Professional Documents
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in | May 2011
DEFINITION OF A SYSTEM
• Orderly arrangement of a set of interrelated & interacting elements - operate collectively - common goal.
• Example: Human body, Computer System, Business Enterprise
• Types of System-
1. Elements
2. Interactive behaviour
3. Degree of human intervention
4. Working/output
Physical systems are more than conceptual construct; they display activity or behavior. The parts interact to
achieve an objective.
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Open System –
• Interacts freely with its environment and its elements by taking input and returning output
• Changes itself to match with change(s) of/in environment; Adapt
• E.g. Information systems are open systems because they accept inputs from environment and sends outputs
to environment.
Closed system –
• Does not interact with the environment
• Does not change with the change in environment, remain insulated
• Relatively shorter life-cycle because it decays faster for not having any input/interaction from environment
• E.g. Physical system such as ‘Throw-away’ type sealed digital watch
Entropy- is the Quantitative measure of disorder in a system. Systems can decay or become disorganized. Inputs
of energy/ matter needed to offset increase in entropy. This maintainance input = Negative entropy. Open
system require more –ve entropy than relatively closed system. However, life-cycle of closed system is shorter.
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Why use computers? Because otherwise work too difficult, time consuming and sometimes impossible. “The
reasons for using computer in business area are as follows”:
1. Handling huge data volume
2. Storing data for indefinite period
3. Quick and accurate data-processing (IPO)
4. Quick retrieval of information on query
5. Quick and efficient transportation of data/information to distant places
6. Using software tools for quick decision making
Probabilistic system
• Relates to probable behaviour
• Future state/action cannot be predicted without error
• E.g. Inventory system
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• Defines & delineates a system from its environment or delineates a sub-system within a
Boundary system.
• The system is inside the boundary; the environment is outside the boundary.
Sub-systems are building blocks – helps in analysis & development. Principles how systems are built from sub-
systems:
1) DECOMPOSITION
Need/Use: Complex system difficult to comprehend as a whole. Hence, (1) to analyze an existing system and (2)
to design and implement a new system.
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2) SIMPLIFICATION
Process of organizing subsystems so as to reduce the number of interconnections. No. of interconnections if all
the subsystems interact = ½ x n x (n-1), where n is the number of subsystems. (-E.g. Pentagon-)
3) DECOUPLING
If two different subsystems are connected very tightly, very close coordination between them is required.
E.g. RM is put directly into production the moment it arrives at the factory. RM system can be said to be tightly
coupled. Here, RM delivery (input to production system and output from RM system) must be precisely timed in
order to avoid delays in production or to prevent new material from arriving too soon with no place to be stored.
• Inventories, buffer, or waiting lines: RM inventory allows the two subsystems to operate somewhat
independently (in short run). Data buffers are used in some computer and output of data to compensate for
diff rates of input-output.
• Slack and Flexible resources: When the output of one subsystem is the input to another, the existence of
slack resources allows a subsystem to respond to the demands of the other subsystem.
• Standards: Standard allows a subsystem to plan and organize with reduced need to communicate with other
subsystems. A standard decoupling mechanism eliminates tedious & time-consuming checking.
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INFORMATION
• Information is data that have been put into a meaningful and useful context.
• The term “data” and ‘information’ are often used interchangeably. Data : Information :: RM : FG
• Raw material i.e. data determines quality of output i.e. information. This phenomenon is called Garbage in
garbage out (GIGO)
Purpose To inform, evaluate, organize. Help plan, control, solve problems, and make decisions
Use of tables, charts, graphs and diagrams. Summary vs. Entire report. Proper classification.
Format
Simple & relevant; Uncluttered
Decay Value of information usually decays with time and usage. Refresh/update regularly.
Quality refers to the correctness of information. Should be free from errors, personal bias.
Errors due to:
Quality • Incorrect data measurement and calculation methods
• Failure to follow processing procedure
• Loss or non-processing of data
Value of Difference between the value of the change in decision behaviour caused by the information
information and the cost of procuring the new information.
