UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY (COET).

DEPARTMENT OF WATER AND RESOURCES ENGINEERING

SC211: CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS II

NAME:MRISHO,ADAM H
REG NO:2019-04-08063
COURSE:BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
COURSE INSTRUCTOR: ENG: LWITIKO HUMPHREY KALENGA
 PART A:
1. Wet process is mostly used when the raw materials used are very soft in which the
calcareous materials are crushed with crushers and argillaceous materials are washed
with water.
 The crushed materials are drawn in correct proportions and kept in wet grinding
mills. The crushed material in wet grinding mills are mixed with water to form thin
cement paste called slurry.
 The slurry is then stored in silo in which is constantly stirred. The slurry is fed in
rotary kiln in which results to formation of 4 different zones in which are drying
zones, formation of modules, burning zones and cooling of clinkers.
 The cooled clinkers are finely ground in tube mills. During grinding process gypsum
is added so as to allow cement to mix with sand or aggregate and to be placed in
position

Dry process is used when the calcareous and argillaceous materials are hard and coarse.
 In this process the raw materials are broken by crushers into small fragments.
 The crushed materials are dried by heating at sufficiently high temperature in drying
kilns. The dried materials are ground in ball mills into powdery structure.
 The finely materials are mixed into exact proportions in which may be done by
mechanical or pneumatic means.
 The proportions are then burned in rotary kiln

2. A clinker is a dark grey nodular material made by heating ground limestone and clay
at a temperature of about 1400⁰C-1500⁰C.The nodules are ground up to a fine
powder to produce cement, with a small amount of gypsum added to control the
setting properties. A clinker may be used as the binder in many cement products. It
may also be combined with other active ingredients or chemical admixtures to
produce other types of cement such as pozzolana cement or silica fume cement.
Clinker is made by heating a homogenous mixture of raw materials in a rotary kiln at
high temperature. The products of the chemical reaction aggregate together at their
sintering temperature, about 1450⁰C.The major raw material for clinker making is
usually limestone mixed with a second material containing clay as a source of
alumino-silicate.
3. Types of Cement

i. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) - It is used in making concrete when it is

mixed with aggregates and water. Also used in Mortar for joining masonry
but also in Plaster to give perfect finish to the walls.
ii. Rapid Hardening Cement - It is used for early strengthening so roads can be
made available for use faster than OPC construction.
iii. Extra Rapid Hardening Cement – It is used in cold weather concreting, to
set the cement fast. At the age of one or two days strength of extra rapid
hardening cement is 25% more than rapid hardening cement.
iv. Low Heat Cement – It is used in mass concrete construction like gravity
dams. It is less reactive and initial setting time is greater than OPC.
v. Sulphate Resisting Cement – Used for constructions in contact with soil or
groundwater having more than 0.2% or 0.3% g/l sulphate salts respectively.
Can also be used in concrete surfaces subjected to alternate wetting and
drying like bridge piers.
vi. Quick Setting Cement – It is used for constructions that need a quick setting
like underwater structures and in cold and rainy conditions.
vii. High Alumina Cement – It is used in constructions that are subject to high
temperature such as a workshop, refractory or even foundries.

