Alpha 12

ABSTRACT
High-speed train traction power supply system causes serious negative current problem.
Railway power conditioner (RPC) is efficient in negative sequence compensation. A
novel power quality collaboration compensation system and strategy based on RPC is
proposed in this paper. The minimum capacity conducted is 1/3 smaller than traditional
single station compensation. Simulation results have confirmed that the collaboration
compensation system proposed can achieve a good performance at the negative
sequence compensation with capacity and cost efficient.
Contents
LIST OF FIGURES..............................................................................................................................i
LIST OF TABLES..............................................................................................................................ii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS............................................................................................................iii
1. INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1
2. RAILWAY ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM................................................................................3
2.1 Characteristics of Electric Traction..............................................................................................4
2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages....................................................................................................5
2.2.1 Summary..............................................................................................................................6
2.3 Energy efficiency.........................................................................................................................7
2.4 External cost................................................................................................................................8
2.5 Research and development..........................................................................................................8
3. HARMONICS..................................................................................................................................9
3.1 HARMONICS.............................................................................................................................9
3.2 Why Worry About Harmonics...................................................................................................11
3.3 Where Harmonics Come From..................................................................................................13
3.4 Where to look for Harmonics....................................................................................................16
3.5 How do you find Harmonics......................................................................................................17
3.6 When are they a problem?.........................................................................................................18
3.7 How do you get rid of them?.....................................................................................................20
3.8 TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION.......................................................................................20
3.8.1 Definition............................................................................................................................20
3.9 Power Measurement..................................................................................................................21
3.10 Neutral Currents......................................................................................................................21
3.11 Harmonic Profiles....................................................................................................................21
4. RAILWAY POWER QUALITY CONDITIONER.....................................................................23

4.1 INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................23
4.2 Structure of the RPQC...............................................................................................................24
4.3 Harmonic Compensation...........................................................................................................25

4.3.1 Reactive power compensation............................................................................................26
4.3.2 Load imbalance compensation............................................................................................27
4.4 DC-link voltage regulation........................................................................................................27
4.5 Overall RPQC controller...........................................................................................................28
5. SEMI CONDUCTOR DEVICES.................................................................................................29

5.1 INTEGRATED BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR...............................................................................29
5.1.1 Basic Structure....................................................................................................................30

5.2 N-Channel IGBT Cross Section.................................................................................................30
5.2.1 Equivalent Circuit...............................................................................................................30

5.2.2 Working..............................................................................................................................31
5.3 IGBT Characteristics.................................................................................................................32
5.3.1 Switching Characteristics....................................................................................................33

5.4 Applications of IGBTs...............................................................................................................34
5.5 INVERTER...............................................................................................................................34
5.6 Single-phase voltage source inverters (VSI):.............................................................................34
5.6.1 Types of VSI:......................................................................................................................35

5.6.2 Half-Bridge VSI:................................................................................................................35
5.6.3 Full-Bridge VSI:.................................................................................................................36
5.7 Current Source Inverters (CSI):.................................................................................................36
5.8 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION CONTROL........................................................................37
5.8.1 Sinusoidal-Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM)....................................................................38

6. MODELLING OF CASE STUDY................................................................................................42
6.1 RPC Structure and Analysis of Compensation Principle:..........................................................42
6.2 PRINCIPLE OF COLLABORATION COMPENSATION:......................................................44
7. MATLAB DESIGN OF CASE STUDY AND CONCLUSION..................................................48

7.1 MATLAB Simulink for RPC Compensation.............................................................................48
7.2 Output waveforms of RPC Compensation:................................................................................51
7.3 CONCLUSION.........................................................................................................................54
BIBLIOGRAPHY..............................................................................................................................55
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 2(a) Electric locomotives under the wires in Sweden..................................................................3

Fig 2(b) Overhead wire and centenary in Bridgeport, Connecticut, United states.........................3
Fig 3(a) Sine wave................................................................................................................................9
Fig 3(b) Fundamental with two harmonics......................................................................................10
Fig 3.2 Additive Third Harmonics...................................................................................................11
Fig 3.3(a) Current Waveform...........................................................................................................14
Fig 3.3(b) Harmonic Spectrum of Current Waveform...................................................................14
Fig 3.5 Power Quality Monitor with Harmonic Analysis...............................................................17
Fig 3.6 Waveform for 10th Harmonic...............................................................................................21
Fig 4.2 Configuration of RPQC........................................................................................................24
Fig 4.2.1 RPQC control.....................................................................................................................25
Fig 4.3 harmonic current extraction................................................................................................25
Fig 4.3.1 Reactive power compensation algorithm..........................................................................27
Fig 4.3.2 Load imbalance compensation algorithm.........................................................................27
Fig 4.4 DC-link voltage regulation algorithm..................................................................................27
Fig 4.5 Control block diagram of overall RPQC controller...........................................................28
Fig 5.1 IGBT Structure.....................................................................................................................30
Fig 5.2 (a) & (b) MOSFET Equivalent Circuit................................................................................31
Fig 5.3 Static V-I characteristics.......................................................................................................33
Fig 5.4 Single Phase Half-Bridge VSI...............................................................................................35
Fig 5.5 Ideal waveforms of Half-Bridge Inverter............................................................................35
Fig 5.6 Full Bridge Inverter..............................................................................................................36
Fig 5.7 Current Source Inverters.....................................................................................................37
Fig 5.8.1 Schematic diagram for Half-Bridge PWM inverter........................................................38
Fig 5.8.1.1(a) & (b) SPWM illustration............................................................................................40
Fig 5.8.1.2 Output voltage of the Half-Bridge inverter...................................................................41
Fig 6.1 Traction power system with a three-phase V/V transformer and a RPC.........................42
Fig 6.1.1 Three-phase current phase diagram without compensation...........................................43
Fig 6.1.2 Three-phase current phase diagram after adjusting.......................................................43
active and reactive power by RPC...................................................................................................43
Fig 6.1 Schematic diagram of collaboration compensation of three stations................................44
Fig 6.2.1(a),(b)&(c) Compensation strategy under the condition of 2,0,0.....................................46
Fig 6.2.2 Working condition of three stations which supply active power and reactive power. 46
Fig 7.1.1 Matlab Simulink of Single RPC Compensation.............................................................49
Fig 7.1.2 Matlab Simulink of RPC Technique For Three Stations Collabration Compensation50
Fig 7.2.1 Positive sequence output waveform..................................................................................51
Fig 7.2.2 Negative sequence output waveform.................................................................................51
Fig 7.2.3 Iabcs Current of tractive transformer high voltage side....................................................52
Fig 7.2.4 (a) Current of tractive transformer high voltage side(Y=0).................................................52
Fig 7.2.5 Three station collaboration compensation result under the condition of 2,Y,0.............53
LIST OF TABLES
i
Table 1: Harmonic Sequencing Values in Balanced Systems 12
Table 2: Sample of Harmonic Values for Fluorescent lighting 15
Table 3: Typical Harmonics Found for Different Converters 18
Table 4: Current Harmonic Limits as per IEEE 519-1992 19
Table 5: Voltage Harmonic Limits as per IEEE 519-1992 19
Table 6: Comparison of Two Compensation Method 47
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ii
RPC – RAILWAY POWER CONDITIONER
SVC – STATIC VAR COMPENSATOR
APF – ACTIVE POWER FILTER
STATCOM – STATIC COMPENSATOR
APQC – ACTIVE POWER QUALITY COMPENSATOR
TCR – THYRISTOR CONTROL REACTOR
DC – DIRECT CURRENT
AC – ALTERNATING CURRENT
GTO – GATE TURN OFF THYRISTOT
IGBT – INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTER
TRM – TECHNOLOGY ROAD MAP
ASD – ADJUSTABLE SPEED DRIVE
VFD – VARIABLE FREQUENCE DRIVE
SCC – SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT
RPQC – RAILWAY POWER QUALITY CONDITIONER
MOSIGT – METAL OXIDE INSULATED GATE TRANSISTOR
COMFET – CONDUCTIVELY MODULATED FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOT
VSI – VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER
CSI – CURRENT SOURCE INVERTER
SPWM – SINUSOIDAL PULSE WIDTH MODULATION
iii
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
iv
1. INTRODUCTION
With the rapid development of high-speed railway in China, power quality has become
a major concern for traction supply system. Compared with normal electrification
railway locomotive load, high-speed locomotive load has some characteristics, such as
big instantaneous power, high power factor, low harmonic components and high
negative sequence component. A large amount of negative current is injected into grid,
which causes serious adverse impact on power system, such as increasing motor
vibration and additional loss, reducing output ability of transformers and causing relay
protection misoperation. These adverse impacts threaten the safety of high-speed
railway traction supply system and power system. Therefore, it’s necessary to take
measures to suppress negative current.
Many methods and power quality compensators are studied in order to solve the issue
of power quality. The traditional methods adopted to suppress negative current are as
follows: (1) Connect unbalanced load to different supply terminals;(2) Adopt phase
sequence rotation to make unbalanced load distributed to each sequence reasonably;(3)
Connect unbalanced load to higher voltage level supply terminals; (4) Use balanced
transformers such as Scott transformer and impedance balance transformer. These
methods have some effects on reducing unbalance degree, but they are lack of
flexibility and can't adjust dynamically.
Recent years, high-voltage, large-capacity Static Var Compensator (SVC), Active

