University of Zakho

Faculty of science
Department of general science
2nd stage

Integration Of Rational Functions

By Partial Fractions

Prepared By :
Shameram Yukhana moshi

Supervise by: Ms. shrooq

2019-2020
CONTENTS

Difination.................................................................................3
History..................................................................................3,4
Introduction.............................................................................5
Applications.........................................................................6,7
Integration of rational functions by partial fractions......8,9,10
Case i the denominator q(x) is a product of distinct linear
factors.....................................................................11,12,13,14
Case ii q(x) is a product of linear factors, some of which are
repeated............................................................................15,16
Case iii q(x) contains irreducible quadratic factors, none of
which is repeated....................................................17,18,19,20
Case iv q(x) contains a repeated irreducible quadratic
factor........................................................................21,22,23,24
Conclusion................................................................................25

Reference..................................................................................26

Page 2 of 26
DIFINATION

Because of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we can

integrate a function if we know an anti- derivative, that is, an
indefinite integral. We summarize here the most important
integrals that we have learned so far.

HISTORY
The first documented systematic technique capable of
determining integrals is the method of exhaustion of the
ancient Greek astronomer Eudoxus (ca. 370 BC), which sought
to find areas and volumes by breaking them up into an infinite
number of divisions for which the area or volume was known.
This method was further developed and employed by
Archimedes in the 3rd century BC and used to calculate he area
of a circle, the surface area and volume of a sphere, area of an
ellipse, the area under a parabola, the volume of a segment of
a paraboloid of revolution, the volume of a segment of a
hyperboloid of revolution, and the area of a spiral.
A similar method was independently developed in China
around the 3rd century AD by Liu Hui, who used it to find the
area of the circle. This method was later used in the 5th century
by Chinese father-and-son mathematicians Zu Chongzhi and Zu
Geng to find the volume of a sphere (Shea 2007; Katz 2004, pp.
125–126).
In the Middle East, Hasan Ibn al-Haytham, Latinized as Alhazen
(c. 965 – c. 1040 AD) derived a formula for the sum of fourth
powers. He used the results to carry out what would now be
called an integration of this function, where the formulae for
the sums of integral squares and fourth powers allowed him to
calculate the volume of a paraboloid.

The next significant advances in integral calculus did not begin

to appear until the 17th century. At this time, the work of
Cavalieri with his method of Indivisibles, and work by Fermat,
began to lay the foundations of modern calculus, with Cavalieri
computing the integrals of xn up to degree n = 9 in Cavalieri's
quadrature formula. Further steps were made in the early 17th
century by Barrow and Torricelli, who provided the first hints of
a connection between integration and differentiation. Barrow
provided the first proof of the fundamental theorem of
calculus. Wallis generalized Cavalieri's method, computing
integrals of x to a general power, including negative powers
and fractional powers.
INTRODUCTION
The integration of rational functions reduces, by the division
algorithm, to that of proper fractions. Each proper fraction
decomposes as a sum of simple proper fractions called partial
fractions, each of which is easily integrated. This method of
partial fractions is the sub-We start with a few definitions. A
rational expression is formed when a polynomial is divided by
another polynomial. In a proper rational expression the degree
of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator. In
an improper rational expression the degree of the numerator is
greater than or equal to the degree of the denominator.
This set of notes is given in three parts. Part A is an explanation
of how to decompose a proper rational expression into a sum
of simpler fractions. Part B explains Integration by Partial
Fractions of proper rational expressions. Part C explains
Integration by Partial Fractions of improper rational
expressions.
APPLICATIONS
Integrals are used extensively in many areas of mathematics as
well as in many other areas that rely on mathematics.
For example, in probability theory, integrals are used to
determine the probability of some random variable falling within
a certain range. Moreover, the integral under an entire
probability density function must equal 1, which provides a test
of whether a function with no negative values could be a density
function or not.
Integrals can be used for computing the area of a two-
dimensional region that has a curved boundary, as well as
computing the volume of a three-dimensional object that has a
curved boundary. The area of a two-dimensional region can be
calculated using the aforementioned definite integral.
The volume of a three-dimensional object such as a disc or
washer, as outlined in Disc integration can be computed using the
equation for the volume of a cylinder,𝜋𝑟2ℎ where 𝑟 is the
radius, which in this case would be the distance from the curve
of a function to the line about which it is being rotated. For a
simple disc, the radius will be the equation of the function minus
the given 𝑥 -value or 𝑦 -value of the line. For instance, the
radius of a disc created by rotating a quadratic 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 + 4
around the line 𝑦 = −1 would be given by the expression
−𝑥 2 + 4 − (−1)𝑜𝑟 − 𝑥 2 + 5 , In order to find the
volume for this same shape, an integral with bounds a and b
such that a and b are intersections of the line 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 + 4 𝑦
= −1 would be used as follows:
𝑏
𝜋 ∫ (−𝑥2 + 5)2𝑑𝑥
𝑎

