulfate (gypsum).
 Materials used in the manufacturing process must contain the appropriate proportions
of calcium oxide, silica, alumina, and iron oxide.
 Portland cement is composed of approximately 60 to 65% lime (CaO), 20 to 25%
silica (SiO2), and 7 to 12% iron oxide (Fe2O3) and alumina (Al2O3). The percentages
of the different components may be varied to meet different physical and chemical
requirements based on its intended use.

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 8.2 Portland Cement Concrete
a- Portland Cement
 Type I cement is general-purpose cement suitable for regular use where
special properties are not required.
 Type II cement is used when sulfate concentrations in groundwater are
higher than normal but not unusually severe. It will usually generate less
heat at a slower rate than Type I cement.
 Type III cement has the same composition as Type I cement but it is
ground finer. The increased surface area causes a quicker chemical
reaction and higher early strengths.
 Type IV cement is used when the heat of hydration must be minimized.
While it develops strength slower than the other types of cement, it
may be used in massive structures where excessive heat is detrimental.
 Type V cement is used when soils or groundwater have a high sulfate
content. The low tricalcium aluminate (C3A) content increases the
cement’s sulfate resistance.

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 8.2 Portland Cement Concrete
b- Aggregates
 Aggregates form approximately 60 to 75% of the concrete
volume, which is equivalent to approximately 70 to 85% by
weight.
 Fine aggregates generally consist of natural sands or crushed stone
with particles predominantly smaller than the No. 4 sieve.
 Coarse aggregates consist of one or a combination of gravels and
crushed aggregates with particles primarily greater than the No. 4
sieve.
 Aggregates are typically characterized according to its particle size
distribution, particle shape and surface texture, specific gravities,
absorption and surface moisture.

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 8.2 Portland Cement Concrete
c- Water and Admixtures
 Almost all naturally occurring water that is safe for drinking should be suitable for
making PCC.
 Chemical admixtures may be used to enhance Portland cement properties based on
the requirements for a specific application. The primary reasons for using admixtures
are to reduce the cost of concrete construction, to enhance certain concrete
properties, and to ensure the quality of concrete during the different stages of
construction.
 Air-entraining admixtures are used to introduce microscopic air bubbles in concrete.
Air-entrainment dramatically enhances the durability of concrete exposed to moisture
during cycles of freezing and thawing. Entrained air also increases the workability of
fresh concrete while reducing segregation and bleeding.
 Water-reducing admixtures are used to reduce the quantity of mixing water required
to produce concrete of a specific slump, reduce the water– cement ratio, or increase
slump.
 Regular water reducers may decrease the water content by 5 to 10%.

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 8.2 Portland Cement Concrete
c- Water and Admixtures
 Water-reducing admixtures:
 High-range water reducers (also called Superplasticizers) may decrease the water
content by 12 to 30%. While high-range water reducers are typically more
effective than regular water reducers, they are more expensive. Water reducers
typically produce an increase in strength because of the reduction in the water–
cement ratio.
 The effectiveness of water reducers is dependent on its chemical composition,
concrete temperature, cement composition, cement fineness, cement content, and
the presence of other admixtures.
 Retarding admixtures are used to slow down the rate at which concrete sets.
Retarders may be used to compensate for accelerated setting due to hot
weather or delay initial set for prolonged concrete placements. The presence
of retarders may reduce early (first few days) strength gain.
 Accelerating admixtures have the opposite effect from retarding admixtures in
that they increase early strength gain. However, the use of accelerating admixtures
may lead to increase in drying shrinkage, potential reinforcement corrosion,
discoloration, and scaling.

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 References
 The Handbook of Highway
Engineering, edited by T.F. Fwa, 2006.

 Traffic and Highway Engineering, 4th

Edition, Nicholas Garber, Lester Hoel,
2009.

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