4. From 4% to 6% of gypsum is added to cement. Gypsum plays a very important role in

controlling the rate of hardening of the cement. During the cement manufacturing
process, upon cooling of clinker, a small amount of gypsum is introduced during final
grinding process. Gypsum is added to control setting of cement.
5. Hydration is a chemical reaction in which the major compounds in cement form
chemical bonds with water molecules and become hydrates or hydration products.
Chemicals required in hydration include: Tricalcium silicate(C3S),Dicalcium
silicate(C2S),Tricalcium aluminate(C3A),Tetracalcium aluminoferrite(C4AF) and
Gypsum.
6. Allowable water cement ratio is around 0.32.
7. Free water is defined as water not required for cement hydration. Bound water is a
structural water in ittringite and adsorbed water but not water in micropores or in
large pores. Evaporable water includes water in capillary pores and some water in
the gel pores. Non-evaporable water includes nearly all chemically combined water
and also some water not held by chemical bonds.
8. This is because it helps verify the quality of cement to be used in the proposed
construction sites but also know the resistance of cement towards water absorption.
One may be able to know the properties of cement by performing tests which may be
laboratory testing or field testing by observation.Standard number in sampling cement
is ASTM C183/C183M-16, AASHTO standards R18, and BS EN 196-1:2016.
 9. TABLE SUMMARY
Physical property of Test specification in Significance of the Importance of the
cement ASTM and BS test test
Soundness of ASTM C 151 Detect presence of To determine
cement AASHTO T 107 uncombined lime volume stability of
and magnesia in cement paste
cement
Fineness ASTM C 188 Determine rate of To detect hydration
hydration and rate ofrate due to water-
gain of strength cement ratio
Strength ASTM C 348 Measure of tensile Determine the
strength in bending strength of cement to
the shape of
specimen
Setting time ASTM C 191 Determine hardening Detection of initial
ASTM C 266 period of cement and setting time of
added with water cement
Heat of hydration ASTM C 186 To determine heat To determine heat
produced during produced during
chemical reactions chemical reactions
Loss of ignition ASTM C 114 To determine weight To determine weight
AASHTO T 105 loss due to increase loss due to increase
in temperature in temperature

10. False set is a form of premature stiffening of the concrete, which occurs within 1 to 5
minutes after mixing but with not much evolution of heat. Can be eliminated by
continuous mixing or by reworking and may not be noticed on jobs supplied by truck
mixers. Flash set is the rapid development of rigidity in mixed paste, mortar or
concrete but with evolution of considerable heat. Leads to concrete being unusable
and hardened in the mixer which can not be removed easily.
11. Better at determining consistency for cement.
12. Cement packaging is primarily done in bags and sacks. These bags can be made out of
paper or plastic. Paper cement packaging bags are usually heavy duty bags and sacks
that are manufactured using multiple layers of paper and can be coated with layers of
paper and can be coated with layers of plastic films to provide a barrier against
moisture. However, woven and non-woven plastic bags can also be employed for
cement packaging as they can hold up to 50 Kg. Cement may be transported by ship,
train or even truck.
13. Information available include:
  Properly read the manufacturer’s name and their registered trademark. If the
trademark and name is not properly printed or there is any spelling mistake,
then the cement bag may be a duplicate version.
 The ISI mark should be printed on the cement bags in black color. The ISI
mark confirms that the cement packed in the bag has fulfilled every
requirement of the specifications.
 The grade and type of cement is an important point to check on a cement bag.
A cement bag of OPC 53 must carry the following words – Ordinary Portland
Cement,53 Grade.
 The net weight of cement in kilogram i.e.25 kg etc. must be mentioned on the
cement bag.
 Check the brand of the cement. It is important that the cement is of a reputed
brand. One must also check the cut-sheet provided by the brand, to gain an
understanding regarding the technical details of the product.
 The batch/control unit number in terms of week, month and year of packing
must be mentioned in the cement bag. It is advisable to use a cement bag
which is recently packed, usually less than 3 months.
 The address of the manufacturer must be mentioned on the cement bag to
facilitate contacting him or her for future enquiries.

14. Fineness of cement is measured by sieving cement on standard sieve. The proportion
of cement of which the cement particle sizes are greater than the 90 micron is
determined.
15. Increasing fineness of cement reduces amount of bleeding in concrete. Increasing
fineness of cement beyond an optimum limit increases the water requirement for
concrete. It also influences drying shrinkage of concrete.

16. Increasing the fineness of cement increases the rate of hydration of cement, which
increases the rate of gain in strength and also the rate at which heat is liberated as in
Type III compared with Type I cement. (ASTM C150).
17. The type of cement with higher grade results to greater compressive strength of
cement and results to resistance to abrasion
18. Suitable conditions for storing cement include the following:
 Cement bags should be stored in a dry and enclosed structure, protected from
rains and moisture and the stacked cement bags should be kept covered with
waterproof sheets or tarpaulin.
 Cement bags should be stored separately. They should not be stored with
fertilizers or any other product, as any contamination can affect the quality and
performance of the screed.
 When stored in warehouses, cement bags should be provided with adequate
ventilation to avoid build-up of damp air.
 Do not place cement bags directly on concrete or wood floors. They should be
stored on a raised surface with an impermeable plastic sheet underneath.
  During Transportation, make sure that there are no sharp objects in the vehicle
before loading the bags so as to prevent the bags from being punctured.