The components of the above integral represent the

variables in the equation for the volume of a cylinder,
𝜋𝑟 2ℎ The constant pi is factored out, while the radius,
−𝑥 2 + 5 is
squared within the integral. The height, represented in the
volume formula by h is given in this integral by the
infinitesimally small (in order to approximate the volume
with the greatest possible accuracy) term 𝑑𝑥.

Integrals are also used in physics, in areas like kinematics to

find quantities like displacement, time, and velocity. For
example, in rectilinear motion, the displacement of an object
over the time interval [𝑎, 𝑏]is given by:
𝑏
𝑥(𝑏) − 𝑥(𝑎) = ∫ 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑎

Where 𝑣(𝑡) is the velocity expressed as a function of time.

The work done by a force 𝐹(𝑥) (given as a function of
position) from an initial position 𝐴 to a final position 𝐵 is:
𝐵
𝑊𝐴→𝐵 = ∫ 𝐹(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝐴

Integrals are also used in thermodynamics, where

thermodynamic integration is used to calculate the difference in
free energy between two given states.
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL
FRACTIONS
In this section we show how to integrate any rational function
(a ratio of polynomials) by expressing it as a sum of simpler
fractions, called partial fractions, that we already know how to
integrate. To illustrate the method, observe that by taking the
fractions 2/(𝑥 – 1) and 1/(𝑥 + 2) to a common
denominator we obtain
2 − 1 = 2(𝑥 + 2) − (𝑥 − 1) = 𝑥 + 5
𝑥−1 𝑥+2 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2

If we now reverse the procedure, we see how to integrate the

function on the right side of
this equation:
∫ 𝑥+5
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( 2 1 ) 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥− − 𝑥+
1 2
= 2 ln|𝑥 − 1| − ln|𝑥 + 2| + 𝑐
To see how the method of partial fractions works in general,
let's consider a rational function

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = Ρ(𝑥)
𝑄(𝑥)
where Pand 𝑄 are polynomials. It's possible to express 𝑓 as a
sum of simpler fractions pro-vided that the degree of 𝑃 is less
than the degree of 𝑄. Such a rational function is called proper.
Recall that if
Ρ(𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0

Where 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 , then the degree of 𝑃 is 𝑛 and we write

𝑑𝑒𝑔(𝑃) = 𝑛.
If 𝑓 is improper, that is, 𝑑𝑒𝑔(𝑃) ≥ 𝑑𝑒𝑔(𝑄), then we must take
the preliminary step of Dividing 𝑄 into 𝑃 (by long division) until
a remainder 𝑅(𝑥) is obtained such that 𝑑𝑒𝑔(𝑅) < 𝑑𝑒𝑔(𝑄). The
division statement is

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = Ρ(𝑥) = 𝑆(𝑥) + 𝑅(𝑥)

1 𝑄(𝑥) 𝑄(𝑥)

where 𝑆 and 𝑅 are also polynomials.

