See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/333716758

Methods for Identification and Conservation of Macro Fungus: A Probable Global

Food

Chapter · June 2019

CITATIONS READS

0 258

4 authors, including:

Debasish Mohapatra Nihar Ranjan Singh

Ravenshaw University Ravenshaw University
4 PUBLICATIONS   6 CITATIONS    38 PUBLICATIONS   833 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Documentation of Floral wealth of Odisha View project

Development of fungal preparation for accelerated degradation of malathion and parathion in soil View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Debasish Mohapatra on 12 June 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Indexed in
Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ) USA

ISSN 0976-1519, Volume 06, No. 01

www.cafetinnova.org March 2015, P.P. 16-23

Methods for Identification and Conservation of Macro Fungus: A

Probable Global Food
DEBASISH MOHAPATRA 1, NIHAR RANJAN SINGH 2 AND SAKTI KANTA RATH1
1
Department of Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Ravenshaw University, Cuttack
2
Department of Botany, School of Life Sciences, Ravenshaw University, Cuttack
Email: saktirath@gmail.com

Abstract: Long since the existence of human, fungus has played many important roles in human civilization
knowingly or unknowingly starting from preparing beverages like beer and wine to food items like bread, cakes, etc.
Humans have used them in many different ways directly and indirectly. They domesticated and also commercialized
many fungi for various human needs. One such group of fungus is represented by macro fungus, which is well
known for their beautiful fruiting body, their delicious taste along with unique aroma. They are used worldwide as
food and eaten in cooked and in raw form and also used as medicine due to various bioactive compounds found in
them. But, many species of macro fungus are now in verge of extinction due to the destruction of forest and their
natural habitat. With rapid growth of human population causing urbanization and industrialization many of these
macro fungus species will become extinct soon until some necessary steps are not taken for conservation of these
nature’s important organisms. Moreover, these organisms hold a great opportunity in solving the global food crisis
that arises due to increase in global population. Their unique characteristic of growing in wasteland using organic
waste materials and in places where no other food crops can grow may be exploited for food production for the
growing human population. An attempt has been made to identify various useful macro fungus and different
conservation strategies employed in protecting and utilizing these organisms for future human need.
Keywords: Fungi, Macro fungi, Conservation, Food crisis

1. Introduction presence of fruiting body on macro fungus makes it

Human beings have always used living organisms like
plants and animals for their survival need as food or
other beneficial product derived from them. Another
group of living organism that neither belongs to animals
or plants are the fungus, which is included in kingdom
fungi and remains the most versatile group of organism
that has significant human and ecological relevance [1]
Kingdom fungi is highly diversified group represented
by unicellular as well as multicellular form, out of
which the macro fungus namely fleshy mushrooms are
of great importance to humankind because of their
economic and dietary values. Fungi remain an intrinsic
factor for any ecosystem as it plays beneficial role in
recycling of nutrients from dead organic materials and
on the other hand it also causes severe economic losses
through diseases and spoilage [2]. They are the second
large group of organisms, found in every ecosystem in
the earth. It is estimated that there are 1.5 million
species of fungi on this planet but only about 69,000
species have been explained including 46,124 species of
basidiomycetes and ascomycetes [3]. Macroscopic fungi
represented mostly by the basidiomycetes group with
specific fruiting organs and large size that are visible by
naked eye and grow on or under the ground [4]. The
important because of its nutritional value and exotic
aroma. These fruiting bodies are of great importance
both in form of food to provide dietary supplements and
great taste. Not only do they serve as food for human
but are also important food source for the wildlife.
Moreover, these organisms produce many secondary
metabolites, which make them medicinally important
and are highly useful ingredients for the pharmaceutical
industry.
Fungus has great ability to grow on any type of organic
waste material. These organisms play the role of a
scavenger and thus suitably called as the municipal
workers of the nature. No one knows the importance of
these workers till these workers stop their daily work as
normally we realize the importance of the municipal
people when they go off the work. These organisms are
one of the best biodegrades of nature and hence provide
useful vital nutrients to other living organisms by
degrading complex organic compounds to simpler form.
Macro fungus also plays a very important role in soil
formation, as these are the organisms that produce the
humus part of the soil. Humus is the most fertile and
nutrient rich part of soil and is helpful not only for the

#03060104 Copyright © 2015 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved.