PART B: BOOKS REVIEWS

BOOK 1:
1.Microstructure property relationship in hydrated cement
The desirable engineering characteristics of hardened concrete strength, dimensional stability,
and durability—are influenced not only by the proportion but also by the properties of the
hydrated cement paste, which, in turn, depend on the micro-structural features (i.e., the type,
amount, and distribution of solids and voids).
 Strength – The van der Waals force of attraction account for the principle source of
strength in the solid products of the hydrated cement paste. Adhesion between two
solid surfaces can be attributed to these physical forces, the degree of the adhesive
action being dependent on the extent and the nature of the surfaces involved. The
small crystals of C-S-H, calcium sulfoaluminate hydrates, and hexagonal calcium
aluminate hydrates possess enormous surface areas and adhesive capability
In hydrated cement paste, the interlayer space with the C-S-H structure and the small
voids, which are within the influence of the van der Waals forces of attraction, are not
considered detrimental to strength because stress concentration and subsequent
rupture on application of load begin at large capillary voids and microcracks that are
invariably present. As stated earlier, the volume of capillary voids in a hydrated
cement paste depends on the amount of water mixed with the cement at the start of
hydration and the degree of cement hydration.

 Dimensional stability – Saturated hydrated cement paste is not dimensionally stable.

As long as it is held at 100 percent relative humidity (RH), practically no dimensional
change will occur. However, when exposed to environmental humidity, which
 normally is much lower than 100 percent, the material begins to lose water and shrink.
As soon as the RH drops below 100 percent, the free water begins to escape to the
environment. Because the free water is not attached to the microstructure of the
hydration products by any physical-chemical bonds, its loss would not be
accompanied by shrinkage. Thus, a saturated hydrated cement paste exposed to
slightly less than 100 percent RH can lose a considerable amount of total evaporable
water before undergoing any shrinkage

 Durability – Hydrated cement paste is alkaline; therefore, exposure to acidic waters

is detrimental to the material. Under these conditions, impermeability, becomes a
primary factor in determining the durability. The impermeability of hydrated cement
paste is a highly prized characteristic because it is assumed that an impermeable
hydrated cement paste would result in an impermeable concrete.

2. The Interfacial Transition Zone is the zone between the aggregate and bulk paste. It has a
major impact on the strength and permeability of the concrete. The interfacial zone is 10 to
50 mm in thickness. Generally weaker than the paste or aggregate due to locally high water
cement ratio and the “wall effect” (packing problems). In some cases predominantly large
crystals of calcium hydroxide and ettringite and oriented perpendicular to aggregate surface.
Has greater porosity and few unhydrated cement grains. Microcracking commonly exists in
transition zone. Results in shear-bond failure and interconnected macroporosity, which
influences permeability. Modification of transition zone is key to improving concrete,
3. Strength – The Van der Waals force of attraction cause adhesion between hydration
products and the aggregate particles thus the strength of interfacial transition zone at any
point depends on the volume and size of voids present. Even for low water-cement ratio
concrete, interfacial transition zone will be larger than in bulk mortar; consequently, the
former is weaker in strength. This may occur as a result of crystallization of new products in
the voids of the interfacial transition zone by slow chemical reactions between the cement
paste constituents and the aggregate, formation of calcium silicate hydrates in the case of
siliceous aggregates, or formation of carboaluminate hydrates in the case of limestone. Such
interactions are strength contributing because they also tend to reduce the concentration of
the calcium hydroxide in the interfacial transition zone. A major factor for the poor strength
of interfacial transition zone is the presence of microcracks.
4. Portland cement
Portland Cement is the most common type of cement in general use around
the world as a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, stucco, and non-specialty
grout.
Manufacturing process
The raw materials required for the manufacture of Portland cement are
limestone/chalk, iron ore, coal and clay. Limestone is the largest amount
needed material in cement production.
Cement production line is composed of equipment like crushing machine,
grinding machine, rotary kiln, and packing machine etc
calcium silicates are the primary constituents of portland cement
Clay minerals contain alumina (Al2O3), iron oxide (Fe2O3), and alkalis. The
presence of aluminium, iron and magnesium ions, and i in the raw mix has a
mineralizing effect on the formation of calcium silicates.