As the following example illustrates, sometimes this preliminary
step is all that is required.

Example 1 Find 𝑥3+𝑥

𝑥−1 𝑑𝑥
∫
Solution Since the degree of the numerator is greater than the
degree of the denomina- tor, we first perform the long division.
This enables us to write
𝑥3 + 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ +𝑥+ 2+ 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
2
(𝑥𝑥 − 1 𝑥−1
 𝑥3
𝑥2 |𝑥 − +𝑐
= +
+ 2𝑥 + 2 1|
3 ln
2
The next step is to factor the denominator 𝑄(𝑥) as far as
possible. It can be shown that any polynomial 𝑄 can be
factored as a product of linear factors (of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
and irreducible quadratic factors (of the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 +
𝑐, where 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0). For instance, if 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 −
16, we could factor it as
𝑄(𝑥) = (𝑥2 − 4)(𝑥2 + 4) = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥2 + 4)

The third step is to express the proper rational function

𝑅(𝑥)/𝑂(𝑥) (from Equation 1) as a sum of partial fractions of
the form
Α 𝑏)𝑖
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑜𝑟 Α𝑥 + Β
(𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑗

A theorem in algebra guarantees that it is always possible to do

this. We explain the details for the four cases that occur.
 CASE I THE DENOMINATOR Q(X) IS A PRODUCT OF
DISTINCT LINEAR FACTORS.
This means that we can write
𝑄(𝑥) = (𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑏1)(𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑏2) … . (𝑎𝑘𝑥 + 𝑏𝑘)
where no factor is repeated (and no factor is a constant
multiple of another). In this case the partial fraction theorem
states that there exist constants Α1 , Α2,… , Α𝑘 such that

𝑅 (𝑥 ) = 𝐴1 𝐴𝑘
+ 𝐴2 +⋯+
2 𝑄 ( 𝑥 ) 𝑎 1𝑥 + 𝑎 2𝑥 + 𝑎𝑘𝑥 + 𝑏𝑘
𝑏1 𝑏2
These constants can be determined as in the following example.
𝑥2+2𝑥−1
Example2 Evaluate ∫ 𝑑𝑥 .
2𝑥3+3𝑥2−2𝑥
Solution Since the degree of the numerator is less than the
degree of the denominator, we don't need to divide. We factor
the denominator as
2𝑥3 + 3𝑥2- 2x = x(2𝑥2 + 3x- 2)= x(2x -1)x + 2)

Since the denominator has three distinct linear factors, the

partial fraction decomposition of the integrand 2 has the form
𝑥2 + 2 − 1 𝐴 𝐵 𝑐
3 = + +
𝑥(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 2𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 2
To determine the values of A, B, and C, we multiply both sides
of this equation by the product of the denominators,
𝑥 (2𝑥 − )(𝑥 + 2), obtaining

4 𝑥2+2𝑥 − 1 = 𝐴(2𝑥 − 10𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵𝑥(𝑥 + 2) +

𝐶 𝑥(2𝑥 − 1)

Expanding the right side of Equation 4 and writing it in the

standard form for poly- nomials, we get

5 𝑥2+2𝑥 − 1 = (2𝐴 + 𝐵 + 2𝐶)𝑥2 + (3𝐴 + 28 −

𝐶)𝑥 − 24
The polynomials in Equation 5 are identical, so their coefficients
must be equal. The coefficient of𝑥 2on the right side, 2A +
B+2C, must equal the coefficient of 𝑥 2on the left side-namely,
1. Likewise, the coefficients of x are equal and the constant
terms are equal. This gives the following system of equations
for A, B, and C:
2𝐴 + 𝐵 + 2𝐶 = 1
3𝐴 + 2𝐵 − 𝐶 = 2
−2𝐴 = −1