 DEBASISH MOHAPATRA, N IHAR R ANJAN S INGH AND S AKTI K ANTA R ATH
growth of plants but also for the insects and nematodes
[5].
With the need of protecting and utilizing the macro
fungus, mycologists are strongly pitching for
identification and conservation strategies to protect
these important organisms. Till date no specific
conservation strategies has been developed to protect
macro fungus but many suggestions have already been
discussed in International Society for Fungal
Conservation. An attempt has been made to give
attention to macro fungi similar to those of animals or
plants by studying various identification and
conservation strategies applied to them. The
sustainability of macro fungi is thus important to
maintain and promote productivity of croplands,
rangelands and forests, and also very much critical for
the maintenance of biodiversity on earth [6].
2. Identification of macro fungus
Identifying macro fungi compared to other fungus is
much easier in wild due to their very unique characters
of forming beautiful and eye catching fruiting body [7].
To identify macro fungus on the basis of fruiting body is
difficult as many macro fungus share similar
morphology and colour but in reality they are totally
different. Moreover, their nature to grow in all type of
organic matter makes them very widely spread in any
ecosystem that increases difficulty in identification [8].
Mainly two methods of identification are used by the
mycologists for the identification of macro fungus:
2.1 Traditional Method
2.2 Molecular Method
2.1. Traditional Method for identifying macro
fungus
The traditional method of identification includes study
and observation of morphological appearance of the
fungus along with its environmental area, which include
the following parameters [9]:
2.1.1 Macroscopic Description
2.1.2 Microscopic Description
2.1.3 Habit and Habitat
2.1.1. Macroscopic Description
Pileus
The pileus is the technical name for the cap, or cap-like
part, of a basidiocarp or ascocarp (fungal fruiting body)
that supports a spore-bearing surface, the hymenium. Its
size, shape, color, texture, moisture, taste, odor and
consistency play a very important role in the
identification of the macro fungus and this character
should be studied fresh as soon as possible because
many of the characteristics gets destroyed as soon as the
International Journal of Biological Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0976-1519, Vol. 06, No. 01, March 2015, pp. 16-23
17
macro fungus is removed from its natural environment
[10]. The most important character to be observed for
identification are the disc and the margins followed by
its configuration, color and then its texture and
thickness. The most common types of pileus seen on
macro fungus are campanulate type (bell-shaped),
conical type, convex type, depressed type, flat,
infundibuliform type, offset type, ovate type, umbilicate
type and umbonate type.
The spore-bearing surface under the pileus is of four
types:
Gills – These are wide and thin sheet-like plated
radiating from stem.
Pores – These are many small tubes ending in a sponge
like surface.
Ridges – These are short, blunt elevated line on the
stem and under the cap.
Teeth – These are many small fingers like projections
under the surface of the cap.
Lamellae
A lamella, or gill, is a papery hymenophore rib under
the cap of some macro fungus species, most often found
in the group Agaricus. The gills are used by the
mushrooms as a means of spore dispersal, and are
important for species identification. The attachment of
the gills to the stem is classified based on the shape of
the gills when viewed from the side. Apart from the
attachment of gills, the color, crowding and the shape of
individual gills can also be considered important in
identification. Additionally, gills can have distinctive
microscopic or macroscopic features. For instance,
Lactarius species typically seep latex from their gills.It
was originally believed that all gilled fungi belong to
the group of Agaricales, but more recent analysis
indicates that this is not true. It is evident from the
phylogenetic studies that the development of gills
represents convergent evolution (i.e. gill-like structures
evolved separately) rather than being an anatomic
feature that evolved only once. The most appealing
reason why various species of basidiomycetes evolved
gills is that it is the most effective means of increasing
the ratio of surface area to mass, which increases the
potential for spore production and dispersal. This
important characteristic feature has been used by
mycologist for identifying macro fungus. Based on the
attachment of gills to the stipe or stem, it can be
classified to various types like adnate, adnexed,
decurrent, emarginate, free, seceding, sinuate and
subdecurrent [11].
Stipe
 18 Methods for Identification and Conservation of Macro Fungus: A Probable Global Food
In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like
feature supporting the cap of a macro fungus. Like all
tissues of the macro fungus other than the hymenium,
the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal tissue. In many
instances, however, the fertile hymenium extends down
the stipe some distance. Fungi that have stipes are
referred as stipitate. The evolutionary benefit of a stipe
is generally considered to be in mediating spore
dispersal. A macro fungus with stipe can release its
