Grammar notes

Adjectives

An adjective is a word that modifies the noun or pronoun. It describes or point out a
person, place or thing, or to tell the number or quantity.

Examples:-

a famous poet.

Modal verbs

Modal verbs combine with other verbs to form compound verbs.

Modal verbs and their functions

Modal verbs Functions

Can, could, may, might, would To indicate possibility
Can, will, could, would To indicate ability
Must, will, shall To indicate certainty
Might, should, ought To indicate probability
Can, could, may To indicate permission
Should, must, need, ought to To indicate obligation
Used to To indicate a past habit
Examples:-

 May I ask you a few questions? (permission)

 Can you swim? (ability)
 You should keep your promise. (duty or obligation)
 We ought to help him. (moral obligation)

Cataphoric reference

An expression that refers to a later expression in the discourse is called a Cataphoric

reference.

Examples:-

The Rasool (S.A.W) and his companion, Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddique (R.A.A), migrated
from Makkah to Madinah in the years 622 A.D.

Anaphoric reference
 An expression that refers to an earlier expression in the discourse is called an Anaphoric
reference.

Examples:-

Hazrat Asma (R.A.A) was amongst the early few who accepted Islam. She was the
daughter of Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddique (R.A.A).

Abstract Noun

Abstract noun is the name of a quality, action, or state. Abstract Nouns are formed from
adjectives, verbs and common nouns.

Examples:-

She faced every calamity of life with patience and valour.

Collective noun

A singular noun such as committee or team that refers to a group of people, animals or
things is called collective noun. For example:

Crowd in this poem refers to a collection or a large number of daffodils.

Conjunctions

Conjunctions join words and sentences. There are two kinds of conjunctions.

Types Functions Examples

Coordinating These conjunctions join sentences But, or, nor, either, also,
conjunctions of equal rank. however, only, so, hence
Subordinating These conjunctions join sentences, Because, that, while,
conjunctions one of which is dependent on the unless, as, when, since,
other. if, though
Adverbs

A word that modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb is called an
adverb. Adverbs usually come in the following positions in a sentence.

Examples:-

She was singing beautifully (adverb of manner) at a concert (adverb of place) last
Sunday (adverb of time).

Infinitives

a. You are free to go to your masjid.

 b. He made the people work.

The words given in bold have no subject. We say that to go is the infinitive of the verb.
Sometimes “to” is used as in example “a”, sometimes infinitive without to is used as in
example “b”.

Gerunds

A gerund is that form of the verb which ends in –ing, and has the function of a noun.

a. Painting is a good fun.

b. I like painting.
c. My favourite hobby is painting.

In these sentences Painting does the work of a noun forming the subjects, object and
complement.

Conditionals: Type 3 (unfulfilled condition)

Conditionals of this type say that something did not happen because a certain condition was not
fulfilled.

Example: If we had paid need to his warnings and advice, we would not have got entangled
into petty pursuits that have brought forth only disunity and disharmony among our ranks.

Alliteration

Alliteration refers to the repetition of the same consonant sound in words which are used
closely together in the poem.

Examples: Whose woods…..

His house……

…see me stopping….

Imagery

Imagery is the construction of details used to create mental images in the mind of the
reader through the visuals sense as well as the sense of touch, smell, taste and sound.

Examples of imagery:-

Visual – huge trees in the thick and dark forest

Auditory – the rustling of leaves

Smell – scent of apples

Taste – sweet and juicy oranges

Touch – rugged and rough path

Adjective Phrase

An adjective phrase is a group of words that does the work of an adjective.

Examples:-

a. I like to see a smiling face. (adjective)

b. I like to see a face with a smile on it. (adjective phrase)

Adverb Phrase

An adverb phrase is a group of words that does the work of an adverb.

Examples:-

a. Ali ran quickly. (adverb)

b. Ali ran at a great speed. (adverb phrase)

Compound Prepositions

Compound prepositions are two or more words working together as one word and
functioning as a preposition.

Examples:-

He couldn’t attend the seminar because of his brother’s marriage.

Relative pronoun

A Relative pronoun joins ideas. It gives additional information about the subject or object
e.g. who, which, that, whom, whose.

Examples:-

The people who are addicted to drugs undergo many serious problems.

Adjective clause

An adjective clause is a group of words which does the work of an adjective. It usually
begins with a relative pronoun such as who, whom, that, which, whose.

Example:-

The umbrella which has a broken handle is mine.

Adverb clause

An adverb clause is a group of words which does the work of an adverb. It usually begins
with a subordinating conjunction such as, after, because, until, where, while, unless, as, when,
since, if, though, wherever.

Example:-

He finished first though he began late.