1 2 1
Solving, we get A = .B = , and C =- , and so
2 5 10

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 11 1 1 1 1
∫ =∫ [ + − ] 𝑑𝑥
3 2
2𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 𝑥 5 2𝑥 − 1 10 𝑥 + 2
 =
1
1
In |𝑥| + 1 𝑙𝑛 |2x -1|- n |x + 2|+ K
2 10 10

In integrating the middle term we have made the mental

1
substitution 𝑢 = 2𝑥 − 1, which gives du=2 dx and dx = du.
2

NOTE We can use an alternative method to find the coefficients

A, B, and C in Exam- ple 2. Equation 4 is an identity; it is true for
every value ofx. Let's choose values ofx that simplify the
equation. If we put x = 0 in Equation 4, then the second and
third terms on the right side vanish and the equation then
becomes-
1 1 1
2A= -1, or A = . Likewise, x= gives 5B/4= and x= -2 gives 10C =
1 2 1 2 4
-1, so B = and C =- . (You may object that Equation 3 is not valid
5
1 10
for x = 0, ,or-2, so why should Equation 4 be valid for those
2 1
values? In fact, Equation 4 is true for all values of x, even x = 0, ,
2
and-2. See Exercise 71 for the reason.)

𝑑𝑥
Examples3 Find∫ 2 2, where≠a
0𝑥 −𝑎
Solution The method of partial fractions gives
1 𝑥−𝑎
1
𝑥 2 − = (𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 + + 𝐵
𝑥
𝑎2 𝑎) +𝑎
and therefore = 𝐴

A(x + a)+ B(x - a) = 1

Using the method of the preceding note, we put x = a in this
equation and get A(2a) = 1, so A = 1/(2a). If we put x= -a, we get
B(-2a) = 1, so B = -1/(2a). Thus

∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 1∫( 1 1 ) 𝑑𝑥
= 2𝑎 −
𝑥−𝑎 𝑥+𝑎
1
= (In|x-al - In |x + al) +C
2𝑎

Since 𝐼𝑛 𝑥 − 𝐼𝑛 𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛(𝑥/𝑦), we can write the integral as

∫ 𝑑𝑥
6 𝑥2 − 𝑎2 1 𝑙𝑛 |𝑥 − 𝑎| + 𝑐
= 2𝑎 𝑥+𝑎
 CASE II Q(X) IS A PRODUCT OF LINEAR FACTORS,
SOME OF WHICH ARE REPEATED.
Suppose the first linear factor (𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑏1) is repeated r times;
that is, (𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑏1) occurs in the factorization of Q(x). Then
instead of the single term 𝐴1/(𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑏1) in Equation 2, we
Would use
𝐴1
𝐴𝑟
7
𝑎1𝑥+𝑏1 𝐴 +⋯+
+ (𝑎1𝑥+𝑏21)2 (𝑎1𝑥+𝑏1)𝑟

By way of illustration, we could write

𝑥3 − 𝑥 + 1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷 𝐸
= + + + +
2
𝑥 (𝑥 − 1) 3 𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 − 1)3

But we prefer to work out in detail a simpler example

𝑥4−2𝑥2+4𝑥+1
Example4: Find 𝑑𝑥.
𝑥3−𝑥2−𝑥+1
∫
Solution the first is to divide. The result of long division is
𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1 4𝑥
=𝑥+1+
3
𝑥 −𝑥 −𝑥+12 𝑥3 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 1

The second step is to factors the denominator 𝑄 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 −

𝑥 + 1. Since 𝑄(1) = 0, we know that 𝑥 − 1 is a factors
and we obtain
𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥2 − 1) = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)
= (𝑥 − 1)2(𝑥 + 1)
 Since the linear factor 𝑥 − 1 occurs twice, the partial fraction
decomposition is
4𝑥 𝑥−1 1)2
(𝑥 − 1)2(𝑥 + = 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶
(𝑥 − 𝑥+1

Multiplying by the least common denominator,(𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 + 1)