spores to distance by the help of wind currents or by
spreading them on to the passing animals. No all macro
fungus have stipe and they are represented by groups of
cup fungi, puffballs, earthstars, some polypores, jelly
fungi, ergots, and smuts. The presence of stipe on macro
fungus can be widely used for proper identification.
Mycologist follows the texture of the stipe (fibrous,
brittle, chalky, leathery, firm, etc.), presence or absence
of cuticle (aculopellis) that can be important character
for identification. Other important aspect that are
observed are the presence of a partial veil (such as an
annulus or cortina) or universal veil (volva), whether the
stipes of macro fungus fuse at their base, or extends
underground in root like structure (rhizome), its general
size and shape. It is therefore precaution must be taken
when collecting the macro fungus for identification as
all these characters should not be harmed and remain
intact while digging the mushroom out of the soil, rather
than cutting it off at mid-stipe region.
Colour bruising reactions and Bleeding
Another feature for identifying macro fungus is to check
whether they bruise or bleed a specific color when they
are harmed. Certain macro fungus changes their color
when damaged or injured. Cutting into a mushroom and
observing any color changes can be very important
when trying to determine what it is. For identification
point of view mycologists consider color bruising as one
of the least reliable method for mushroom identification.
There exists variations and color changes may not be
trustworthy depending on the age of the fungus. But,
still it may be used as another tool in the identification
arsenal for macro fungus.
Colour Bruising in macro fungus
While identifying macro fungus, one can check for
bruising effect by nicking the top and bottom of the cap
and watching for any color change. It should be done
within 30 minutes of picking, as specimens that are not
fresh won't give a reliable result. It is mainly seen on the
underside of the pileus and the color may changes from
yellow to blue. The discoloration is due to bruising
effect and it can be caused by a chemical reaction that
occurs when certain compounds in the cell walls of the
mushroom are exposed to air. When the cap is nicked
and the cell walls are broken, oxygen in the air mingles
with these compounds and changes their color. For
International Journal of Biological Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0976-1519, Vol. 06, No. 01, March 2015, pp. 16-23
example Gyroporuscyanescens when exposed to air, the
variegatic acid present in this macro fungus is converted
to the blue-colored molecule quinonemethide.
Bleeding effect in macro fungus
Certain macro fungus exudes a milky liquid substance
when they are cut. This is not real "blood" but natural
latex that is produced when a part of the macro fungus
is injured. The exact reason for the latex is not fully
understood. It is believed to be a method of defense, due
to its bitter taste and the fact that it dries to form a
protective coating around the injury. It also keeps out
bacteria and other contaminants.
Macro fungus like those in the Lactarius genus secretes
out latex like products. These are called the milky caps
due to the milky latex they exude upon injury. Another
example is the blue bruising and bleeding Lactarius
indigo, the indigo milk cap. When cut, this mushroom
bleeds bright blue latex that slowly turns green. That’s
why if any bleeding is observing during mushroom
identification, be sure to note both the initial liquid
colour and the final dried colour. These will sometimes
be different and it is method used to identify macro
fungus.
Spore Print
While a single macro fungus spore can't be seen by the
naked eye, a pile of many spores can be seen and
identifies with naked eye for their colour, and thus is a
crucial identification feature. Obtaining a macro fungus
"spore print" is therefore an essential step in the
identification process. Before going through the process
of making a spore print, it is worth noting that macro
fungus frequently make their own spore prints, in
nature. If carefully noticed coloured dust covering a leaf
or the ground beneath a macro fungus gills or pores,
then we have probably witnessed this phenomenon.
Tightly clustered macro fungus, in fact, frequently
leaves spore prints on one other, since caps overlap.
Normally spore print is taken on relatively mature
macro fungus. Young macro fungus, and macro fungus
with some kind of a covering over their gills or pores (a
partial veil) are not likely to drop spores in order to
make a print. Normally spore print involves removing
of the stem and placing the cap, gills or pores
downward, on a piece of paper or glass. For larger
macro fungus, a section of the cap is cut and covers
them with newspaper or paper and sprinkle water over it
so that the moisture will make spore to release on the
surface and a spore print can be thus taken.While some
spore prints can appear within a few hours, it is often
best to wait overnight, just to be sure. When the
covering is removed and lift the mushroom cap is lifted,
we can find a "print". The colour of the spore print is
what should be compared with descriptions from field
 DEBASISH MOHAPATRA, N IHAR R ANJAN S INGH AND S AKTI K ANTA R ATH
guides and keys. Interpreting colour of the spore print