Power Filter (APF) and Static Compensator (STATCOM) have become focus on power
quality compensation of electrified railway. However, these methods all need high-
voltage transformers which increase cost. APF is effective in suppressing harmonic
currents in electrified railway but rarely used in negative sequence compensation. An
active power quality compensator (APQC) with a impedance-matching balance
transformer or a Scott transformer is proposed to compensate negative-sequence
current, harmonics and reactive current. Reference put forward a proposal of Railway
Power Conditioner (RPC), RPC can make comprehensive compensation of negative
sequence components, harmonics and reactive power. Reference carries a dual-loop
control strategy in order to improve the control effect and performance of RPC. Taken
Department of EEE, KMMITS 1|Page

into account the disturbance and variation of electrified railway environment, a
recursive proportional-integral control based on fuzzy algorithm is adopted to realize a
fast and smooth tracking to reference current. Reference raises a method of setting up
two groups of thyristor control reactors (TCR) and two groups of thyristor control 3rd
harmonic wave filter besides RPC. The RPC is used to transfer active power; the
reactive power is supplied by the TCR and the filter. These works prove that RPC is an
effective way to solve the power quality problems in railway system. But the
compensator capacity is still too big to make RPC into practice.
To reduce the high compensator capacity, this paper puts forward a new railway
negative unbalance compensation system based on the thought of multiple RPC
collaboration compensation. This method realizes a minimum compensation capacity
which is strictly proved, which reduces 1/3 capacity compared with traditional single
station RPC compensation method. The simulation results have verified the correctness
of the method proposed in this project.

CHAPTER-2
RAILWAY ELECTRIFICATION
SYSTEM
2. RAILWAY ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM
A railway electrification system supplies electrical energy to railway locomotives and
multiple units so that they can operate without having an on-board prime mover. There
are several different electrification systems in use throughout the world. Railway
electrification has many advantages but requires significant capital expenditure for
installation.
Fig 2(a) Electric locomotives under the wires in Sweden
Fig 2(b) Overhead wire and centenary in Bridgeport, Connecticut, United states

2.1 Characteristics of Electric Traction
The main advantage of electric traction is a higher power-to-weight ratio than traction
systems such as diesel or steam that generate power on board. Electricity enables
faster acceleration and higher tractive effort on steep gradients. On locomotives
equipped with regenerative brakes, descending gradients require very little use of air
brakes as the locomotive's traction motors become generators sending current back into
the supply system and/or on-board resistors, which convert the excess energy to heat.
Other advantages include the lack of exhaust fumes at point of use, less noise and lower
maintenance requirements of the traction units. Given sufficient traffic density, electric
trains produce fewer carbon emissions than diesel trains, especially in countries where
electricity comes primarily from non-fossil sources.
A fully electrified railway has no need to switch between methods of traction thereby
making operations more efficient. Two countries that approach this ideal are
Switzerland and Hong Kong, but both use more than one system, so unless multi-
system locomotives or other rolling stock is used, a switch of traction method may still
be required.
The main disadvantages are the capital cost of the electrification equipment, most
significantly for long distance lines which do not generate heavy traffic. Suburban
railways with closely-spaced stations and high traffic density are the most likely to be
electrified and main lines carrying heavy and frequent traffic are also electrified in
many countries. Also, if the overhead wiring breaks down in some way, all trains can
be brought to a standstill.
Electrification systems are classified by three main parameters:
 Voltage
 Current
 Direct current (DC)
 Alternating current (AC)
 Frequency
 Contact System
 Third rail overhead line (catenary)

2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
Advantages include:
lower running cost of locomotives and multiple units
lower maintenance cost of locomotives and multiple units
higher power-to-weight ratio, resulting in
fewer locomotives
faster acceleration
higher practical limit of power
higher limit of speed
less noise pollution (quieter operation)
reduced power loss at higher altitudes (for power loss see Diesel engine)
lack of dependence on crude oil as fuel
less environmental pollution, even if electricity is produced by fossil fuels
Disadvantages
Disadvantages include:
upgrading brings significant cost.
especially where tunnels and bridges and other obstructions have to be altered
Fore clearance
 alterations or upgrades will be needed on the railway signalling to take advantage of
the new traffic characteristics
 Maintenance costs of the lines may be increased, but many systems claim lower costs
due to reduced wear-and-tear from lighter rolling stock. There are additional
maintenance costs associated with the electrical equipment but, if there is sufficient
traffic, reduced track and engine maintenance costs can exceed the costs of this
maintenance.
 Network effects are a large factor with electrification. When converting lines to
electric, the connections with other lines must be considered. Some electrifications
have eventually been removed because of the through traffic to non-electrified lines.
If through traffic is to have any benefit, time consuming engine switches must occur
to make such connections or expensive dual mode engines must be used. This is
mostly an issue for long distance trips, but many lines come to be dominated by
through traffic from long-haul freight trains (usually running coal, ore, or containers

to or from ports). In theory, these trains could enjoy dramatic savings through
electrification, but it can be too costly to extend electrification to isolated areas, and
unless an entire network is electrified, companies often find that they need to
continue use of diesel trains even if sections are electrified. The increasing demand
for container traffic which is more efficient when utilizing the double-stack car also
has network effect issues with existing electrifications due to insufficient clearance of
overhead electrical lines for these trains, but electrification can be built or modified
to have sufficient clearance, at additional cost.
 Additionally, there are issues of connections between different electrical services,
particularly connecting intercity lines with sections electrified for commuter traffic,
but also between commuter lines built to different standards. This can cause
electrification of certain connections to be very expensive simply because of the
implications on the sections it is connecting. Many lines have come to be overlaid
with multiple electrification standards for different trains to avoid having to replace
the existing rolling stock on those lines. Obviously, this requires that the economics
of a particular connection must be more compelling and this has prevented complete
electrification of many lines. In a few cases, there are diesel trains running along
completely electrified routes and this can be due to incompatibility of electrification
standards along the route.
2.2.1 Summary
Summary of advantages and disadvantages:
 Lines with low frequency of traffic may not be feasible for electrification
(especially using regenerative braking), because lower running cost of trains
may be overcome by the higher costs of maintenance. Therefore most long-
distance lines in North America and many developing countries are not
electrified due to relatively low frequency of trains.
 Electric locomotives may easily be constructed with greater power output than
most diesel locomotives. For passenger operation it is possible to provide
enough power with diesel engines (see e.g. 'ICE TD') but, at higher speeds, this
proves costly and impractical. Therefore, almost all high speed trains are
electric.
 The high power of electric locomotives gives them the ability to pull freight at
higher speed over gradients; in mixed traffic conditions this increases capacity

when the time between trains can be decreased. The higher power of electric
locomotives an electrification can also be a cheaper alternative to a new and less
steep railway if trains weights are to be increased on a system.
2.3 Energy efficiency

There is a significant amount of published material that concludes that electric trains
are more energy efficient than diesel-powered trains and, with suitable energy
production, can have a smaller carbon dioxide footprint. Some of the reasons include:
 They Electric trains are generally lighter than self powered versions (e.g. diesel
traction); do not have to carry the weight of prime movers, transmission and
fuel.
 This is partially offset, however, by the weight of electrical control equipment,
and in the case with high-voltage AC by the weight of traction transformers,
which may be particularly heavy with low frequency AC (e.g. 16.7 Hz.).
 the electricity may be generated from various energy sources which are more
efficient than a diesel engine, as well as lessening reliance on petroleum
products and reducing carbon dioxide emissions, including;
 nuclear power,
 Renewable resources (e.g. hydroelectricity, wind generation, etc.),
 Large fossil fuel using power stations with greater efficiency (although they
may still have a relatively large carbon footprint).
 under certain conditions, some suitably equipped electric trains can use
regenerative braking to return power to the electrification system so that it may
be used elsewhere;
 by other vehicles within the network section;
 often implemented in tram networks, where there is a high density of vehicles in
each fairly short powered section,
 on high voltage mainlines where there may be several trains within each long
section,
 on mountainous lines where trains may be scheduled such that one is ascending
whilst another descends;
 In some form of energy storage, such as flywheel energy storage so that it may
be used later (e.g. to accelerate a train from a station at which it has recently
stopped)

2.4 External cost
The external cost of railway is lower than other modes of transport but the
electrification brings it down further if it is sustainable.
Also, the lower cost of energy from well to wheel and the ability to reduce pollution
and greenhouse gas in the atmosphere according to the Kyoto Protocol is an advantage.
2.5 Research and development

Another result of electrification is the effect on locomotive and wagon productivity
and it is going to be more effective by more railway researching this field. The trend of
technology in railway electrification is very important to adopt the efforts for better
results, for example the trend from GTO (Gate turn-off thyristor) to IGBT (Insulated-
gate bipolar transistor) for more powerful locomotives with higher reliability is one of
the elements of Technology roadmap (TRM) and the loop to have a mature system as in
Maturity road mapping with the Technology transfer provision.