,we get
8 4𝑥 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶(𝑥 − 1)2
= (𝐴 + 𝐶)𝑥2 + (𝐵 − 2𝐶)𝑥 + (−𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶)
Now we equate coefficients:
𝐴 + 𝐶 =0
𝐵 − 2𝐶 = 4
−𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 0
Solving, we obtain 𝐴 = 1, 𝐵 = 2 and 𝐶 = −1, so
𝑥4−2𝑥2+4𝑥+1 1
2
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ [𝑥 + 1 + − 1
] 𝑑𝑥
𝑥3−𝑥2−𝑥+1 𝑥−1 (𝑥−1)2 𝑥+1

|𝑥
2 2 |
|
= + 𝑥 + ln 𝑥 − 1 − − ln 𝑥 + 1 + 𝐾
2 𝑥−2
𝑥2 2 𝑥−1
+𝑥− + ln | |+𝐾
2 𝑥−1 𝑥+1
CASE III Q(X) CONTAINS IRREDUCIBLE QUADRATIC
FACTORS, NONE OF WHICH IS REPEATED.

If Q(x) has the factor a𝑥2 + bx + c, where𝑏2 - 4ac <0, then, in

addition to the partial fractions in Equations 2 and 7, the
expression for R(X)/Q(x) will have a term of the form
𝐴𝑥+𝑏
9 𝑎𝑥2+𝑏𝑥+𝑐

where A and B are constants to be determined. For instance,

the function given by f(x)= x/[(x - 2)(𝑥2 + )(𝑥2 + 4)] has a
partial fraction decomposition of the form
𝑥 𝐴 𝐵𝑥+
= 𝐷𝑥+𝐸
(𝑥−2)(𝑥 2 +1)(𝑥 2 +4) 𝑥−2 +
𝑥 2 +1 𝑥 2+4

The term given in 9 can be integrated by completing the square

(if necessary) and using the formula
𝑑𝑥 1 −1 𝑥
10 ∫ ()+𝑐
tan 𝑎

Example 5: Evaluate∫
𝑥 2 −𝑥+4
𝑥3+4𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

Solution Since 𝑥 2 + 4x=x(𝑥2+4) can't be factored further, we

write
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 4 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝑐
= +
𝑥(𝑥 + 4) 𝑥 𝑥 2 + 4
2
Multiplying by x(𝑥2+ 4), we have
2𝑥 2-x + 4= A(𝑥 2+ 4) +(Bx+ C)x
= (A + B)𝑥2 + Cx + 4A

Equating coefficients, we obtain

A+ B= 2 C=-1 4A=4
Thus A = 1,B= 1, and C = -1 and so

𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 4 1 𝑥−1
∫ 3
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 + 4𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 +4

In order to integrate the second term we split it into two parts:

∫𝑥−1
𝑥2 + 4 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 + 𝑥2 +
4 4

We make the substitution u =𝑥2+ 4 in the first of these integrals

so that du = 2x dx. We evaluate the second integral by means
of Formula 10 with a = 2:
𝑥 −𝑥+4 1
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 =∫ 𝑑𝑥 +𝑥 𝑑𝑥 −
∫ 𝑑𝑥:
∫
1

𝑥(𝑥2+4) 𝑥 𝑥2+4 𝑥2+4

1 2 1 −1 𝑥
= In Jx| + In(𝑥 + 4)- ( )+𝑘
tan 2 2 2
 𝑥2−3𝑥+2
Example6 Evaluate ∫ dx.k
𝑥2−4𝑥+3
Solution Since the degree of the numerator is not less than the
degree of the denomi- nator, we first divide and obtain
4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 𝑥−1
=1+
4𝑥2 − 4𝑥 + 3 4𝑥2 − 4𝑥 + 3
4x 3x t 2-1+ 4x 4x + S

