Definition History Structure Pros & Cons Types Construction Worldwide Local IDK

A cable-stayed bridge is a structural system with a continuous girder supported by inclined stay

cables from the towers. Form the mechanical point of view, the cable-stayed bridge is a
continuous girder bridge supported by elastic supports. The cable-stayed bridge ranks first for a
span range approximately from 150 to 600 m, which has spanning capacity longer than that
of cantilever bridges, truss bridges, arch bridges, and box girder bridges, but shorter than that
of suspension bridges. In this range, the cable-stayed bridge is very economical and has
elegant appearance due to the relatively small girder depth and has proved to be very
competitive against other bridge types. In this chapter, the classification, configuration, and
construction methods of cable-stayed bridges are discussed.
Cable stayed bridges were introduced immediately following World War II to replace many of
the bridges lost during the war. Unlike the suspension bridge, the cables extend from the towers
directly connecting to the deck. In most bridges, the cables come to a “dead end” at the deck
and the tower. There have been some recent bridges where the cables pass through a “saddle”
at the tower, and then to the deck at each end. The cables are typically in two planes separated
by the width of the roadway, though numerous bridges have been built with a central plane of
stays between the two opposing lanes of traffic. This requires a torsionally resistant
superstructure. The cables are straight, resulting in greater stiffness than a suspension bridge.
By anchoring the cables to the deck, compressive forces are applied to the deck, resulting in it
participating in handling those loads. This can be problematic should deck replacement be
necessary. In general, a cable stayed bridge is less efficient in carrying dead load than a
suspension bridge but is more efficient in carrying live load. The most economical span length
for a cable stayed bridge is 100–350 m, though some designers have extended this range to as
much as 800 m. There have been some problems with cable excitation during rain/wind events,
particularly on the longer stays. A cable stayed bridge is very modern and pleasing in
appearance and fits extremely well in almost any environment.
For cable-stayed bridges, 3D modeling is recommended, including the following elements:
 Main girder: Steel or concrete boxes or composite I-girders are basic solutions; in the first
case, the girder could be modeled as a beam at the centroid of its cross section with a
longitudinal development, linking the beam to a cable's anchor point by rigid link; if
transverse-stiffened beams are used instead of rigid links, bending and shear stiffness along
the length of the bridge should be carefully calculated. If composite I-girders are used, the
girder can be modeled as a grid of beams.
 Pylons: 3D beam elements are usually used to model pylons, changing the cross section
shape/geometry/direction according to the vertical development.
 Cables: Truss elements are commonly used, except in those cases where sag effect should
be accounted for; in this case, appropriate element should be introduced in the model
(namely cable element), considering the equivalent Young's modulus;
 connection, vertical support, etc.) the connection is introduced into the 3D model; if a
damping system is adopted in the bridge, accurate calibration of this element should be
provided, checking for the allowable displacement versus movement.Pylon/girder connection:
According to the specific connection (full separation, rigid

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/cable-stayed-bridges
 Definition History Structure Pros & Cons Types Construction Worldwide Local IDK

It usually carries pedestrians, bicycles, automobiles, trucks, and light rail. It is used in places
where spans need to be longer than cantilever bridge can achieve (because of its weight), but
the span is short enough so a suspension bridge is not practical there economically.

Venetian inventor Fausto Veranzio was the first to design cable stayed bridges (he was also the
first to design modern suspended bridge). He published his works in 1595 in his book
“Machinae Novae”. First built cable-stayed bridges appeared in the 19th century and many
early suspension bridges were cable-stayed like footbridge Dryburgh Abbey Bridge, James
Dredge's Victoria Bridge, in Bath, England (Built in 1836), Albert Bridge (built in 1872) and
Brooklyn Bridge (1883). Other early cable-stayed bridges in the United States were Barton
Creek Bridge between Huckabay, Texas and Gordon, Texas (built in 1889), bridge over Bluff
Dale, Texas, (built in 1890a and it still largely stands).

Constraction of this type of bridge continued into the 20th century when where built “Cassagnes
bridge” (designed by A. Gisclard), le Coq's bridge at Lézardrieux in Brittany, France (designed
by G. Leinekugel and built in 1924), and aqueduct at Tempul in 1926. Concrete-decked cable-
stayed bridge over the Donzère-Mondragon canal at Pierrelatte was designed by Albert Caquot
in 1952 and was one of the first the modern cable-stayed bridges but no other that came after,
looked up to it. Strömsund Bridge designed by Franz Dischinger in 1955 had more influence on
the design of the later bridges and is more often mentioned as the first modern. Fabrizio de
Miranda, Riccardo Morandi and Fritz Leonhardt are the design pioneers of the modern cable-
stayed bridge and their designs had very few stay cables which was modern but resulted in
higher erection costs. Later designs have much more cables which is more economic in the
terms of building.