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Benefits must justify the cost incurred in procuring information. Costs are easy to measure.
Benefits are difficult to quantify. Hence, classify all the managerial statements into
categories:
Cost Benefit
• Absolutely essential- Can’t be discontinued whatever be the cost
analysis
• Necessary- Can be discontinued in exceptional circumstances
• Normal- Can be discontinued if costs are high
• Extra- Prepare if benefits outweigh costs
Frequency Frequency with which information is transmitted or received affects its value
PReM mey -> ladka CT marta hai -> FADR jaag jaata hai -> Ladke ke Career ka Quality/Value/Adequacy -> Cost-benefit
analysis -> Vivaah ke Fere
Types of Information
Information, in the context of business organizations, broadly, can be divided into two different types:
Internal information:
• Information as generated from the operations of the organization (internal) at various functional areas
• Gets processed and summarized from junior to top most level of management
• All levels of management use it
• E.g. production figures, sales figures, information about personnel, accounts, material etc.
External information:
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An information system is an arrangement of a number of elements that provides effective information for
decision-making and / or control of some operations of an organization. It reduces uncertainty. Some of
important implications (-benefits-) of information system in business are as follows:
• Decision-making to achieve goal
• Right decision at the right time
• Knowledge used in unusual situations
• Solving critical problems
• Edge in the competitive environment
• Formulate a strategy of action
1. Operational function: The grouping/clustering of several functional units on the basis of related activities into
a sub-system is termed as operational function.
• E.g. In a business enterprise, marketing is an operational function. Grouping of functional units like market
research, advertising, sales analysis and so on.
• Information requirement of different operational functions vary in content and characteristics
2. Type of decision making: Organisational decisions can be categorised as (1) programmed (2) non-programmed
ones.
Decisions made on problems and situations by Decisions made on situations and problems which are
2) reference to a pre-determined set of precedents, novel and non-repetitive and about which not much
procedures, techniques and rules knowledge and information are available
For familiar, routine and recurring problems - Not Requires managerial intelligence, experience,
4)
much judgment and discretion is needed judgment and vision
6) Tend to be consistent over situations & time Decisions tend to be unique or unusual
E.g. Ordering inventories when the level drops to E.g. Determining the best training for a new
7)
100 units or fewer in a retail shop. employee joining the organization.
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3. Level of management activity: Different levels of management activities in management planning and control
hierarchy are–Strategic level, tactical level and operational level.
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• To maintain optimal level stock of raw materials, component tools and equipment.
Inventory / Stores
• Minimize inventory holding cost and the risk of production stoppage due to stock
management
shortage. E.g. EOQ, ABC
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Information systems can be classified into 3 broad categories upon their focus on kind of activities in a
business enterprise- 1) OSS 2) MSS 3) OAS
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Objective – is to improve operational efficiency of the enterprise. As these systems are concerned with
operations, they use internal data primarily for managers at the lower levels. These are further classified into:
1. Transaction Processing Systems (TPS)
2. Management Information Systems (MIS)
3. Enterprise Resource Planning Systems (ERP)
TPS at the lowest level of management is an information system that manipulates data from business
transactions. Any business activity such as sales, purchase, production, delivery, payments or receipts involves
transaction and these transactions are to be organized & manipulated to generate various information products
for external use. E.g. selling of a product to a customer will give rise to the need of further information like customer billing,
inventory status and increase in AR balance.
A TPS may follow periodic data preparation and batch processing (e.g. payroll) or on-line processing (e.g.
inventory control). Latter provides up-to-date status
Features of TPS
• Large volume of data: TPS is transaction-oriented -> large volumes of data -> require greater storage
capacity. Relevant data are captured quickly and correctly.
• Automation of basic operations: TPS aims at automating the basic operations. Important source of up-to-
date information
• Benefits easily measurable: TPS reduces workload of people & improves efficiency. Benefits are tangible
and easily measurable. Therefore, cost-benefit analysis is easy to conduct. User acceptance is easy as well.