can be difficult many times and it is a matter of
generalization to conclude on it. But while minor
differences (like, between "white" and "creamy") may
be difficult to segregate, distinguishing a white spore
print from a brown one or a pink one is easy enough,
and it will helps enormously in identifying a mushroom.
2.1.2. Microscopic Description
Spores
Observation of spores, and measuring them, is one of
the easiest methods that can be done through a
microscope. It is very much useful method in the
identification process to know whether a macro fungus
spores are smooth, ornamented, ridged, or pitted and to
know their dimensions. The spore should be mature
enough meaning that it must be fallen off the macro
fungus. With the help of scalpel or blade, the spore dust
is collected and a spore print is taken. Normally, a drop
of Melzer's reagent is added on the dust, and with the
change in colour to bluish black, reddish brown or no
change in colour can be represented as amyloid,
dextrinoid, or in amyloid respectively.
Spore Shapes
Many times knowing the shape of a macro fungus
spores can eliminate hours of sorting through
identification keys. The spores belong to
Agrocybeerebia have a snout-nosed end, which helps to
separate them many other Agrocybe spores. The spores
of Inocybe and Entoloma are notorious for their funky
shapes, and a quick peek at these spores can often
separate the mushrooms from thousands of other Little
Brown Mushrooms. The different types of shapes of
spores is globoes (rounded), subgloboes (nearly
rounded), lacrymoid (tear-shaped), elliptical, ellipsoid,
fusiform (football shaped) and funky.
Size of Spores
The spores are measured using a ruler in the eyepiece,
and the values are converted to microns using the
conversion multiplier established during calibration of
microscope. Normally it is best to measure the width or
length of the spore without the ornamentation (random
shaped spore), and measure the ornamentation
separately. The size of the spores is normally taken in
microns and help mycologists to identify different
spores.
Spore Surfaces
Many macro fungus spores have smooth surfaces but
other spores feature spines, warts, ridges, lines, and
other distinctive surface structures. Some spores that
look smooth actually have amazingly ornamented
surfaces if you look at them with a Scanning Electron.
International Journal of Biological Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0976-1519, Vol. 06, No. 01, March 2015, pp. 16-23
19
Some of the most commonly encountered spore surfaces
are austroboletusgracilis (pitted spores),
strophariarugasoannulate (smooth, dextrinoid spore),
scleroderma septentrionale (reticulate spore),
cystodermagranulosum (smooth, inamyloid spores),
lacrymariavelutina (warty spore), lactariussubvernalis
(partially reticulate spore), russulafragrantissima
(amloid, spiny spores) and scleroderma areolatum
(spiny spores). Spores with subtle ornamentation, like
the Lacrymariavelutina spores, do not require
measurements beyond an assessment of basic
dimensions. But prominent ornamentation, as in the
Scleroderma spores, should be measured separately.
The distance that spines stick out from the spore's
surface should be measured on several to many spores,
to get a sense of the range of possibilities.
Spore producing organs (Basidia)
A basidium (pl., basidia) is a microscopic, spore-
producing structure found on the hymenophore of
fruiting bodies of basidiomycete fungi. The presence of
basidia is one of the main characteristic features of the
Basidiomycota. A basidium usually bears four sexual
spores called basidiospores, sometimes the number may
be two or even eight. In a typical basidium, each
basidiospore is borne at the tip of a narrow prong or
horn called a sterigma (pl. sterigmata), and is forcibly
discharged upon maturity. The word basidium literally
means little pedestal or stand, on which the basidium
supports the spores. However, some biologists suggest
that the structure more closely resembles a club. An
immature basidium is known as a basidiole. Basidia are
occasionally distinctive in shape, but they are usually
shaped more or less like inverted clubs [12].
Another organ called cystidia, are special sterile cells
that are found, in some macro fungus, popping up
between the basidia. Unlike the basidia, cystidia do not
produce spores. Their shapes and sizes vary widely
between macro fungus species. Some macro fungus has
boring, club-shaped cystidia that are hardly different
from the basidia, except for the absence of spore-
holding prongs. Others have elaborately ornamented
cystidia, thick-walled and enormous cystidia, long and
pointy cystidia. In fact mycologists have given names to
many types of cystidia and, to be accurate, cystidia can
occur elsewhere on a mushroom not just on the spore
producing surface. One could spend days learning about
the various cystidia found on macro fungus, reading
page after page of meticulous descriptions cataloguing
every conceivable shape and size but no one knows
what they are Regardless of what cystidia actually do,
they are often very important in advanced mushroom
identification, and there is no avoiding their its analysis
is the only way to penetrate Mycena, Pholiota, Inocybe,
Stropharia, or many other genera. With respect to
 20 Methods for Identification and Conservation of Macro Fungus: A Probable Global Food
position cystidia are of following type: Pleurocystidia