A cable-stayed bridge can be built in different variations:

 “A side-spar cable-stayed bridge” has only one tower and is supported only on one side.
One bridge built on this principle is bridge in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada and is made to
carry pedestrians. Other is Jerusalem Chords Bridge which is also made to be curved which
this design allows for.
 “Cantilever-spar cable-stayed bridge” has a single cantilever spar on one side of the span.
Its spar is made to resist the bending caused by the cables because cable forces of this bridge
are not balanced by opposing cables and bridge applies large overturning force on its
foundation. Puente de la Mujer (2001), Sundial Bridge (2004) and Chords Bridge (2008), all in
Spain, are bridges of this type.
 “Multiple-span cable-stayed bridge” is a cable-stayed bridge with more than 3 spans. It is a
more complex bridge because the loads from the main spans are not anchored back near the
end abutments. This also makes structure less stiff so additional design solutions (like “cross-
bracing” stays and stiff multi-legged frame towers) have to be applied.
 “Extradosed bridge” has stiffer and stronger deck and its cables are connected to the deck
further from the towers which are also lower than those of standard cable-stayed bridges.
 “Cable-stayed cradle-system Bridge” is one of the newest variants. It has so called “cradle
system” which carries the strands within the stays from bridge deck to bridge deck. These
cables are continuous which means that this bridge has no anchorages in the pylons and its
cables can be removed, inspected and replaced individually.

http://www.historyofbridges.com/facts-about-bridges/cable-stayed-bridges/
 Definition History Structure Pros & Cons Types Construction Worldwide Local IDK

Cable-stayed structures are the youngest, fastest-developing, and most promising bridge
systems.

Cable-stayed bridges are a subcategory of suspended structures. A cable-stayed bridge is

similar to a suspension bridge in having towers and a deck-girder supported by cables;
however, its diagonal cables transfer the vertical loads from the deck directly to the towers.
Thus, the main deck-girder of a cable-stayed bridge works like a continuous beam on cable
supports (more flexible than pier supports) with additional compression force throughout the
deck. A cable-stayed bridge is also a prestressed system as its cable-stays are additionally
tensioned to counterbalance a significant part of the vertical loads on the main deck-girder.

The Strömsund Bridge in Sweden, completed in 1956 with a 182-meter (597-foot) main span, is
considered the first modern cable-stayed bridge. For the following 65 years, cable-stayed
bridges have seen a dramatic increase in both the number of new structures and in long-span
achievements. By 1995, there were only 3 cable-stayed bridges with spans over 500 meters
(1,640 feet); 25 years later, there are already 67 cable-stayed bridges with spans over 500
meters (including three over 1,000 meters or 3,280 feet). Another 29 with spans over 500
meters, with some over 800 meters (2,624 feet), are currently under construction.

The efficient range of cable-stayed bridges is moving towards even longer spans. There is no
other bridge structural system exhibiting such rapid development. Most cable-stayed bridges are
visually beautiful, and some are among the most impressive of engineering achievements.

Origins and Precedents

The idea for the cable-stayed system was perhaps inspired by the drawbridges of medieval
castles and the rope-braced masts of tall ships. The very first documented image of a cable-
stayed bridge appears in the Machinae Novae, a book by Fausto Veranzio published in 1615.
Predecessors for modern cable-stayed bridges appeared in the 19th century in the form of
different hybrid combinations of suspension systems with additional diagonal straight cables, as
in the case of the Albert Bridge, UK (1873). The best known of these hybrid structures is the
Brooklyn Bridge, New York, 1883, with a 486-meter main span (1,594 feet), for which John
Roebling used diagonal cables for stiffening the structure.

In the 1960s and 1970s, the system was developed further to replace many of the bridges
destroyed in Germany during World War II. In this period, the system was also used for roof
structures requiring long, column-free spaces in buildings. Initially, cable-stayed structures were
used for bridge spans of 60 to 250 meters (196 to 820 feet) but today they span much longer
distances and are the only system that challenges suspension bridges in super-long spans.
Their spans grew to 302 meters (990 feet) in 1959 with the Severin Bridge (Germany), to 404
meters (1,325 feet) in 1974 with the Saint Nazaire Bridge (France), and 856 meters (2,808 feet)
in 1995 with Michel Virlogeux’s Normandy Bridge (France). Today, the Russky Island Bridge
(Russia) has the longest span of this system, 1,104 meters (3,622 feet) achieved in 2012
(Figure 1).
In the United States, we can mention the second Sunshine Skyway Bridge with a span 366-
meter (1,200 feet) in 1987 (Florida), the Dames Point Bridge with a 396-meter span (1,300-foot)
in Florida, and the Arthur Ravenel Bridge with a 471-meter span (1,545-foot) in 2005 (South
Carolina).
 Definition History Structure Pros & Cons Types Construction Worldwide Local IDK

System Specifics
The main elements of a cable-stayed bridge are towers or pylons, deck girder(s), cable-stays,
anchorages, and foundations. Tower and pylon are interchangeable terms; lighter, slender
towers are often called pylons. The classic cable-stayed bridges are symmetric with one central
span, two side spans, and two towers; such are most cable-stayed bridges with spans above
600 meters. The back-up cables may extend over several side spans.
Asymmetric cable-stayed bridges have one main span and one side span, with a single tower.
Multiple-span cable-stayed bridges have two or more (usually equal) main spans. Several
examples are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Span options: main with two sides spans, asymmetric and multi-span.