Modern cement plants favour the dry process, which is more energy efficient
than the wet process because the water in the slurry must be evaporated before
clinkering. Traditional cement plant favours both dry and wet process of
cement manufacture.
 Figure 4 flow diagram of the dry process for Portland cement

There are four stages in the manufacture of Portland cement:

• Crushing and grinding the raw materials
• Blending the materials in the correct proportions
• Burning the prepared mix in a kiln
• Grinding the burned product, known as “clinker,” together with some
5 percent of gypsum (to control the time of set of the cement).
The three processes of manufacture are known as the wet, dry, and
semidry processes and are so termed when the raw materials are
ground wet and fed to the kiln as a slurry, ground moistened to form
nodules that are fed dry and fed as a dry powder, or ground dry and then
to the kiln.

Portland cement is made/composed with various compounds that include; CaO,

SiO2,
Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO, SO3, H2O etc.

5. Hydration refers to the process that involves the reaction of cement with water
.this is general the exothermic reaction. the speed of chemical reaction is dependant to
 the size of the Portland cement present in a mix .the finer particles reacts more faster
than larger ones.
There are two mechanisms of hydration which are through-solution hydration and
topo chemicals (solid state hydration).
 Through-solution hydration: This involves dissolution of the solid compound
into ionic form. the formation of hydrates in solution is due to their solubility
and precipitation of the hydrates from the super saturated solution.
 Solid state hydration: This involves directly reactions that take place at the
surface of the material compounds without compound going into solution.
Always the rate of setting time of the Portland cement is influenced by presence or
absence of the gypsum materials. since absence or little amount of the gypsum causes
the setting time to decrease and increase of the gypsum in excess cause the setting
time to be high, that are the flash set and false set of the cement materials.

BOOK 2:
1. Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general use around the world
as a basic ingredient of concrete, motor and non-specialty grout. It is an active
hydraulic binder as it sets and hardens by its chemical interaction with water without
the addition of an activator such as lime. It is produced by heating limestone and clay
minerals in a kiln to form clinker, grinding the clinker and adding a small percent of
gypsum. Several types of Portland cement include Ordinary Portland Cement, Rapid-
Hardening Portland Cement, Sulphate-Resisting Portland Cement. Cement is made up
of the major and the minor constituents. The major constituents consist of the
following:
a) Tricalcium Silicate – Also known as Alite (C3S). It has about a 45%
content in OPC, therefore the behavior and properties of OPC are
similar to that of Alite. It is a hydraulic binder.
b) Dicalcium Silicate – Also known as Belite (C2S).Has a content of about
25% in OPC and also has a poorer lime content when compared to Alite.
c) Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A) – Has an average content of about
10%.Reacts with water almost instantaneously and is characterized by a
flash set which is accompanied by a large quantity of heat evolution.
d) Celite (C4AF) – Also known as Tetracalcium aluminoferrite. Has an
average content of about 8%. It hydrates rapidly and setting happens
within minutes. Heat evolution on hydration is about 420 J/g.

The minor constituents include the following:

a) Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) – It is added during grinding of cement clinker. It combines
with C3A to give a high sulphate calcium sulphoaluminate, known as ettringite which
prevents the direct hydration of C3A and the resulting flash setting.
 b) Magnesia (MgO) – It is produced when magnesium carbonate dissociates on burning
to give magnesium oxide (magnesia) and carbon dioxide. Magnesia does not combine
with oxides of raw materials and mostly crystallizes to a mineral called periclase.
c) Alkali oxides – These includes oxides such as K2O,NA2O etc. They are introduced in
the cement through raw materials and have a content ranging from 0.5 to 1.3%. They
become of great importance when alkali-reactive aggregates are used in concrete
production.
Fineness of cement
The size of the particles of the cement grains are its fineness. It is usually measured by its
surface area. The fineness of cement has an effect on the properties of cement such as in the
rate of hydration. Increasing the fineness of cement increases the rate of hydration of cement,
which increases the rate of gain in strength and also the rate at which heat is liberated as in
Type III compared with Type I cement.
Different types of Portland cement
Portland cement are of different types. They include the following:
a) Rapid Hardening Cement – Characterized by having a high rate of strength
development and also by a high early strength when compared to OPC. used for early
strengthening so roads can be made available for use faster than OPC construction.
b) Low Heat Cement – It is used in mass concrete construction like gravity dams. It is
less reactive and initial setting time is greater than OPC.
c) Sulphate Resisting Cement – Used for constructions in contact with soil or
groundwater having more than 0.2% or 0.3% g/l sulphate salts respectively. Can also
be used in concrete surfaces subjected to alternate wetting and drying like bridge
piers.
d) White and Colored Cement – The characteristic grey color of Portland cement is
mainly due to the presence of ferrite phase. So the iron oxide is reduced and limited
below 1 percent. Colored cements are made by adding 5 to 10 percent coloring
pigments before grinding. The compressive and transverse strength of this cement is
90% of that of 33 grade ordinary Portland cement. It is used for making terrazzo
flooring, face plaster of walls, ornamental works, and casting stones.
BOOK 4:
1. STORAGE OF CEMENT
Cement being a material that is highly sensitive to moisture, has to be protected from
dampness and moisture of any kind. It tends to form clumps when exposed to water.
Due to such problems, Cement bags need to be stored in a structure that is dry and not
easy for water to penetrate. Waterproof sheets or tarpaulin are used to cover stack
cement bags. While being stacked, they should be stacked together so as to reduce air
circulation but should not be stacked against outside walls. Cement bags should also
be protected from the dampness rising from the ground hence not placing it directly
on the concrete floor. For this reason, the bags are rested on pallets. The strength of
cement tends to deteriorate with time so it is advised to rotate the stock so as to ensure
usability meaning bags should be stored in such a way that the first in are the first out.
 While handling the cement bags, rolling the cement bags before lifting them helps
loosen up the cement but also reduces the chances of the bag from splitting. While
carrying the cement, it should not be carried by holding them out in the ends. It should
be held in such a way that the underside is being supported. This will prevent the bag
form sagging in the middle thus resulting in the bag to split. The cement bags should
not be stored upright or on their sides but they should be laid flat with their broad
sides down. Cement bags also have to be stored separately. Storing them with another
product such as fertilizers will act as a contaminant and this will affect the quality and
performance of the screed. Bulk cement should be stored in weathertight concrete or
steel bins or silos. Dry low-pressure aeration or vibration should be used in bins or
silos to keep the cement flowable and avoid bridging.
2. Tests needed in cement include:
 Fineness test
 Consistency test
 Strength test
 Soundness test
 Chemical composition test
 Heat of hydration test
3. Physical properties of cement include:
a) Particle size and fineness – The size of the particles of the cement is its
fineness. The required fineness of good cement is achieved through grinding
the clinker in the last step of cement production. As hydration rate is directly
related to the cement particle size, fineness is a very important property.
b) Soundness – This is the ability of cement to not shrink upon hardening.
Cement of good quality should retain its volume after setting without delayed
expansion, which is caused by excessive free lime and magnesia.
c) Consistency – This is the ability of the cement paste to flow. It is measured
with the help of Vicat test with the use of Vicat apparatus. The plunger of the
apparatus is brought down to touch the top surface of the cement. The plunger
will penetrate cement up to a certain depth depending on the consistency.
d) Setting Time – Cement sets and hardens when water is added to it. Setting
time tends to vary depending on multiple factors such as fineness, water-
cement ratio, chemical content and admixtures.
e) Heat of Hydration – This is the heat generated when cement reacts with
water. Hydration generates heat, which can affect the quality of cement and
also be beneficial in maintaining curing temperature during cold weather.
When heat generated is high, it may lead to undesired stress. Heat of hydration
is affected mostly by C3S and C3A present in cement and also by water-
cement ratio, fineness and curing temperature.
f) Density and Relative Density – The particle density of Portland cement
ranges from 3.10 Mg/m3 to 3.25 Mg/m3, averaging 3.15 Mg/m3. Portland-
blast-furnace-slag and Portland-pozzolan cement have densities ranging from
2.90 Mg/m3 to 3.15 Mg/m3, averaging 3.05 Mg/m3.For mixture proportioning
calculations, density is expressed in terms of relative density (specific gravity).
Portland cement has a specific gravity of 3.15 while Portland-blast-furnace-
slag and Portland-pozzolan cement have specific gravities of about 2.90.