(cystidia on the faces of the gills.)andCheilocystidia
(cystidia on the edges of the gills).
2.1.3. Habit and Habitat
The other most important character that should be taken
into account for the identification is the nature of the
substrate degraded by the fungus which includes the
characters like general shape, attachment to substrate,
higher or lower plant associates, substrate characters
(acid, peaty woody, etc.), locality and environmental
parameter measurements like the temperature, humidity,
rainfall and altitude typifying of the mycological
environment should also be considered.
2.2. Molecular method
Development of molecular methods in recent years has
moved fungal taxonomy and ecology into a new modern
phase of research. Molecular methods are relatively
quick and easy to carry out and generate highly
reproducible results that are crucial for identification
[13]. DNA can be isolated from pure cultures as well as
various parts of a fungus such as fruit bodies, spores or
the sheath. Molecular techniques such as Terminal
RFLP (TRFLP) can be used to profile the community of
organisms in bulk samples of soil or wood. Such
molecular methods remove the need of isolating
individual macro fungus or the substrates that are
difficult to sampling [14, 15]. Molecular tools not only
offer the promise of rapid identification of fungi but
also provide novel techniques for sampling fungal
communities. High-throughput techniques such as
pyrosequencing can generate many thousands of macro
fungus samples and study at the same time [16]. The
identification of fungi using DNA sequence data relies
basically on two things-
(i) a region that is species-specific – the so-called
barcode region, and
(ii) a databank of sequences from the barcode region
for known and appropriately or specifically
named fungi.
The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the
ribosomal DNA is a very promising barcode region for
fungi although it does not appear to discriminate for all
species [17]. The main problem in identifying sequences
is that there are relatively few sequences for named
species against which to compare those from
environmental samples. Sequences, whether from fruit-
bodies or environmental samples, can be identified
against those in the International Nucleotide Sequence
Databases (INSD) by either matching on overall
similarity (such as a BLAST search) or by including the
unknown sequences within a phylogenetic analysis
including other related sequences [18]. Reliability of
identification will improve as each study adds to the
International Journal of Biological Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0976-1519, Vol. 06, No. 01, March 2015, pp. 16-23
number of sequences available for analysis. More
studies are required to carry out in the field of
identification of macro fungus using high throughput
molecular biology tools and techniques.
3. Conservation of macro fungus
The conservation of Fungus has long been neglected
compared to the conservation of other life forms of
nature like animals and plants [19]. Recently, a special
meeting was held on 6 August, 2010 at the Royal
Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, where mycologists from
over forty countries established the International Society
for Fungal Conservation. For the first time, a meeting of
such extent were carried out exclusively and explicitly
devoted to protecting and conserving fungi. Macro
fungus also needs protection and conservation, as they
are also vulnerable to habitat loss and climate change
that affects majority of animals and plants [20]. Rio
Convention on Biological Diversity [CBD], claims to
protect all forms of life, including animals, plants and
micro-organisms but failed to mention fungi that belong
neither to the animal nor plant kingdom As they
themselves include the largest single living individual
known on earth, far bigger than the blue whale or any of
the great redwoods, they can hardly be described as
micro-organisms. So, fungi simply do not fit in any of
the CBD categories hence many countries biodiversity
action plans fail to consider fungi at all. The start of the
modern fungal conservation movement is quite recent
and a chronicle of its development is as follows:
The European Council for Conservation of Fungi (now
the fungal conservation group of the European
Mycological Association) was established in Oslo in
1985, and with this event marked the start of the modern
fungal conservation movement. Thereafter, specialist
groups for "lichens" and "fungi" were set up in the
Species Survival Commission of the International Union
for Nature Conservation (IUCN), the Australasian
Mycological Society formed a continental-level fungal
conservation group, and the ground-breaking volume
Fungal Conservation: issues and solutions [21] drew
worldwide attention to the topic.
November 2005. A pioneering workshop was organized
by the European Council for Conservation of Fungi in
Córdoba, Spain. This was one of the earliest uses
(perhaps the first) for fungi of the IUCN conservation
status evaluation system.
September 2007. Three prototype specialist committees
were established for conservation of fungi inadequately
covered by the IUCN's specialist groups of that time,
they are
1. Mildews, Moulds&Myxomycetes
2. Non-lichen-forming Ascomycetes
3. Rusts & Smuts
 DEBASISH MOHAPATRA, N IHAR R ANJAN S INGH AND S AKTI K ANTA R ATH 21