Notice that the quadratic 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 is irreducible because

its discriminant is 𝑏 2 -4𝑎𝑐 = −32 < 0. This means it can't
be factored, so we don't need to use the partial fraction
technique.
To integrate the given function we complete the square in the
denominator:
4𝑥2 − 4𝑥 + 3 = (2𝑥 − 1)2 + 2
This suggests that we make the substitution 𝑢 = 2𝑥 − 1. Then
𝑑𝑢 = 2 dx and 𝑋 = 12 (𝑢 + 1 ), so
4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 𝑥−1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (1 + ) 𝑑𝑥
2
4𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3 2
4𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3
1
1 (𝑢+1)−1
1 u−1
2
=x+ ∫ 𝑢2+2 du=x+ ∫ du
2 4 +2
𝑢2
1 𝑢 1 1
=x+ ∫ 2 𝑑𝑢 − ∫ 2 𝑑𝑢
4 𝑢 +2 4 𝑢 +2
1
=x+ ln (𝑢 2 +2)− 1 × 1
tan−1 ( 𝑢 ) + 𝑐
8 4 √2 √2
1
=x+ ln(4𝑥2 − 4𝑥 + 3) − 1
tan−1 (2𝑥−1) + 𝑐
8 4√2 √2
NOTE Example 6 illustrates the general procedure for
integrating a partial fraction of the form
𝐴𝑥+𝐵
𝑎𝑥2+𝑏𝑥+𝑐 where𝑏2 −4ac <0
We complete the square in the denominator and then make a
substitution that brings the integral into the form
∫ 𝐶𝑢 + 𝐷 𝑑𝑢 = 𝐶 ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 + 𝐷 ∫ 1 𝑑𝑢
𝑢2 + 𝑎2 𝑢2 + 2
𝑢 +𝑎 2

𝑎2
Then the first integral is a logarithm and the second is expressed
in terms of tan−1.
CASE IV Q(X) CONTAINS A REPEATED IRREDUCIBLE
QUADRATIC FACTOR.
If Q(x) has the factor (a𝑥2 + bx + c)', where𝑏2 − 4ac < 0, then
instead of the single partial fraction9, the sum
𝐴1𝑥+𝐵1
𝐴2𝑥+𝐵2 𝐴𝑟𝑥+𝐵𝑟
11 𝑎𝑥2+𝑏𝑥+𝑐 + +⋯
(𝑎𝑥2+𝑏𝑥+𝑐)2 (𝑎𝑥2+𝑏𝑥+𝑐)𝑟
+

occurs in the partial fraction decomposition of R(x)/Q(x). Each of

the terms in 11 can be integrated by using a substitution or by
first completing the square if necessary.
EXAMPLE 7: Write out the form of the partial fraction
decomposition of the function
𝑥3 + 𝑥2 + 1
𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1)(𝑥2 + 1)3
Solution
𝑥3+𝑥2+1
𝑥(𝑥−1)(𝑥2+𝑥+1)(𝑥2+1)3
𝐴 𝐵
𝐶𝑥+𝐷 𝐸𝑥+𝐹 𝐺𝑥+𝐻 𝐼𝑥+𝐽
= + + + + +
𝑥 𝑥−1 𝑥2+𝑥+1 𝑥2+1 (𝑥2+1) 2 (𝑥2+1)3

gives the following values A=-1, B=12 , 𝐶 = 𝐷 = −1

15 1 3
𝐸=

1 1
𝐼=− , 𝐽=
2 2
EXAMPLE 8: Evaluate 1−𝑥+2𝑥2−𝑥3
∫ 𝑥(𝑥2+1) 𝑑𝑥
Solution The form of the partial fraction decomposition is
 1−𝑥+2𝑥 2−𝑥 3 𝐴 𝐵𝑥+𝐶 𝐷𝑥+𝐸
=
+ +
𝑥(𝑥2+1)2 𝑥 𝑥 2 +1 (𝑥2+1)2
Multiplying by x(𝑥2+ 1)2, we have
-𝑥3 +2𝑥2- x + 1 = A(x + 1)2 + (Bx + C)x(x2 + 1) + (Dx + E)x
=A(x4+ 2x2+ 1) + B(x4+ x2) + C(x3 +x )+ Dx2 + Ex
= (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑥4 + 𝐶𝑥3 + (2𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐷)𝑥2 + (𝐶 +
𝐸)𝑥 + 𝐴
If we uate coefficients, we get the system
𝐴+𝐵= 0 𝑐 = −1 2𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐷 = 2
𝐶 + 𝐸 = −1 𝐴= 1