• Source of input for other systems: TPS is the basic source of internal information for other systems. Heavy
reliability on TPS makes it important for tactical and strategic decisions as well.
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• MIS vs. TPS- MIS assist managers in decision making and problem solving in contrast to TPS, which are
operations oriented. May use results of TPS.
• “Integrated user-machine system that provide information to support operational control, management
control, decision making, and problem solving”
• Information systems can be developed so that necessary reports are prepared regularly to support recurring
decisions, issues
• Uses resources such as hardware, software, personnel, procedure, supplies
• Designed to provide accurate, relevant and timely information to managers at different levels
• Information: Sets of facts, figures and symbols processed for the current decision-making situation
• System: Set of related components, activities, process and human beings interacting together so as to
accomplish some common objective. Functions of MIS:
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Management oriented:
• MIS development should start with the appraisal of management needs and business objectives
• MIS is needed at all management levels
Management directed:
• Management should actively direct the system’s development efforts at all times
• E.g. system design, system implementation, specifications
Integrated:
• All the functional and operational information sub-system should be tied together into one entity
• Helps generate more meaningful & comprehensive information
Common database:
• Database is the "superfile" which consolidates & integrates data records formerly stored in separate data
files
• Accessed by several information sub-systems
• Eliminates duplication in data storage, updating, deletion and protection
Computerised:
• Use of computers increases the effectiveness, speed, accuracy and consistency of the system
• Handle a wide variety of applications, reduction in clerical staff
Planning:
• MIS development needs 3 or more years
• Consider future objectives and requirements of firm's information
• Avoid the possibility of system obsolescence before the system gets into operation
Sub-system concept:
• MIS must be broken down into digestible sub-systems which can be implemented one at a time by
developing a phasing plan
• MIS is about use of computers- MIS may or may not be computer based; computer is just a tool
• More data means more information for managers-It is not the quantity of data, but its relevance, which is
important. Unorganised mass of data creates confusion.
• Accuracy in reporting is very important- True for operating level. It is untrue for higher management as they
are concerned with broad decisions. Higher levels of accuracy involve higher cost.
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1. Database:-
• “Superfile”
• Subdivided into the major information sub-sets
• Improves accessibility & reduces redundancy
• Its important characteristics are:
• Each subsystem utilises same data i.e. common data source
• Reduces duplication of efforts
• User–oriented
• Available to authorised persons only
• Controlled by a separate authority, known as Data Base Management System (DBMS)
5. Evaluation of MIS:
• Capable of meeting the information requirements in future as well. It requires MIS evaluation taking
appropriate timely action. Evaluation should consider-
• Whether enough flexibility exists
• Users’ and the designers’ views
• Appropriate action steps
1. Non-availability of experts:
• Constraints- Shortage of experts who can diagnose the objectives of the organisation and provide a direction
• Remedy- Grooming internal staff after proper selection and training
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4. Sub-system selection:
• Constraints- Selecting sub-system of MIS
• Remedy- Need and importance of the MIS function should be guiding criteria
5. Non-standardised approach:
• Constraints- Approach adopted for designing and implementing MIS is a non-standardised one
• Remedy- Gradual standardisation
E.g. hawk-eye (- COMPS -> Speeds Up Eff and Scope of “MIS” Analysis. Provides I C C information -)
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Limitations of MIS
1. Quality of the outputs – depends on the quantity of input and processes (e.g. GIGO)
2. Considers Quantitative factors- Ignores morale, attitude
6. Not a substitute for effective management - Just a managerial tool for decision making / problem solving
7. Effectiveness reduced if frequent changes in top management, organizational structure & operational team
8. Effectiveness reduced if information withheld
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Definition: “ERP system is a fully integrated business management systems that integrates the core business &
management processes to provide an organization a structured environment in which decisions concerning
demand, supply, operational, personnel, finance, logistics etc. are fully supported by accurate and reliable real-
time information."