2009, produced proposals for a new society for fungal

But, still the conservation of macrofungus was not
established indicating, the omission of vital living form
that can be a key species in survival of many life forms
in any ecosystem and of great importance.
November 2007. The SociedadeBrasileira de
Micologiaestablished a national fungal conservation
group, perhaps the first in South America.
December 2007. At an international meeting in Spain
on conservation and sustainable use of fungi, the
Declaration of Córdoba was published by over 150
mycologists from 35 countries - a first attempt to
establish global principles for fungal conservation.
August 2008. The Mycological Society of America
established a continental-level fungal conservation
group for North America.
November 2008. The Asociación Latino-Americana de
Micologíaestablished a working party to set up a
continental-level fungal conservation group for South
America.
January 2009. The African Mycological Association
established a continental-level fungal conservation
group for Africa.
February 2009. The Species Survival Commission of
the IUCN formally recognized fungi as needing fully
separate representation within the Commission's
structure. The Commission also decided to increase the
number of Specialist Groups representing fungi to five
by adopting the prototype specialist committees
described above, and re-defining the old "Fungal
Specialist Group" so that it henceforth covered the
larger basidiomycetes.
Finally, the addition of basidiomycetes (macro fungus)
in the conservation and protection by IUCN highlight
the salient importance of this group.
October 2009. At an international meeting in the UK,
the Chairs of the five IUCN Species Survival
Commission fungal Specialist Groups, together with
representatives from each continental level fungal
conservation group, and mycologists from over 20
countries appointed a Steering Committee to prepare
proposals for a federation of fungal conservation
groups.
November 2009. The Mycological Committee for Asia,
at its Asian Mycological Congress established a
continental-level fungal conservation group for Asia.
The new society is established in August 2010, gathered
mycologists from all over the world. This provided an
excellent opportunity for meetings beyond the formal
and purely scientific congress programme. The steering
committee mentioned earlier, appointed in October
conservation, and a special meeting was convened to
discuss those proposals. The Royal Botanic Garden
Edinburgh generously hosted the event. Nearly 60
mycologists from 21 different countries attended, with
messages of interest and support from about ninety
more, taking the total number of countries represented
to over forty. After brainstorming discussion, there was
overwhelming support from all the dignitaries to set up
the International Society for Fungal Conservation for
the conservation and protection of fungus.
Basically following methods can be used for the
conservation of fungi that include macro fungi also [22,
23]:
(i) Conservation of habitats
(ii) In-situ conservation of non-mycological reserves
ecological niches, and
(iii) Ex situ conservation especially.
(i) Conservation of habitats
The natural habitat of these organisms should be
protected from being destroyed. Many human actions
like industrialization, deforestation, and mining,
cultivation of forest land and utilization of any such
ecological nick by humans for any purpose which can
destroy the natural habitat of these organisms should be
strictly prohibited by enforcing strict law and making
people aware of the importance of these organisms in
nature. So, that the natural habitat of these very useful
organism can be protected before they are gone for ever
as the losses to the natural habitat cannot be restored
once gone
(ii) In-situ conservation of non-mycological reserves
ecological niches
Conserving these very useful organisms in their natural
habitat by identifying the most endangered one and
taking special care for their increase in population.
Taking care that tourist activity and use of wild
mushroom as food by tribal should be monitored
properly so that the population of rare species can
increase. This can be achieved by public awareness
mainly within the tribes and persons inhibiting that
particular area during the growing season. The other
important threat is from animals that consume
mushroom as food. So, it should be the initiative from
the forest department to protect the rare one from their
natural predators until their population increases.
(iii) Ex situ conservation especially
Conserving the mycelium in artificial medium like
Potato Dextrose Agar, Malt Agar and many such
artificial medium in controlled laboratory condition can
be done for the conserving endangered species. But this
process has many difficulties due to the diverged