which has the solution A = 1,B =-1,C = -1,D = 1, and E =0. Thus
1 − 𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 1 𝑥+1 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( − + ) 𝑑𝑥
2
𝑥(𝑥 + 1) 2 2
𝑥 𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 + 1) 2 2

𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥𝑑𝑥
=∫ −∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ +∫
𝑥 𝑥2+1 𝑥2+1 (𝑥2+1)2

=ln|𝑥 | − 1 ln(𝑥 2 + 1) − tan−1 𝑥 − 1

+𝐾
2 2(𝑥2+1)

We note that sometimes partial fractions can be avoided when

integrating a rational func- tion. For instance, although the
integral
 ∫ 𝑥2 + 1 𝑑𝑥
𝑥(𝑥2 + 3)

could be evaluated by the method of Case III, it's much easier

to observe that if u = x(𝑥2+3) =𝑥 3 + 3x, then du = (3𝑥2 +3)
𝑑𝑥 and so
𝑥2+1
1 3
∫ 𝑥(𝑥2+3) 𝑑𝑥 = 3In | 𝑥 + 3x| + C

Rationalizing Substitutions
Some nonrational functions can be changed into rational
functions by means of appro- priate substitutions. In particular,
when an integrand contains an expression of the form 𝑛
√𝑔(𝑥).
then the substitution u=𝑛√𝑔(𝑥) may be effective.

𝒙+𝟒
Example 9: Evaluate∫ √ 𝒅𝒙
𝒙

Solution Let u =√𝑥 + 4 Then 𝑢2 = x + 4, so x =𝑢2 - 4 and

dx = 2u du.
Therefore
√𝑥 + 4 𝑢 𝑢2
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 2𝑢𝑑𝑢 = 2 ∫ 2 𝑑𝑢
𝑥 𝑢 −4 𝑢 −4

4
=2∫ (1 +
𝑢2−4
)du
We can evaluate this integral either by factoring𝑢2 - 4 as (u- 2)(u
+ 2) and using partial fractions or by using Formula 6 with a = 2:

𝑥+4
√
∫𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑢 + 8 ∫ = 2𝑢 + 8 . 1
ln| |+𝑐
𝑢−2
𝑥 𝑢2−4 2.2 𝑢+2

=2√ 𝑥 + 4 +2ln| √𝑥+4−2| + 𝑐

√𝑥+4+2
CONCLUSION

We’ve seen how to do partial fractions in several special cases;

now we’ll do a big example so that you can see how all these
cases fit together.

Remember that partial fractions is a method for breaking up

rational ex- pressions into integrable pieces. The good news is,
it always works. The bad news is that it can take a lot of time to
make it work.
REFERENCE

1. https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/classes/calcii/partialfraction
s.aspx
2. https://home.apu.edu/~smccathern/PastCourses/162S16/7_
4handout.pdf
3. https://www.math24.net/integration-rational-functions/
4. https://www.imsc.res.in/~svis/eme13/raghavan.pdf
5. https://ddmcnutt.files.wordpress.com/2015/09/l3b-
integration-of-rational-functions-by-partial-fractions2.pdf
6. http://www.ms.uky.edu/~rbrown/courses/ma114.f.03/lec13
.pdf
7. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integral
8. http://www.mit.edu/~hlb/StantonGrant/Lecture30/lec30sni
p1det-partfraccalc.pdf