Objectives:
• to provide support for adopting best business practices
• to implement these practices with a view towards enhancing productivity and
• to empower the customers and suppliers to modify the implemented business processes to suit their needs
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BENEFITS of ERP ≠ Chap. 7 [- Client -> Goods Purchased -> Goods Sold -> Paper work / reports -> ☺ -> Intl. expand -]
There are numerous benefits of ERP which can be categorized into following groups:
1. Better use of Organizational Resources: ERP model helps indicate where the resources find best
usage; optimum utilization.
2. Lower Operating Costs: Improved business performance through cycle time reduction, inventory
reduction, order fulfillment improvement, increased business agility => Better profits.
3. Proactive Decision Making: Decisions must be made in advance of likely environmental changes
and anticipated competitive moves. X Reactive decision.
4. Decentralized Decision Making: Decisions are made at those points at which these are relevant
for execution. Faster processing technology & SQL helps + Decisions at lower management levels -
> less burden on higher management levels and freeing them for strategic thinking.
5. Enhanced customer Satisfaction: Define end-to-end approach for managing customers' requests.
Eff-Eff processing of requests & focus on customer relationship management (CRM).
• An ERP system provides current status only, such as open orders, Managers often need to look at
past along with the current status to identify trends and patterns that aid better decision
making.
• The methods used in the ERP applications are not integrated with other organizational or
divisional systems. Further, they do not include external intelligence.
Some major ERP packages available in Indian market are as SAP, Oracle Applications, Ramco Marshals,
eBPCs, Activera and Baan ERP.
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MSS focus on the managerial uses of information resources and provide information to managers for planning and
decision making. The information provided by these systems is based on both the internal and external data using
various data analysis tools. 3 types of MSS, namely:
• Decision Support Systems (DSS)
• Executive Information (Support) System (EIS)
• Expert Systems
MSS
DSS EIS ES
DSS definition - Interactive computerized information system that supports business decision-making activities.
• Compiles useful information from raw data & Solve problems.
• Provides tools to managers, to assist them in solving semi-structured and unstructured problems, in a
personalized manner
• Typical information that a DSS might gather and present would be:
• an inventory of all the current information assets
• comparative sales figures; projected revenue figures based on assumptions
• consequences of different decision alternatives
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• General Decision Support System- User works interactively with the computer to develop a hierarchical model
of the decision problem.
• Capital Budgeting System- E.g. NPV, IRR decisions to evaluate investment alternatives
• Cost Accounting System- E.g. Healthcare industry requires controlling costs of supplies, machinery, staff etc.
• Budget Variance Analysis System- E.g. Division wise monthly variance reports
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Databases- DSS includes one or more databases. Databases contain both “routine and non-routine” data from
both “internal and external” sources. Database is implemented at 3-levels as listed below
a) Physical level: It involves the implementation of the database on the hard disk i.e. storage of data in the
hard disk. The management of storage and access is controlled by OS.
b) Logical Level: It is designed by professional programs, which have complete knowledge of DBMS. It deals
with the nature of data stored, the scheme of the data. Storage which is logically divided into various
tables having rows and columns and the techniques for defining relationships with indexes.
c) External level: The logical level defines schema which is divided into smaller units known as sub-
schemas and given to the managers each sub-schema containing all relevant data needed by one
manager.
Model base- Planning language allows user to maintain dialogue with model base, which is, the Brain of DSS
because it performs quantitative analysis, data manipulations, computations, mathematical functions.
Corporate DB
User DB
DSS Model
base
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EIS– is a DSS that is designed to meet the special needs of top-level managers.
“EIS” and “ESS” (executive support system) used inter changeably. But ESS > EIS. ESS includes additional
capabilities such as e-mail.
Executive: Top level manager who exerts a strong influence on decisions.
Characteristics:
3) EIS provides rapid access to timely information and direct access to management reports.