CHAPTER-3
HARMONICS
3. HARMONICS
3.1 HARMONICS
The typical definition for a harmonic is “a sinusoidal component of a periodic wave
or\ quantity having a frequency that is an integral multiple of the fundamental
frequency.” Some references refer to “clean” or “pure” power as those without any
harmonics. But such clean waveforms typically only exist in a laboratory. Harmonics
have been around for a long time and will continue to do so. In fact, musicians have
been aware of such since the invention of the first string or woodwind instrument.
Harmonics (called “overtones” in music) are responsible for what makes a trumpet
sound like a trumpet, and a clarinet like a clarinet.
Electrical generators try to produce electric power where the voltage waveform has
only one frequency associated with it, the fundamental frequency. In the North
America, this frequency is 60 Hz, or cycles per second. In European countries and other
parts of the world, this frequency is usually 50 Hz. Aircraft often uses 400 Hz as the
fundamental frequency. At 60 Hz, this means that sixty times a second, the voltage
waveform increases to a maximum positive value, then decreases to zero, further
decreasing to a maximum negative value, and then back to zero. The rate at which these
changes occur is the trigometric function called a sine wave, as shown in figure 1. This
function occurs in many natural phenomena, such as the speed of a pendulum as it
swings back and forth, or the way a string on a voilin vibrates when plucked.
Fig 3(a) Sine wave

The frequency of the harmonics is different, depending on the fundamental frequency.
For example, the 2nd harmonic on a 60 Hz system is 2*60 or 120 Hz. At 50Hz, the
second harmonic is 2* 50 or 100Hz.
300Hz is the 5th harmonic in a 60 Hz system, or the 6th harmonic in a 50 Hz system.

Figure 3(b) shows how a signal with two harmonics would appear on an oscilloscope-
type display, which some power quality analyzers provide.
Fig 3(b) Fundamental with two harmonics

In order to be able to analyze complex signals that have many different frequencies
present, a number of mathematical methods were developed. One of the more popular
is called the Fourier Transform. However, duplicating the mathematical steps required
in a microprocessor or computer-based instrument is quite difficult. So more
compatible processes, called the FFT for Fast Fourier transform, or DFT for Discrete
Fourier Transform, are used.
These methods only work properly if the signal is composed of only the fundamental
and harmonic frequencies in a certain frequency range (called the Nyquist frequency,
which is one-half of the sampling frequency). The frequency values must not change
during the measurement period. Failure of these rules to be maintained can result in
mis-information. For example, if a voltage waveform is comprised of 60 Hz and 200
Hz signals, the FFT cannot directly see the 200 Hz. It only knows 60, 120, 180, 240,...,
which are often called “bins”.
The result would be that the energy of the 200 Hz signal would appear partially in the
180Hz bin, and partially in the 240 Hz bin. An FFT-based processer could show a
voltage value of 115V at 60 Hz, 18 V at the 3rd harmonic, and 12 V at the 4th
harmonic, when it really should have been 30 V at 200 Hz.
These in-between frequencies are called “inter harmonics”. There is also a special
category of inter harmonics, which are frequency values less than the fundamental
frequency value, called sub-harmonics. For example, the process of melting metal in an
Department of EEE, KMMITS 10 | P a g e

electric arc furnace can result large currents that are comprised of the fundamental ,
inter harmonic, and sub harmonic frequencies being drawn from the electric power
grid. These levels can be quite high during the melt-down phase, and usually effect the
voltage waveform.
3.2 Why Worry About Harmonics
The presence of harmonics does not mean that the factory or office cannot run
properly. Like other power quality phenomena, it depends on the “stiffness” of the
power distribution system and the susceptibility of the equipment. As shown below,
there are a number of different types of equipment that can have mis operations or
failures due to high harmonic voltage and/or current levels. In addition, one factory
may be the source of high harmonics but able to run properly. This harmonic pollution
is often carried back onto the electric utility distribution system, and may effect
facilities on the same system which are more susceptible.
Some typical types of equipment susceptible to harmonic pollution include: -

Excessive neutral current, resulting in overheated neutrals. The odd triplen harmonics
in three phase wye circuits are actually additive in the neutral. This is because the
harmonic number multiplied by the 120 degree phase shift between phases is a integer
multiple of 360 degrees. This puts the harmonics from each of the three phase legs “in-
phase” with each other in the neutral, as shown in Fig 3.2.
Fig 3.2 Additive Third Harmonics

- Incorrect reading meters, including induction disc W-hr meters and averaging type
current meters.
- Reduced true PF, where PF= Watts/VA.
- Overheated transformers, especially delta windings where triplen harmonics generated
on the load side of a delta-wye transformer will circulate in the primary side. Some type
of losses go up as the square of harmonic value (such as skin effect and eddy current
losses). This is also true for solenoid coils and lighting ballasts.
- Zero, negative sequence voltages on motors and generators. In a balanced system,
voltage harmonics can either be positive (fundamental, 4th, 7th,...), negative (2nd, 5th,
8th...) or zero (3rd, 6th, 9th,...) sequencing values. This means that the voltage at that
particular frequency tries to rotate the motor forward, backward, or neither (just heats
up the motor), respectively. There is also heating from increased losses as in a
transformer.
Table 1: Harmonic Sequencing Values in Balanced Systems

 Nuisance operation of protective devices, including false tripping of relays and
failure of a UPS to transfer properly, especially if controls incorporate zero-
crossing sensing circuits.
 Bearing failure from shaft currents through un insulated bearings of electric
motors.
 Blown-fuses on PF correction caps, due to high voltage and currents from
resonance with line impedance.
 Mis-operation or failure of electronic equipment
 If there are voltage sub harmonics in the range of 1-30Hz, the effect on lighting
is called flicker. This is especially true at 8.8Hz, where the human eye is most
sensitive, and just 0.5% variation in the voltage is noticeable with some types of
lighting.

3.3 Where Harmonics Come From
How this electricity is used by the different type of loads can have an effect on
“purity” of the voltage waveform. Some loads cause the voltage and current waveforms
to lose this pure sine wave appearance and become distorted. This distortion may
consist of predominately harmonics, depending on the type of load and system
impedances.
Since this article is about harmonics, we will concentrate on those types of sources.
“The main sources of harmonic current are at present the phase angle controlled
rectifiers and inverters.” These are often called static power converters. These devices
take AC power and convert it to another form, sometimes back to AC power at the
same or different frequency, based on the firing scheme. The firing scheme refers to the
controlling mechanism that determines how and when current is conducted. One major
variation is the phase angle at which conduction begins and ends.
A typical such converter is the switching-type power supplies found in most personal
computers and peripheral equipment, such as printers. While they offer many benefits
in size, weight and cost, the large increase of this type of equipment over the past
fifteen years is largely responsible for the increased attention to harmonics.
Figure shows below how a switching-type power supply works. The AC voltage is
converted into a DC voltage, which is further converted into other voltages that the
equipment needs to run. The rectifier consists of semi-conductor devices (such as
diodes) that only conduct current in one direction. In order to do so, the voltage on the
one end must be greater than the other end. These devices feed current into a capacitor,
where the voltage value on the cap at any time depends on how much energy is being
taken out by the rest of the power supply.
When the input voltage value is higher than voltage on the capacitor, the diode will
conduct current through it. This result in a current waveform is as shown in Fig 3.3 (a),
and harmonic spectrum in Fig 3.3(b). Obviously, this is not a pure sinusoidal waveform
with only a 60 Hz frequency component.

Fig 3.3(a) Current Waveform
Fig 3.3(b) Harmonic Spectrum of Current Waveform
If the rectifier had only been a half wave rectifier, the waveform would only have
every other current pulse, and the harmonic spectrum would be different, as shown in
Fig 3.3 (b).
Fluorescent lights can be the source of harmonics, as the ballasts are non-linear
inductors. The third harmonic is the predominate harmonic in this case. (See Table 2)
As previously mentioned, the third harmonic current from each phase in a four-wire
wye or star system will be additive in the neutral, instead of cancelling out Some of the
newer electronic ballasts have very significant harmonic problems, as they operate
somewhat like a switching power supply, but can result in current harmonic distortion
levels over 30%.
Table 2: Sample of Harmonic Values for Fluorescent lighting
Low power, AC voltage regulators for light dimmers and small induction motors
adjust the phase angle or point on the wave where conduction occurs. Medium power
converters are used for motor control in manufacturing and railroad applications, and
include such equipment as ASDs (adjustable speed drives) and VFDs (variable
frequency drives). Metal reduction operations, like electric arc furnaces, and high
voltage DC transmission employ large power converters, in the 2-20MVA rating.
This type of 3-phase equipment may also cause other types of power quality
problems. When the semiconductor device is suppose to turn-off, it does not do so
abruptly. This happens under “naturally” commutated conditions, where the voltage
that was larger on the anode side compared to the cathode is now the opposite. This
occurs each cycle as the voltage waveform goes through the sine waveform. It also
happens under “forced” commutation conditions, where the semi-conductor device has
a “gate”-type control mechanism built in to it. This commutation period is a time when
two semiconductor devices are both conducting current at the same time, effectively
shorting one phase to the other and resulting in large current transients.