International Journal of Biological Sciences and Engineering

ISSN 0976-1519, Vol. 06, No. 01, March 2015, pp. 16-23
 22 Methods for Identification and Conservation of Macro Fungus: A Probable Global Food

nutrient habitat of Macro fungus. And as a result their 5. Conclusion

growth is not proper in artificial condition which
The present chapter relates about the identification of
becomes a challenge for the conservation. These are
macro fungus in the natural habitat and how to conserve
mainly belongs to the group of Basidiomycetes,
it using different Biotechnology tools and techniques.
Ascomycetes which grow very slowly in the artificial
We need these useful organisms to be present in nature
medium. Due to their slow growth rate, chances are
for proper bio degradation of organic waste and
high of cross contamination by molds and other first
maintains of eco system and should be conserve as soon
growing fungus and hence obtaining a pure culture of
as possible before they are completely lost like many
macro fungus is very difficult. These organisms do not
other species. The commercial importance of the
form spores until fruiting body is formed so they do not
organisms is also high as they are commercially used as
show aggressive growth and expansion as other spore
food for the consumers so are always in demand and
forming fungus. To get a fruiting body we have to wait
also for their unique aroma, chromophores, many
for very long period which requires a lot of media, and
industrially useful enzymes and great medicinal values
bigger culturing flask for growth. For long term
make them very important for food industry,
preservation the mycelium is stored in mineral oil but
pharmaceutical industry and other Biotechnology
when revived not all mycelium revive successfully
industry. Recent advances in conserving of macro
which is another challenge for the mycologists as they
fungus have initiated a new chapter in the improving the
should be preserved in duplicated or triplicated which
useful variety and protecting them in their natural
also consumes a lot of space. Then also you cannot
habitat. Before it’s too late these very useful organisms
guarantee its 100% revival [21].
must be protected, identified and utilized in proper for
4. Uses of macro fungus the betterment of mankind along with the betterment of
nature.
Mushrooms are the rich source of many vitamins and
essential minerals for the growth and development of References
the human being. So, these are long been consumed
[1] R. Phillips, Mushroom. Macmillan, London, 2006.
from ancient age as one the important part of diet and
[2] W. Boer, W.L.B. Folman, R.C. Summerbell and L.
always been useful to the consumers. Not only these are
Boddy, “Living in a fungal world: impact of fungi
consumed for their nutritional value but are also very
on soil bacterial niche development”, FEMS
much liked by people for their exotic aroma and unique
Microbiol Rev, 29, 795-811., 2005.
taste. They also have many medicinal values which
[3] D. D. Tibuhwa, “Diversity of macrofungi at the
make them more important for us and have direct use in
University of Dar es Salaam Mlimani main campus
the traditional medicine. Some also show great promise
in Tanzania”, International Journal of Biodiversity
in the cure of many deadly diseases like cancer, viral
and Conservation, 3.11., 540-550., 2011.
infection, bacterial infection, etc. Due to the unique
[4] M. Karim, M.R. Kavosi, S.A. Mosazadeh and A.
character to utilize any type of organic waste now they
Bohrasi, “Study on diversity and frequency of
have come up in this modern era as the sole solution to
macrofungi in deciduous and mix forestation of
global food crises. The unique character to grow in
Northern Iran (Case study Golestan province)”,
waste land makes them a very good agricultural product
World Applied Sciences Journal, 19.9., 1268-1272.,
to be grown in very less and unused land which to a
2012.
great extend solves our problem of scarcity of
[5] A. Karwa and M. K. Rai, “Tapping into the edible
agricultural land. The commercialized species can be
fungi biodiversity of Central India”, Biodiversitas,
grown in house hold in polyethylene bags packed with
11.2., 97-101., 2010.
saw dust or other agro waste like straw, husk, grass,
[6] P.M. Kirk, P.F. Cannon, J.C.D.W. Minter and J.A.
leaves, coffee pulp, etc. The cultivation of these
Stalpers, Dictionary of the Fungi. 10th edition, pp:
organisms also helps to clean our environment due to
771, 2008.
biodegrading nature and with passage of time they turn
[7] G. Straatsma, F. Ayer and S. Egli, “Species
waste land into cultivation land. These organisms also
richness, abundance, and phenology of fungal fruit
produce many commercially important enzymes so
bodies over 21 years in a Swiss forest plot”,
many species are commercialized for the production of
Mycological Research, 105.5., 515-523., 2001.
chemicals which can be used for dyeing wool and other
[8] T.E. O’Dell, D.J. Lodge, M.G. Mueller,
natural fibers. The chromophores of mushroom dyes are
“Approaches to Sampling Macrofungi” In:
organic compounds and produce strong and vivid
Biodiversity of Fungi: Inventory and Monitoring
colours, and all colours of the spectrum can be achieved
Methods, G.M. Mueller, F.G. Bills and S.M. Foster
with mushroom dyes. Before the invention of synthetic
(Eds.). Elsevier Academic Press, San Diego. CA,
dyes, mushrooms were the source of many textile dyes.
163-168., 2004.