4) EIS is capable of accessing both internal and external data.
5) EIS provides extensive online analysis tool like trend analysis, market conditions etc.
Also, executives need a certain degree of control to ensure that these activities are carried out properly.
Control: Exercise general control over the organisation. Periodically review & compare against plans.
“Often, executives rely on their own intuition, gut feelings and past experience rather than on sophisticated
analytical skills”. Five characteristics of the types of information (those are responsible for this phenomenon) are-
1. Informal source: Rely heavily on informal sources- team lunch, TV, media, social events, informal chats
2. Low level of detail: Decisions are made by observing broad trends. Macro-view / big picture.
3. Lack of structure: Many decisions are relatively unstructured.
4. High degree of uncertainty: Lack of precedent. Possible results scientifically not predictable from actions.
5. Future orientation: Strategic-planning decisions needed to shape future events. Must adapt to change.
EIS provide executives with access to financial data, marketing and sales information, HR information,
manufacturing data, and competitive/ strategic information. Business EIS includes facilities such as e-mail, word
processing, spreadsheet, news feeds etc.
• Tool that provides direct on-line access to relevant information (i.e. timely, accurate & actionable) in a
useful and navigable format.
• Requires limited time, limited keyboarding skills, and little direct experience with computers
• Helps identify broad issues and locate root cause
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Executive Information Systems differ from traditional information systems in the following ways:
(- Level of Mgmt decides “Nature of Info” “Sources & Format & Interface”. More drill down for more details -)
And…
1. Information presented in pictorial or graphical format
2. Information is presented in summary format with facility to ‘drill down’ to details
The powerful focus of an EIS is due to the saying "what gels measured gets done." Managers are particularly
attentive to concrete information about their performance when it is available to their superiors.
Contents of EIS
A practical set of principles to guide the design of measures and indicators to be included in an EIS is
presented below-
• Team-work and friendly competition- Promote it
• Joint-ownership- Must encourage management and staff to share ownership of goals
• Availability & Confidentiality- EIS Information must be available to everyone. Confidential info excluded.
• Evolve- with changing needs
• Easy to understand and collect- EIS measures must be easy to understand and data easy to collect
• Reflect organization's objective- Based on a balanced view of the organization's objective in the areas of
productivity, quality, customer service etc.
• Reflect everyone's contribution- in a fair and consistent manner. Unbiased.
(- Cricket Execs. -> Team Jointly travels in AC Volvo bus. Objective and Contribution Easy-2-Understand -)
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EXPERT SYSTEMS
E.g. an expert system in the area of investment portfolio management might ask its user a number of specific questions relating
to investments for a particular client like - how much can be invested. Does the client have any preferences regarding specific
types of securities? And so on.
Both these limitations imposed by human information processing capability and the rushed pace at which business
is conducted today put a practical limit on the quality of human decision making this putting a need for expert
systems
(v) Effectively used as a strategic tool is the areas of marketing products, cutting costs etc
Still Expert Systems are not always the answer to managerial / org problems.
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Some of the PROPERTIES that potential applications should possess to qualify for Expert System
development are as follows:
• Availability: of expert(s) who are capable of communicating how they solve the problems to which the
Expert System will be applied.
• Expertise: Solutions to the problem require the efforts of experts. That is, only a few possess the
knowledge, techniques, and intuition needed.
• Domain: The domain, or subject area, of the problem is relatively small and limited to a relatively well-
defined problem area
• Structure: Solution process must be able to cope with ill-structured, uncertain, missing, & conflicting data
• Complexity: Solution requires logical inference processing, which would not be easily handled by
conventional information processing
(- Experts should be Avaialable – who have Domain knowledge -> For ill-structured/Complex probs. -)
1) Knowledge Base (KB): The knowledge base stores the rules, data and relationships that are used to solve
problems and contains specific facts about the expert area.
• E.g. where an insurance agent needs both expert tax and financial advice is a good candidate for an ES with
two knowledge bases.