When transformers are first energized, the current drawn is different from the steady
state condition. This is caused by the inrush of the magnetizing current. The harmonics
during this period varies over time. Some harmonics have zero value for part of the
time, and then increase for a while before returning to zero. An unbalanced transformer
(where either the output current, winding impedance or input voltage on each leg are
not equal) will cause harmonics, as will overvoltage saturation of a transformer.
3.4 Where to look for Harmonics
Wherever the aforementioned equipment is used, one can suspect that harmonics are
present. The amount of voltage harmonics will often depend on the amount of harmonic
currents being drawn by the load, and the source impedance, which includes all of the
wiring and transformers back to the source of the electricity. Ohm’s Law says that
Voltage equals Current multiplied by Impedance. This is true for harmonic values as
well. If the source harmonic impedance is very low (often referred to as a “stiff”
system) then the harmonic currents will result in lower harmonic voltages than if the
source impedance were high (such as found with some types of isolation transformers).
Like any power quality investigation, the search can begin at the equipment effected
by the problem or at the point-of-common-coupling (PCC), where the utility service
meets the building distribution system. If only one piece of equipment is effected (or
suspected), it is often easier to start the monitoring process there. If the source is
suspected to be from the utility service side (such is the case when there is a
neighbouring factory that is known to generate high harmonics), then monitoring
usually begins at the PCC.
The phase voltages and currents, as well as the neutral-to-ground voltage and neutral
current should be monitored, where possible. This will aid in pinpointing problems, or
detecting marginal systems. Monitoring the neutral will often show a high 3rd harmonic
value, indicating the presence of non-linear loads in the facility.

3.5 How do you find Harmonics
Hand-held harmonic meters can be useful tools for making spot checks for known
harmonic problems. However, harmonic values will often change during the day, as
different loads are turned on and off within the facility or in other facilities on the same
electric utility distribution system. This requires the use of a harmonic monitor or
power quality monitor with harmonic capabilities (such as shown in Figure 8), which
can record the harmonic values over a period of time.
Fig 3.5 Power Quality Monitor with Harmonic Analysis
Typically, monitoring will last for one business cycle. A business cycle is how long it
takes for the normal operation of the plant to repeat itself. For example, if a plant runs
three identical shifts, seven days a week, then a business cycle would be eight hours.
More typically, a business cycle is one week, as different operations take place on a
Monday, when the plant equipment is restarted after being off over the weekend, then
on a Wednesday, or a Saturday, when only a Skelton crew may be working.

Certain types of loads also generate typical harmonic spectrum signatures that can
point the investigator towards the source. This is related to the number of pulses, or
paths of conduction. The general equation is h = ( n * p ) +/- 1, where h is the harmonic
number, n is any integer (1,2,3,..) and p is the number of pulses in the circuit, and the
magnitude decreases as the ration of 1/h (1/3, 1/5, 1/7, 1/9,...). Table 4 shows examples
of such.
Table 3: Typical Harmonics Found for Different Converters
3.6 When are they a problem?
Most electrical loads (except half-wave rectifiers) produce symmetrical current

waveforms, which mean that the positive half of the waveform looks like a mirror
image of the negative half. This results in only odd harmonic values being present.
Even harmonics will disrupt this half-wave symmetry. The presence of these even
harmonics should cause the investigator to suspect there is a half-wave rectifier on the
circuit. This also results from a full wave rectifier when one side of the rectifier has
blown or damaged components. Early detection of this condition in a UPS system can
prevent a complete failure when the load is switched onto back-up power.
To determine what is normal or acceptable levels, a number of standards have been

developed by various organizations. ANSI/IEEE C57.110 Recommended Practice for
Establishing Transformer Compatibility When Supplying No sinusoidal Load Currents
is a useful document for determining how much a transformer should be derated from
its nameplate rating when operating in the presence of harmonics. There are two
parameters typically used, called K-factor and TDF (transformer dereading factor).
Some power quality harmonic monitors will automatically calculate these values.
IEEE 519-1992 Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in
Electrical Power Systems provides guidelines from determining what acceptable limits
are. The harmonic limits for current depend on the ratio of Short Circuit Current (SCC)
at PCC (or how stiff it is) to average Load Current of maximum demand over 1 year, as
illustrated in Table 5. Note how the limit decreases at the higher harmonic values, and
increases with larger ratios.
RATIO Iscc/ I load Harmonic Range Limit as % of

Fundamental
Less than 20 Odd numbers less than 4.0%
11
Between 20 and 50 Odd numbers less than 7.0%
11
Greater than 100 Odd numbers greater 1.4%
than 35
Table 4: Current Harmonic Limits as per IEEE 519-1992
For voltage harmonics, the voltage level of the system is used to determine the limits,
as shown in Table 5. At the higher voltages, more customers will be effective, hence,
the lower limits.
Table 5: Voltage Harmonic Limits as per IEEE 519-1992
The European Community has also developed susceptibility and emission limits for\
harmonics. Formerly known as the 555-2 standard for appliances of less than 16 A, a
more encompassing set of standards under IEC 1000-4-7 are now in effect.
3.7 How do you get rid of them?

Care should be undertaken to make sure that the corrective action taken to minimize
the harmonic problems don’t actually make the system worse. This can be the result of
resonance between harmonic filters, PF correcting capacitors and the system
impedance.
Isolating harmonic pollution devices on separate circuits with or without the use of
harmonic filters are typical ways of mitigating the effects of such. Loads can be
relocated to try to balance the system better. Neutral conductors should be properly
sized according to the latest NEC-1996 requirements covering such. Whereas the
neutral may have been undersized in the past, it may now be necessary to run a second
neutral wire that is the same size as the phase conductors. This is particularly important
with some modular office partition-type walls, which can exhibit high impedance
values. The operating limits of transformers and motors should be derated, in
accordance with industry standards from IEEE, ANSI and NEMA on such. Use of
higher pulse converters, such as 24-pulse rectifiers, can eliminate lower harmonic
values, but at the expense of creating higher harmonic values.
3.8 TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION

Harmonic problems are almost always introduced by the consumers’ equipment and
installation practices. Harmonic distortion is caused by the high use of non-linear load
equipment such as computer power supplies, electronic ballasts, compact fluorescent
lamps and variable speed drives etc, which create high current flow with harmonic
frequency components. The limiting rating for most electrical circuit elements is
determined by the amount of heat that can be dissipated to avoid overheating of bus
bars, circuit breakers, neutral conductors, transformer windings or generator alternators.
3.8.1 Definition
THD is defined as the RMS value of the waveform remaining when the fundamental
is removed. A perfect sine wave is 100%, the fundamental is the system frequency of
50 or 60Hz. Harmonic distortion is caused by the introduction of waveforms at
frequencies in multiplies of the fundamental ie: 3rd harmonic is 3x the fundamental
frequency / 150Hz. Total harmonic distortion is a measurement of the sum value of the
waveform that is distorted.

Fig 3.6 Waveform for 10th Harmonic
3.9 Power Measurement

Despite the use of good quality test meter instrumentation, high current flow can often
remain undetected or under estimated by as much 40%. This severe underestimation
causes overly high running temperatures of equipment and nuisance tripping. This is
simply because the average reading test meters commonly used by maintenance
technicians, is not designed to accurately measure distorted currents, and can only
provide indication of the condition of the supply at the time of checking. Power quality
conditions change continuously, and only instruments offering true RMS measurement
of distorted waveforms and neutral currents can provide the correct measurements to
accurately determine the ratings of cables, bus bars and circuit breakers.
3.10 Neutral Currents

High harmonic environments can produce unexpected and dangerous neutral currents.
In a balanced system, the fundamental currents will cancel out, but, triple- N’s will add,
so harmonic currents at the 3rd, 9th, 15th etc. will flow in the neutral. Traditional 3
phase system meters are only able to calculate the vector of line to neutral current
measurements, which may not register the true reading. Integra 1530, 1560 and 1580
offer a 3 phase 4 wire version with a neutral 4th CT allowing true neutral current
measurement and protection in high harmonic environments.
3.11 Harmonic Profiles

There is much discussion over the practical harmonic range of a measurement
instrument; however study of the harmonic profiles of typically installed equipment can
guide the system designer to the practical solution. A typical harmonic profile graph
will show a logarithmic decay as the harmonic frequency increases. It is necessary to
establish the upper level at which the harmonic content is negligible.
For Example:

A laptop switch mode power supply causes approximately 25% of 3rd harmonic, 19%
of 5th harmonic, 10% of 7th harmonic and 5% of 9th harmonic etc. Therefore it can be
seen that almost all the harmonic content in an IT dominated load will be below the
15th harmonic. In a 3 phase load incorporating 6 pulse bridge technology as is common
in many variable speed drives, UPS systems and DC converters, similar profiles will be
observed but extending to the 25th and 27th harmonic. It can therefore be deduced that
in the majority of industrial and commercial applications an instrument measuring up to
the 31st harmonic is ideal.