International Journal of Biological Sciences and Engineering

ISSN 0976-1519, Vol. 06, No. 01, March 2015, pp. 16-23
 DEBASISH MOHAPATRA, N IHAR R ANJAN S INGH AND S AKTI K ANTA R ATH 23

[9] D.D. Tibuhwa, A.K. Kivaisi and F.F.S. Magingo,
“Utility of the macro-micromorphological
characteristics used in classifying the species of
Termitomyces”. Tanzania Journal of Science, 36,
3–46., 2010.
[10] D. Arora, Mushrooms demystified: A hunting by using bioinformatics: application of a
comprehensive guide to the fleshy fungi. Berkeley:
Ten Speed Press, 959, 1986.
[11] A.H. Smith, H.V. Smith and N.S. Weber, How to
Know the Gilled Mushrooms. U.S.A., 1979.
[12] H.A.B. Wösten and J.G.H. Wessels,”The
emergence of fruiting bodies in Basidiomycetes”.
In: U. Kues and R. Fischer (eds), The Mycota I
growth, differentiation and sexuality. Springer,
Berlin, 393–414., 2006.
[13] T.R.Horton and T. D. Bruns, “The molecular
revolution in ectomycorrhizalecology:peeking into
the black-box”. Molecular Ecology, 10, 1855-187.,
2001.
[14] I.C. Anderson and J.W.G Cairney,
“Ectomycorrhizal fungi: exploring the mycelia
frontier”. FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 31, 388-
406., 2007.
[15] K. Martin, “Introduction to molecular analysis of
ectomycorrhizal communities”. Journal of the Soil
Science Society of America, 71, 601-610., 2007.
[16] D.S. Hibbett, A. Ohman and P.M. Kirk “Fungal
ecology catches fire”. New Phytologist, 184, 279-
82., 2009.
[17] R.H. Nilsson, E. Kristiansson, M. Ryberg, N.
Hallenberg and K.H. Larsson, “Intraspecific ITS
variability in the Kingdom Fungi as expressed in
the International Sequence Databases and its
implications for molecular species identification”.
Evolutionary Bioinformatics, 4, 193-201., 2008.
[18] M.B. Quin, C.M. Flynn, G.T. Wawrzyn, S.
Choudhary and C. Schmidt-Dannert, “Mushroom
predictive framework facilitates the selective
identification ossesquiterpenesynthase in
basidiomycota”. Chembiochem, 14, 2480-2491.,
2013.
[19] G. Venturella, “Mycological investigations and
conservation of fungi in Sicily (South Italy)”,
Mycologia Balcanica, 1, 21–23., 2004.
[20] C. Manoharachary, K. Sridhar, R. Singh, A.
Adholeya, T. S. Suryanarayanan, S. Rawat and B.
N. Johri, “Fungal biodiversity: Distribution,
conservation and prospecting of fungi from India,
Special section: Microbial Diversity”, Current
Science, 89.1., 2005.
[21] D. Moore, M. Nuata, S. Evans and M. Rotheroe,
“Fungal Conservation- Issues and Solutions”
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2001.
[22] G.M. Mueller and J.P. Schmit, “Fungal
biodiversity: What do we know? What can we
predict?”, Biodiversity and Conservation, 16.1., 1-
5., 2007.
[23] C.A. Grgurinovic and Simpson, “Conservation
Status of the known Agaricales, Bolelales,
Canlharellales, Lycoperdales, Phallales and
Russulales of South Australia”. Fungal Diversity, 8,
97-127., 2001.

International Journal of Biological Sciences and Engineering

ISSN 0976-1519, Vol. 06, No. 01, March 2015, pp. 16-23

View publication stats