• A set of RULES must be developed to bridge the knowledge bases and resolve any conflicts. The knowledge
acquired from the expert has to be represented formally that deals with the structuring of the information,
how to manipulate it to infer additional data, and knowledge acquisition. The power of a system tends to be
related to the depth and breadth of the knowledge in the knowledge base. There are several types of
representation techniques, like - Production Rule Systems, a Structured Object and Predicate Calculus or
Logic.
2) Inference Engine: Main processing element consisting of system of programs that requests data from the user,
manipulates the knowledge base and provides a decision to the user.
• It performs this task in order to deduce new facts, which are then used to draw further conclusions.
• Active component of an ES since it steers through knowledge and progresses the whole interaction. The
inference engine chooses “rules from the agenda” to fire
• Techniques which model different reasoning methods
o A forward-chaining mechanism first examines the KB and the problem at hand; then, it attempts to
discover a solution. For instance, a medical ES may be used to examine a patient's symptoms and provide a
diagnosis based on the symptomology, the ES might locate several diseases that the patient may here.
o With backward chaining, on the other hand, the Inference Engine starts with a hypothesis or goal,
which it then checks against the facts and rules in the knowledge base for consistency. E.g. the ES
might be given the goal to "find this patient's disease(s) and would work back from there, asking questions as
necessary to confirm or a refute candidate diagnoses”.
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3) Knowledge Acquisition Subsystem (KAS): Software component of an ES that enables the Knowledge Engineer
(KE- a specialized systems analyst responsible for designing and maintaining the ES) to build and refine an ESs
knowledge base. The KE works with the knowledge acquisition subsystem to model decision logic and update the
knowledge base.
• Knowledge base development and maintenance can be done using special, reasonably user-
friendly software. This software provides a convenient and efficient means of capturing and storing the contents
of the knowledge base. Users are often presented with easy-to-operate menus and templates for entering rules, facts
and relationship among facts. Once these are entered the software correctly stores the information in the knowledge
base. Such software notes it much easier and less expensive to develop, update and refine the KB.
4) User Interface (UI): Method by which an ES interacts with a user. E.g. dialog boxes, command prompts etc.
• Some ESs interact with other computer applications, and do not interact directly with a human
• In most instances, the ES prompts user to supply information -> user types in -> data entered examined
by interface engine and compared to the facts, rules and relationships in the knowledge base -> prompts
user for more information until system has enough data about the current problem so that it can reach a
conclusion. Thus UI for an ES is highly interactive.
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Different office activities can be broadly grouped into the following types of operations:
• Document Capture: Documents originating from outside sources like incoming mails, notes, handouts,
charts, graphs etc. need to be preserved.
• Recording Utilization of Resources: Includes record keeping in respect to specific resources utilized by
office personnel.
• Calculations: Include the usual calculator functions like routine arithmetic operations for bill passing,
interest calculations etc
• Document Creation: Consists of preparation of documents, dictation, editing of texts etc. and takes up
major part of the secretary's time.
(- Captured PO -> Calculated Costing of resources -> Created invoice -> Distributed -> Filing and Follow up -)
The application of computers to handle the office activities is also termed as office automation.
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• Useful in internal communication. For example, the loan application form filed in a branch of a bank can be
accessed by the sanctioning officer for scrutiny at the head office or any office for scrutiny of loan proposals.
• Useful in remote access of documents that is almost impossible with manual systems
• Location of executive becomes irrelevant for access to documents. Thus, these systems can be very useful in
an office environment where traveling executives share work space in the office.
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Conducing a business meeting involving more than two persons located at two or more different places.
• ↓ time & cost of meeting as the participants do not have to travel
• Audio or video conferencing with or without use of computer systems.
• However, computer based teleconferencing has the advantage of flexibility in terms of pre-recorded
presentations and integration with other information systems. Based on PC, digital camera and visual
communication software. The communication links are still quite expensive
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