CHAPTER-4
RAILWAY POWER QUALITY
CONDITIONER
4. RAILWAY POWER QUALITY CONDITIONER
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The AC electrified railway systems have the power quality problems such as the
reactive power consumption and the load imbalance due to their inherent electrical
characteristics of single-phase and nonlinear moving loads. Also the power electronics
equipments in the AC electrified railway systems produce the large amount of
harmonic currents. These power quality problems in the AC electrified railway systems
have a bad effect on themselves as well as other electric systems connected together.
Therefore a power quality compensator is required to maintain the proper power quality
in the AC electrified railway systems. There are many researches on the power quality
compensator for improving power quality in the AC electrified railway applications.
Especially, a single-phase active power filter and a single-phase hybrid active power
filter, being composed of a passive power filter and an active power filter, have been
studied. Most of the active power filters are connected in parallel with M-phase and T-
phase secondary outputs of Scott transformer respectively. Although they can
compensate the harmonic currents and the reactive power, the load imbalance cannot be
compensated. A three-phase active power filter for power quality compensation has
been proposed. However, the three-phase active power filter installed at the three-phase
mains requires the high-voltage rating. Another active power quality compensator,
being composed of a three-phase inverter and a Scott transformer. An active power
quality compensator with two single-phase inverters connected back-to-back (that is
called the RPQC in this project). The RPQC requires no additional Scott transformer
and can be operated at lower voltage level than the three-phase active power filter. In
spite of these merits, there are few researches on the control of RPQC. A novel control
algorithm based on SRF for the RPQC is proposed. The proposed RPQC control
algorithm can properly compensate the harmonic currents, the reactive power, and the
load imbalance. The effectiveness and the validity of the proposed control algorithm are
demonstrated through the simulations.

4.2 Structure of the RPQC
Fig 4.2 Configuration of RPQC
Fig 4.2 shows an AC electrified railway system adopting the RPQC. The RPQC
consists of two single-phase inverters sharing a DC-link capacitor. Each of the single
phase inverters is connected with M-phase and T-phase feeder of the Scott transformer.
The RPQC controller is shown in Fig. 4.2.1 consists of the DC-link voltage for the DC-
link voltage regulation, the inverter currents for the current control, and the load
currents for the harmonic extraction are required as the controller inputs. The RPQC
can compensate not only the harmonic currents and reactive power, but also the load
imbalance by exchanging the active power deviation between M-phase and T-phase
feeders through the DC-link capacitor. Fig 4.2.1 shows an AC electrified railway
system adopting the RPQC. The RPQC consists of two single-phase inverters sharing a
DC-link capacitor. Each of the single phase inverters is connected with M-phase and T-
phase feeder of the Scott transformer.

Fig 4.2.1 RPQC control
4.3 Harmonic Compensation

The load current of the M-phase feeder that means the current flowing into the
locomotives is expressed as follows
............... .. (1)
After transforming the load current in equation (1) into the SRF coordinate, the
respective d-q components can be expressed as the following equations (2) and (3).
................. ... .(2)
....................... (3)
where, M Ld I − and M Lq I − are the DC values of the load current on the SRF. The
DC values of the d-q axis are obtained by using the low pass filters. M Ld I − % and M
Lq I − % are the AC values of the load current on the SRF, which means the harmonic
contents of the load current. Therefore, when the d-q DC values are subtracted from the
d-q load currents, the d-q harmonic currents to be compensated are obtained. Fig. 4.3
shows the method to extract the harmonic components from the load current.
Fig 4.3 harmonic current extraction

4.3.1 Reactive power compensation
The M-phase voltage is represented as follows
.................. (4)
Through substituting equations (2) and (3) into equation (1), equation (5) can be
derived as follows
............. (5)
Therefore, the single-phase instantaneous active power and reactive power can be
described as equations (6) and (7).
.................. (6)
....................... (7)
where, VM−Lrms and IM−Lrms denote the RMS value of vM−L and vM−L, respectively. It is
shown that the single phase instantaneous active power depends on the d-axis current
value, while the instantaneous reactive power depends on the q-axis current value. The
source current, iM− s is made by the load current of M-phase, iM− L and the inverter
current, iM−inv, as in equation (8)
....................................... (8)
If the q-axis value of the source current becomes zero through the compensation of the
q-axis current, the corresponding reactive power can be compensated. Fig 4.3.1 shows
the control blocks of reactive power compensation algorithm.

Fig 4.3.1 Reactive power compensation algorithm
4.3.2 Load imbalance compensation

It is shown in equation (6) that the single-phase instantaneous active power can be
properly controlled by controlling the d-axis current. If the harmonic currents and the
reactive power have been compensated by the proposed compensation algorithm, the
load imbalance is provoked by a deviation between the active power load of the M-
phase and that of the T-phase. For example, the load current of the M-phase is larger
than the T-phase when the load of the M-phase is larger than T-phase, then the load
imbalance problem is occurred. This results into that the d-axis current of the M-phase
is larger than that of the T-phase. The d-axis values of the M-phase and the T-phase are
equal to each other when three-phase balancing condition is considered. This load
imbalance compensation can be achieved if the difference between the d-axis source
currents of the Mphase and the T-phase is controlled to be zero.
Fig 4.3.2 Load imbalance compensation algorithm
4.4 DC-link voltage regulation

The DC-link voltage regulator has a role in compensating power losses of the RPQC as
well as the voltage regulation. Fig. 4.4 shows the control blocks of DC-link voltage
regulation algorithm.
Fig 4.4 DC-link voltage regulation algorithm

4.5 Overall RPQC controller
Fig. 4.5 shows the structure of overall RPQC control scheme. M-phase controller and
T-phase controller are fundamentally on the same structure together. However, in this
paper, the T-phase controller involves the DC-link voltage regulation loop, and the sign
of load imbalance compensation loop of the M-phase and the T-phase controller is
opposite because the reference direction of power flow is on the T-phase. The DC-link
voltage regulation and the load imbalance compensation are achieved on the d-axis and
the reactive power compensation is performed on the q-axis. The harmonic currents
compensation is performed on both of the d-q axis. Hysteresis current control is
employed for the inverter current control.
Fig 4.5 Control block diagram of overall RPQC controller

CHAPTER-5
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
5. SEMI CONDUCTOR DEVICES
5.1 INTEGRATED BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR

IGBT has been developed by combining into it the best qualities of both BJT and
PMOSFET. Thus an IGBT possesses high input impedance like a PMOSFET and has
low on-state power loss as in a BJT. Further, IGBT is free from second breakdown
problem present in BJT. All these merits have made IGBT very popular amongst
power-electronics engineers. IGBT is also known as metal oxide insulated gate
transistor (MOSIGT), conductively-modulated field effect transistor (COMFET) or
gain-modulated FET (GEMFET). It was also initially called insulated gate transistor
(IGT).
The insulated-gate bipolar transistor or IGBT is a three-terminal power

semiconductor device, noted for high efficiency and fast switching. It switches electric
power in many modern appliances: electric cars, variable speed refrigerators, air-
conditioners, and even stereo systems with digital amplifiers. Since it is designed to
rapidly turn on and off, amplifiers that use it often synthesize complex waveforms with
pulse width modulation and low-pass filters.
The IGBT combines the simple gate-drive characteristics of the MOSFETs

with the high-current and low–saturation-voltage capability of bipolar transistors by
combining an isolated-gate FET for the control input, and a bipolar power transistor as
a switch, in a single device. The IGBT is used in medium- to high-power applications
such as switched-mode power supply, traction motor control and induction heating.
Large IGBT modules typically consist of many devices in parallel and can have very
high current handling capabilities in the order of hundreds of amps with blocking
voltages of 6,000 V.
The IGBT is a fairly recent invention. The first-generation devices of the

1980s and early 1990s were relatively slow in switching, and prone to failure through
such modes as latch up and secondary breakdown. Second-generation devices were
much improved, and the current third-generation ones are even better, with speed
rivaling MOSFETs, and excellent ruggedness and tolerance of over loads.

5.1.1 Basic Structure
Fig 5.1 illustrates the basic structure of an IGBT. It is constructed virtually in
the same manner as a power MOSFET. There is, however, a major difference in the
substrate. The n+ layer substrate at the drain in a PMOSFET is now substituted in the
IGBT by a p+ layer substrate called collector C. Like a power MOSFET, an IGBT has
also thousands of basic structure cell connected approximately on a single chip of
silicon.
In IGBT, p+ substrate is called injection layer because it injects holes

into n- layer. The n- layer is called drift region. As in other semiconductor devices,
thickness of n- layer determines the voltage blocking capability of IGBT. The p layer is
called body of IGBT. The n- layer in between p+ and p regions serves to accommodate
the depletion layer of pn- junction, i.e. junction J2.
Fig 5.1 IGBT Structure

5.2 N-Channel IGBT Cross Section
5.2.1 Equivalent Circuit

An examination of reveals that if we move vertically up from
collector to emitter. We come across p+, n- , p layer s. Thus, IGBT can be thought of as
the combination of MOSFET and p+ n - p layer s. Thus, IGBT can be thought of as the
combination of MOSFET and p+ n- p transistor Q1 .Here Rd is resistance offered by n –
drift region. An approximate equivalent circuit of an IGBT is shown in Fig 5.2 (a) &
(b).

(a)MOSFET Circuit Symbol (b) MOSFET Basic Structure
Fig 5.2 (a) & (b) MOSFET Equivalent Circuit

The existence of another path from collector to emitter, this path is collector, p +, n-, p
(n-channel), n+ and emitter. There is, thus, another inherent transistor Q2 as n- pn+ in
the structure of IGBT. The interconnection between two transistors Q1 and Q2.This
gives the complete equivalent circuit of an IGBT. Here R by is the existence offered by p
region to flow of hole current Ih .
The two transistor equivalent circuit illustrates that an IGBT structure

has a parasitic thyristor in it. Parasitic thyristor is shown in line.
5.2.2 Working
When collector is made positive with respect to emitter, IGBT gets forward
biased. With no voltage between gate and emitter, two junctions between n- region and
p region (i.e. junction J2) are reversed biased; so no current flows from collector to
emitter
When gate is made positive with respect to emitter by voltage V G, with gate-emitter
voltage more than the threshold voltage VGET of IGBT, an n-channel or inversion layer,
is formed in the upper part of p region just beneath the gate, as in PMOSFET. This n-
channel short circuits the n- region with n+ emitter regions. Electrons from the n+
emitter begin to flow to n- drift region through n-channel. As IGBT is forward biased
with collector positive and emitter negative, p+ collector region injects holes into n-
drift region .In short; n-drift region is flooded with electrons from p-body region and
holes from p+ collector region. With this, the injection carrier density in n- drift region

increases considerably and as a result, conductivity of n- region enhances significantly.
Therefore, IGBT gets turned on and begins to conducts forward current IC.
Current Ic , or Ie of two current components:
 Holes current Ih due to injected holes flowing from collector , p+ n- p transistor Q1, p-
body region resistance Rby and emitter .
 Electronic current Ie due to injected electrons flowing from collector, or load, current
IC=emitter current Ie=Ih+Ie.
Major component of collector current is electronic current Ie, i.e. main current path for
collector, or load, current is through p+, n -, drift resistance Rd and n-channel resistance
Rch. Therefore, the voltage drop in IGBT in its on-state is
Vc e . o n = I c . R c h + I c . Rd + V j i
=voltage drop [in n - channel] + across drift in n- region + across

forward biased p+ n- junction J1.
Here Vji is usually 0.7 to 1v as in a p-n diode. The voltage drop Ic. Rch is due to n-
channel resistance, almost the same as in a PMOSFET. The voltage drop Vdf = Ic.Rd in
UGBT is much less than that in PMOSFET. It is due to substantial increase in the
conductivity caused by injection of electrons and holes in n- drift region. The
conductivity increase is the main reason for the low on-state voltage drop in IGBT than
that it is in PMOSFET.
5.3 IGBT Characteristics

The Fig 5.3 shows the various parameters pertaining to IGBT
characteristics. Static I-V or output characteristics of an IGBT (n-channel type) show
the plot of collector current Ic versus collector-emitter voltage Vce for various values of
gate-emitter voltages VGE1, VGE2 etc .These characteristics are shown below .In the
forward direction, the shape of the output characteristics is similar to that of BJT . But
here the controlling parameter is gate-emitter voltage VGE because IGBT is a voltage
controlled device. When the device is off, junctionJ2 blocks forward voltage and in

case reverse voltage appears across collector and emitter, junction J1 blocks it. Vrm is
the maximum reverse breakdown voltage.
The transfer characteristic of an IGBT is a plot of collector current Ic versus

gate-emitter voltage VGE .This characteristics is identical to that of power MOSFET.
When VGE is less than the threshold voltage VGET, IGBT is in the off state.
Fig 5.3 Static V-I characteristics
5.3.1 Switching Characteristics

Switching characteristics of an IGBT during turn-on and turn-off are
sketched. The turn-on time is defined as the time between by instance of forward
blocking to forward on-state. Turn-on time is composed of delay time t dn and rise time tr
, i.e., ton=tdn+tr. The delay time is defined as the time for the collector-emitter voltage to
fall from VCE to 0.9 VCE. Here VCE is the initial collector-emitter voltage. Time tdn may
also be defined as the time for the collector current to rise from its initial leakage
current Ice to 0.1 Ic. Here Ic is the final value of the collector current.
The rise time t r is the time during which collector-emitter falls from
0.9VCE to 0.1VCE. IT is also defined as the time for the collector current to rise from
0.1Ic to its final value Ic. After time ton, the collector current Ic and the collector-emitter
voltage falls to small value called conduction drop=VCES where subscript s denotes
saturated value.
The turn-off time is somewhat complex. It consists of three intervals
 Delay time tdf
 Initial fall time tf1
 Final time tf2

i.e. toff=tdf+tf1+tf2
The delay time is the time during which gate voltage falls from VGE to threshold voltage
VGET.As VGE falls to VGET during tdf, the collector current falls from Ic to 0.9 Ic. At the
end of the tdf, collector-emitter voltage begins to rise. The first fall time T f1 is defined as
the time during which collector current falls from 90 to 20 % of its initial value I c, or
the time during which collector-emitter voltage rises from VCES to 0.1 VCE.
The final fall time t f2 is the time during which collector current falls
from 20 to 10% of Ic, or the time during which collector-emitter voltage rises from 0.1
VCE to final value VCE.
5.4 Applications of IGBTs
IGBTs are widely used in medium power applications such as AC and DC

motor drives, UPS systems, power supplies and drives for solenoids, relays and
contactors. Though IGBTs are somewhat more expensive than BJTs, yet they are
becoming popular because of lower gate-drive requirement, lower switching losses and
smaller snubber circuit requirements. IGBT converter are more efficient with less size
as well as cost, as compared to converters based on BJTs. Recently, IGBT inverter
induction-motor drives using 15-20KHZ. Switching frequency favour where audio-
noise is objectionable. In most applications, IGBTs will eventually push out BJTs. At
present, the state of the art IGBTs of 1200vots, 500 Amps ratings, 0.25-20 µs turn off
time with operating frequency are available.
5.5 INVERTER
Generally inverters are of Two Types:
 Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

 Current Source Inverter (CSI)
5.6 Single-phase voltage source inverters (VSI):

Single-phase voltage source inverters (VSIs) can be found as half-bridge and full-
bridge topologies. Although the power range they cover is the low one, they are widely
used in power supplies, single-phase UPSs, and currently to form elaborate high-power
static power topologies, such as for instance, the multi cell configurations that are

reviewed. The main features of both approaches are reviewed and presented in the
following.
5.6.1 Types of VSI:

5.6.2 Half-Bridge VSI:
Fig 5.5 shows the circuit for Single phase Half-Bridge VSI The power topology of a
half-bridge VSI, where two large capacitors are required to provide a neutral point N,
such that each capacitor maintains a constant voltage=2. Because the current harmonics
injected by the operation of the inverter are low-order harmonics, a set of large
capacitors (C. and Cÿ) is required. It is clear that both switches S. and Sÿ cannot be on
simultaneously because short circuit across the dc link voltage source vi would be
produced. There are two defined (states 1 and 2) and one undefined (state 3) switch
state as shown. In order to avoid the short circuit across the dc bus and the undefined ac
output voltage condition, the modulating technique should always ensure that at any
instant either the top or the bottom switch of the inverter leg is on.
Fig 5.4 Single Phase Half-Bridge VSI

Shows the ideal waveforms associated with the half-bridge inverter shown in Fig. 5.5.
The states for the switches S. and Sÿ are defined by the modulating technique, which in
this case is a carrier-based PWM.
Fig 5.5 Ideal waveforms of Half-Bridge Inverter

5.6.3 Full-Bridge VSI:
Fig 5.6 shows the circuit for Single phase Full-Bridge VSI. This inverter is similar to
the half-bridge inverter; however, a second leg provides the neutral point to the load.
As expected, both switches S1 and S1ÿ (or S2. and S2ÿ) cannot be on simultaneously
because a short circuit across the dc link voltage source vi would be produced. There
are four defined and one undefined conditions.
The undefined condition should be avoided so as to be always capable of defining the

ac output voltage. In order to avoid the short circuit across the dc bus and the undefined
ac output voltage condition, the modulating technique should ensure that either the top
or the bottom switch of each leg is on at any instant. It can be observed that the ac
output voltage can take values up to the dc link value vi , which is twice that obtained
with half-bridge VSI topologies. Several modulating techniques have been developed
that are applicable to full-bridge VSIs. Among them are the PWM (bipolar and
unipolar) techniques.
Fig 5.6 Full Bridge Inverter
5.7 Current Source Inverters (CSI):

The main objective of these static power converters is tom produce ac output current
waveforms from a dc current power supply. For sinusoidal ac outputs, its magnitude,
frequency, and phase should be controllable. Due to the fact that the ac line currents i oa,
iob, and ioc feature high di=dt, a capacitive filter should be connected at the ac terminals
in inductive load applications (such as ASDs).
Thus, nearly sinusoidal load voltages are generated that justifies the use of these
topologies in medium-voltage industrial applications, where high-quality voltage
waveforms are required.

The dc bus is of the current-source type and thus it cannot be opened; therefore, there
must be at least one top switch and one bottom switch (closed at all times. Note that
both constraints can be summarized by stating that at any time, only one top switch and
one bottom switch must be closed.
Fig 5.7 Current Source Inverters
There are nine valid states in three-phase CSIs. Produce zero ac line currents. In this
case, the dc link current freewheels through either the switches S 1 and S4, switches S3
and S6, or switches S5 and S2.
The remaining states produce nonzero ac output line currents. In order to generate a
given set of ac line current waveforms, the inverter must move from one state to
another. Thus, the resulting line currents consist of discrete values of current, which are
ii , 0, and ÿii . The selection of the states in order to generate the given waveforms is
done by the modulating technique that should ensure the use of only the valid states.
5.8 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION CONTROL

The fundamental magnitude of the output voltage from an inverter can be controlled to
be constant by exercising control within the inverter itself that is no external control is
required. The most efficient method of doing this is by Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM) control used within the inverter. In this scheme the inverter is fed by a fixed
input voltage and a controlled ac voltage is obtained by adjusting the on and the off
periods of the inverter components.
The advantages of the PWM control scheme are:

a) The output voltage control can be obtained without addition of any external
components.

b) PWM minimizes the lower order harmonics, while the higher order harmonics can
be eliminated using a filter.
The disadvantage possessed by this scheme is that the switching devices used in the
inverter are expensive as they must possess low turn on and turn off times, nevertheless
PWM operated are very popular in all industrial equipments. PWM techniques are
characterized by constant amplitude pulses with different duty cycles for each period.
The width of these pulses are modulated to obtain inverter output voltage control and to
reduce its harmonic content. There are different PWM techniques which essentially
differ in the harmonic content of their respective output voltages, thus the choice of a
particular PWM technique depends on the permissible harmonic content in the inverter
output voltage.
5.8.1 Sinusoidal-Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM)

The sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) method also known as the triangulation, sub
harmonic, or sub oscillation method, is very popular in industrial applications. The
SPWM is explained with reference to Figure 5.8.1, which is the half-bridge circuit
topology for a single-phase inverter.
Fig 5.8.1 Schematic diagram for Half-Bridge PWM inverter

For realizing SPWM, a high-frequency triangular carrier wave is compared with a
sinusoidal reference of the desired frequency. The intersection of and waves determines
the switching instants and commutation of the modulated pulse. The PWM scheme is
illustrated in Figure 5.8.1.1, in which v is the peak value of triangular carrier wave and
v that of the reference or modulating signal. The figure shows the triangle and

modulation signal with some arbitrary frequency and magnitude. In the inverter of
Figure 5.8.1 the switches are controlled based on the comparison of control signal and
the triangular wave which are mixed in a comparator. When sinusoidal wave has
magnitude higher than the triangular wave the comparator output is high, otherwise it is
low.
................... (5.1)
And
.................... (5.2)
(a) Sine-Triangle Comparison

(b) Switching Pulses after comparison.
Fig 5.8.1.1(a) & (b) SPWM illustration
The comparator output is processes in a trigger pulse generator in such a manner

that the output voltage wave of the inverter has a pulse width in agreement with the
comparator output pulse width. The magnitude ratio of vr/vc is called the modulation
index (mi) and it controls the harmonic content of the output voltage waveform. The
magnitude of fundamental component of output voltage is proportional to mi. The
amplitude vc of the triangular wave is generally kept constant. The frequency–
modulation ratio mf is defined as
................. (5.3)
To satisfy the Kirchhoff’s Voltage law (KVL) constraint, the switches on the same leg
are not turned on at the same time, which gives the condition
................... (5.4)
for each leg of the inverter. This enables the output voltage to fluctuate between V d/2
and −Vd/2as shown in Figure 2.4 for a dc voltage of 200 V.

Fig 5.8.1.2 Output voltage of the Half-Bridge inverter

CHAPTER-6
MODELLING OF CASE STUDY
6. MODELLING OF CASE STUDY
6.1 RPC Structure and Analysis of Compensation Principle:

The structure of RPC is shown in Fig.6.1. Three phase 220kV voltage is stepped down
into two single-phase power supply voltage at the rank of 27.5kV by V/V transformer.
RPC is made of back-to-back voltage source converters and a common dc capacitor,
which can provide stable dc-link voltage. Two converters are connected to secondary
arms of V/V transformer by step down transformer. Two converters can transfer active
power from one power supply arm to another, supply reactive power and suppressing
harmonic currents.
Fig 6.1 Traction power system with a three-phase V/V transformer and a RPC
The right feeder section in Fig.1 is denoted as a-phase power arm, while that the left
side is b-phase power arm. The corresponding phases on the primary side are denoted
as Phase A and Phase B, respectively. Since using four-quadrant pulse rectifiers to feed
electrical locomotives, the power factor of high speed electrical locomotive is close to
1. Set UA as the reference value. Assume that the fundamental current vector of a-phase
power arm isaL and the fundamental current vector of b-phase power arm is IbL . IaL and
IbL are shown as follows :
................. (6.0)
The turns ratio of V/V transformer is K, so the three currents of the high-voltage side
are shown as follows:

.............. (6.1)
Before RPC compensation, a-phase power arm has load current aL and the b-phase
power arm has load current bL. Assume that , the three phase current is shown in
Fig.6.1.1
Fig 6.1.1 Three-phase current phase diagram without compensation

It is obvious that three phase current is unbalance before compensation. Use RPC to
shift (IaL – IbL) from a-phase to b-phase. Then, the current of two power arms are
compensated to and , and they have an equal amplitude of (I aL + IbL) and an angle
difference of π/3 . The unbalance level is 50% now.
On the basis of active power transfer, RPC should compensate a certain quantity of
capacitive reactive current Icaq on the power arm a and a certain quantity of inductive
reactive current Icbq on the power arm b, which can make the current of a-phase power
arm lead the corresponding voltage π /6 . At this point, the reactive current should be
calculated as follows:
.................. (6.3)
Fig 6.1.2 Three-phase current phase diagram after adjusting

active and reactive power by RPC

After the compensation, the currents IA and IB have the same amplitude, as shown in
Fig.3, and their angle difference is 2π/3 . The C phase current IC can be obtained as IC
= −IA − IB . The primary side of traction transformer has a balance three-phase current
after active power shift and reactive power compensation. It is similar when IaL < IbL.
The common expression of RPC compensation current is:
................. (6.4)
, --the equivalent current of RPC converters of a-phase arm and b-phase arm at the
ca cb
voltage of 27.5 kV
6.2 PRINCIPLE OF COLLABORATION COMPENSATION:

Since phase sequence rotation is widely adopted in traction power supply system, 3
stations collaboration compensation is mainly discussed in this paper. The structure of 3
stations collaboration compensation is shown in Fig 6.1.

Fig 6.1 Schematic diagram of collaboration compensation of three stations
The capacity in phase CA, AB and BC is x,y,z , which has a relationship of x>y>z. The
network of x,y,z can be divided into two parts, the one is a balanced network of z,z,z ,
the other is an unbalanced network of x-z, y-z, 0. Assume that X = x − z, Y = y − z, the
original network is simplified as X,Y,0 . Set X/2 as the reference value, the p.u. value of
the simplified network is 2, Y′, 0. Y′ is varying from 0 to 2. The extreme case is Y′ =0.
The optimize compensation strategy is shown below:
A. Single RPC compensation:
Based on the compensation strategy of RPC, when there is a maximum capacity in one
of the traction feeder arms, RPC transfers active power from one traction feeder arm to
another. And then compensates reactive power to both traction feeder arms based on
Steinmetz theory. So the compensation capacity of single RPC is:
................. (6.1)
B. Three stations collaboration compensation:
The simple model of 3 stations structure is shown in Fig.6.2.1. Since RPC could
transfer a quantity of active power and compensate reactive power, a triangle is applied
to illustrate the principle of collaboration compensation: apexes of the triangle are
regarded as active load in Phase-AC, Phase-BC and Phase- AB, and edges of the
triangle are regarded as three railway power conditioners. The arrows mean the delivery
of active power (real part) and compensation of reactive power (imaginary part). There
are three steps to compensate. Firstly, transfer a quantity of active power. Secondly,
separate the network into two parts: a balanced network and an unbalanced network.
And last, make compensation to the unbalanced network based on the Steinmetz theory.
(a) Active power delivery (b) Three phase power after active power
delivery

(c) Reactive power
compensation based on Steinmetz theory
Fig 6.2.1(a),(b)&(c) Compensation strategy
under the condition of 2,0,0
According to the Steinmetz theory, fully
compensation should satisfy the relationship of . The capacity of three
RPC is , separately. The installed capacity will be the

maximum of the three RPC capacities above. So we can obtain the minimum installed
capacity when .
1 1
The results can be conducted that a= , b = and the minimum capacity is
3 3√3
. This is a fully compensation but the station where RPC2

installed is capacitive. To avoid this condition, RPC1 supply inductive reactive power
with the value of b, and RPC2 supply capacitive reactive power with the value of b, too.
So the capacitive condition is avoided and the system keeps balance at the same time.
Working condition of three stations is shown in Fig.6.2.2 The ellipses stand for
different traction feeder arms, the squares stand for RPC which connect to traction
feeder arms. The arrows stand for active power transfer and reactive power
compensation.

Fig 6.2.2 Working condition of three stations which supply active power and reactive
power
Three stations collaboration compensation minimum capacity is:
................. (6.2.1)
This is 2/3 of the capacity of single RPC compensation. Tab.6 shows the
compensation capacity of the two strategies.
Table 6: Comparison of Two Compensation Method
It can be proved that this installed capacity (0.1925X) can satisfy any condition when Y'
varying from 0 to 2.
If there is N stations connect to one 220kV bus, N may be 3n, 3n+1 or 3n+2
(n=0,1,2…). When N=3n, it means there are n sets of 3-stations compensation. When
N=3n+1, it means there are n sets of 3-stations compensation and a single station
compensation. When N=3n+2, it means there are n sets of 3- stations compensation and
2 single station compensation.

CHAPTER-7
MATLAB DESIGN OF CASE
STUDY AND CONCLUSION
7. MATLAB DESIGN OF CASE STUDY AND CONCLUSION
MATLAB is a numerical computation and simulation tool that was developed into a
commercial tool with a user friendly interface from the numerical function libraries
LINPACK and EISPACK, which were originally written in the FORTRAN
programming language.
As opposed to the well-known computer algebra programs, such as MAPLE or
MATHEMATICA, which are capable of performing symbolic operations and,
therefore, calculating with mathematical equations as a person would normally do with
paper and pencil, in principle MATLAB does purely numerical calculations.
Nevertheless, computer algebra functionality can be achieved within the MATLAB
environment using the so-called “symbolics” toolbox.
Simulink, developed by MathWorks, is a data flow graphical programming language
tool for modeling, simulating and analyzing multidomain dynamic systems. Its primary
interface is a graphical block diagramming tool and a customizable set of block
libraries. It offers tight integration with the rest of the MATLAB environment and can
either drive MATLAB or be scripted from it. Simulink is widely used in control theory
and digital signal processing for multidomain simulation and Model-Based Design.
7.1 MATLAB Simulink for RPC Compensation
Simulation is done to proof the correctness of the theory by MATLAB/Simulink.
Hence the parameters of Single & Multiple RPC Compensation are taken as follows
Assume the maximum load capacity appears at a-phase power arm, that is PAC = 1 .
The base capacity is Pbase = 20MW , and the short-circuit capacity is 750MVA. The
power of b-phase locomotive load is 0. The a-phase load was switch on at 0s, the
compensation system ran at 0.5s.
The simulation schematic diagram is shown in Fig 7.1.1 and Fig 7.1.2. The simulation
parameters are as follows: three phase voltage of the system is 220kV; the frequency is
50Hz; the ratio of V/V transformer is 8:1; the ratio of step down transformer is 40:1;
the capacitor of RPC at DC side is 100000μF, and the value of L1 and L2 is 3mH and
2mH respectively.

Department of EEE, KMMITS
Fig 7.1.1 Matlab Simulink of Single RPC Compensation
49 | P a g e
Fig 7.1.2 Matlab Simulink of RPC Technique For Three Stations Collabration
Compensation

7.2 Output waveforms of RPC Compensation:
Fig 7.2.1 Positive sequence output waveform
Fig 7.2.2 Negative sequence output waveform

Fig 7.2.3 Iabcs Current of tractive transformer high voltage side
Fig 7.2.4 (a) Current of tractive transformer high voltage side(Y=0)

(b) Current of tractive transformer high voltage side (0 ≤ Y ≤ 2/3 )
(c) Current of tractive transformer high voltage side( 2/3 ≤ Y ≤ 1)

Fig 7.2.5 Three station collaboration compensation result under the condition of 2,Y,0

7.3 CONCLUSION
This paper proposes a new power quality compensation system which is composed of
several railway power conditioners. The proposed system can be used to compensate
negative sequence current in high speed electrified railway. A minimum installed
capacity is conducted which is 2/3 of the traditional single station compensation
capacity. A new compensation strategy with Simulation results shows that the proposed
collaboration compensation of railway power conditioners is effective. It can reduce
compensation capacity and has a good performance at negative sequence current
compensation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Bo Chen, Jiaxin Yuan from Wuhan University A Novel Collaboration Compensation
Strategy of Railway Power Conditioner for a High-Speed Railway Traction Power
Supply System, in UKACC International Conference on Control 2012 by, China
 X. Huang, L. Zhang, M He, X.You, and Q. Zheng, "Power electronics used in Chinese
electrical locomotives", in Proc. IEEE 6th Int. Conf. Power Electron. Motion Control,
pp.1196-1200，May, 2009.
 S. L. Chen, R. J. Li, and P. H. Hsi, “Traction system unbalance problem-analysis

methodologies,” IEEE Trans. Power Del, vol.19, no. 4,pp. 1877–1883, Oct. 2004.
 B.Wang, X. Z. Dong, Z. Q. Bo, and A. Klimek, “Negative sequence pilot protection

with applications in open-phase transmission lines,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 25,
no. 3, pp.1306–1313, Jul. 2010.
 Z.W. Zhang, B.Wu, J. S. Kang, and L. F. Luo, “A multi-purpose balanced transformer

for railway traction applications,” IEEE Trans. Power Del.,vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 711–718,
Apr. 2009.
 P.-C. Tan, P. C. Loh, and D. G. Holmes, “A robust multilevel hybrid compensation

system for 25-kV electrified railway applications,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol.
19, no. 4, pp.735 1043–1052, Jul. 2004.
 H. L. Ginn and G. Chen, “Flexible active compensator control for variable

compensation objectives,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 23, no. 6, pp. 2931–2941,
Nov. 2008.
 M. Jianzong,W.Mingli, and Y. Shaobing, “The application of SVC for the power

quality control of electric railways,” in Proc.Int. Conf. Sustainable Power Gener.
Supply,2009.
 A. Luo, Z. K. Shuai, W. J. Zhu, and Z. J. Shen, “Combined system for harmonic

suppression and reactive power compensation,” IEEE Trans.Ind. Electron., vol. 56, no.
2, pp.418–518, Feb. 2009.
 Zhuo Sun, Xinjian Jiang, Dongqi Zhu, et al. “A novel active power quality compensator
topology for electrified railway,” IEEE Trans. On Power Electron., vol.19, pp. 1036-
1042, July,2004.
 Luo An，Fujun Ma，Chuanping Wu，Shi Qi Ding,"A dualloop control strategy of

railway static power regulator under V/V electric tranction system,"IEEE Trans. Power
Electron，vol. 26, pp. 2079-2090, 2011.
 Lu Fang, An Luo, Xiaoyong Xu, Houhui Fang,"A novel power quality compensator
for negative-sequence and harmonic currents in high-speed electric railway, "Power
and Energy Engineering Conference (APPEEC),pp. 1-5, 2011.

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ABSTRACT

2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages....................................................................................................5

2.4 External cost................................................................................................................................8

2.5 Research and development..........................................................................................................8

3.2 Why Worry About Harmonics...................................................................................................11

3.3 Where Harmonics Come From..................................................................................................13

3.4 Where to look for Harmonics....................................................................................................16

3.5 How do you find Harmonics......................................................................................................17

3.6 When are they a problem?.........................................................................................................18

3.7 How do you get rid of them?.....................................................................................................20

3.8 TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION.......................................................................................20

3.10 Neutral Currents......................................................................................................................21

3.11 Harmonic Profiles....................................................................................................................21

4. RAILWAY POWER QUALITY CONDITIONER.....................................................................23

4.2 Structure of the RPQC...............................................................................................................24

4.3 Harmonic Compensation...........................................................................................................25

4.5 Overall RPQC controller...........................................................................................................28

5. SEMI CONDUCTOR DEVICES.................................................................................................29

5.1.1 Basic Structure....................................................................................................................30

5.2.1 Equivalent Circuit...............................................................................................................30

5.3.1 Switching Characteristics....................................................................................................33

5.6 Single-phase voltage source inverters (VSI):.............................................................................34

5.6.1 Types of VSI:......................................................................................................................35

5.8 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION CONTROL........................................................................37

5.8.1 Sinusoidal-Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM)....................................................................38

6.2 PRINCIPLE OF COLLABORATION COMPENSATION:......................................................44

7. MATLAB DESIGN OF CASE STUDY AND CONCLUSION..................................................48

7.2 Output waveforms of RPC Compensation:................................................................................51

Fig 2(a) Electric locomotives under the wires in Sweden..................................................................3

SVC – STATIC VAR COMPENSATOR

APF – ACTIVE POWER FILTER

STATCOM – STATIC COMPENSATOR

APQC – ACTIVE POWER QUALITY COMPENSATOR

TCR – THYRISTOR CONTROL REACTOR

GTO – GATE TURN OFF THYRISTOT

IGBT – INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTER

TRM – TECHNOLOGY ROAD MAP

ASD – ADJUSTABLE SPEED DRIVE

VFD – VARIABLE FREQUENCE DRIVE

SCC – SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT

RPQC – RAILWAY POWER QUALITY CONDITIONER

MOSIGT – METAL OXIDE INSULATED GATE TRANSISTOR

COMFET – CONDUCTIVELY MODULATED FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOT

VSI – VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER

CSI – CURRENT SOURCE INVERTER

SPWM – SINUSOIDAL PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

Recent years, high-voltage, large-capacity Static Var Compensator (SVC), Active

Department of EEE, KMMITS 1|Page

Department of EEE, KMMITS 2|Page

Fig 2(a) Electric locomotives under the wires in Sweden

Department of EEE, KMMITS 3|Page

Electrification systems are classified by three main parameters:

Department of EEE, KMMITS 4|Page

Department of EEE, KMMITS 5|Page

Department of EEE, KMMITS 6|Page

2.3 Energy efficiency

Department of EEE, KMMITS 7|Page

2.5 Research and development

Department of EEE, KMMITS 8|Page

Fig 3(a) Sine wave

Department of EEE, KMMITS 9|Page

Fig 3(b) Fundamental with two harmonics