Some sub-divisions are used for cable-stayed bridges: extradosed, under-spanned (under-
deck), cradle, inverted Fink truss, and tensegrity. The cables at the towers can be arranged in
parallel (harp), fan, star, or mixed configuration. Various structural solutions are used for the
towers: single pylons, double-leg portals (vertical, slightly angled, free-standing, or
interconnected as a portal frame, with “A,” “H,” “Y,” or inverted “Y” shaped arches).

Figure 3. Tower configuration options.

The towers can be continuous above and below the deck supporting both the deck and the
cables, or the upper part can support only the cables while the deck-girder is supported directly
by piers. Examples are shown in Figure 3.
The primary construction materials used in cable-stayed bridges are:

 For decks: reinforced or prestressed concrete, composite concrete-steel, or

orthotropic steel decks;
 For deck-girders: beams of prestressed concrete or steel, box girders of prestressed
concrete or steel, similar to those in modern suspension bridges;
 For towers: steel, reinforced or prestressed concrete, composite steel-concrete;
 For cables: high-strength steel wires, usually 270 grade (270 ksi, or 1,860 MPa),
built from 7-wire, ⅜-inch (9.5 millimeters) strands per ASTM A886, other higher-
grade steel wires, carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRP), or composites.
Prestressed concrete has been used in the past, but should be avoided as it has
been proven unsafe on some failures such as the Morandi Bridge;
 For piers and foundations: reinforced concrete with or without piles depending on the
soil.
 Definition History Structure Pros & Cons Types Construction Worldwide Local IDK

For long-span bridges, foundations on soft soils, or for bridges in high seismic areas, it is
preferable to use predominantly steel structures to reduce the self-weight and the related
earthquake forces.

Efficiency and Economy

Cable-stayed bridges are efficient in cost, materials, and construction time. They have better
efficiency than other bridge systems, with the only competitor being suspension systems, while
allowing for more straightforward construction methods. An additional advantage of cable-
stayed bridges is their larger efficient span range from 100-meter spans (328 feet) to over
1,000-meter spans (3,280 feet).

The multitude of possibilities of the system provide engineers and architects with many design
options. The “mid-long range” structures allow more creativity, originality, and possibilities for
innovative work. A cable-stayed bridge does not need to be extravagant. The most
straightforward bridge with a “sincere” structure is often the best and is usually elegant and
attractive.

Cable-stayed bridges have a combination of elegance, slenderness, and a feeling of

robustness. The national infrastructure’s demand for more bridges requires the priority of
efficiency and economy.

The art of engineering requires creativity and fantasy, but engineers should avoid repetitive and
illogical shapes. Creativity is essential, but “excessive originality” should only be found in
justified exceptions (e.g., Christian Menn and Michel Virlogeux).

Pros and Cons

The main system advantages are:

 Fast and relatively easy construction, requiring less time to build

 Less expensive
 Multiple design options
 Large efficient span range
 Strong and resilient structures
 Attractive appearance

The main system disadvantages are:

 Still inferior to suspension bridges for super-long spans

 Requires checking deformations at all conditions
 Requires experience in both design and construction

https://www.structuremag.org/?p=16503
FOR INTRODUCTION: https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/bridge/meetcable.html

Fausto Veranzio came up with the first designs of cable-stayed bridges. He was born in 1551 in
Sibenik and had a variety of achievements throughout his life. Veranzio published his book on
engineering Machinae Novae in 1595 which included the cable-stayed design in addition to fifty-
 Definition History Structure Pros & Cons Types Construction Worldwide Local IDK

six inventions and constructions. As a whole, the book focuses on bridge construction and
materials to make them, ranging from wood to stone to bronze. He also wrote the first
independently printed five-language dictionary.

As time went on, his key foundational bridge designs spread throughout the world and appeared
in bridges of all kinds.

The progressive growth of science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) made way for
better civil structures. A move away from suspension bridges towards cable-stayed bridges was
better for engineers and those using the bridges. Although the bridges are similar, suspension
bridges are more vulnerable to wind and have road limitations with the amount of weight on
them.

Engineers fully introduced cable-stayed bridges to the United States in the 1970s.

The bridges were formally developed following WWII; they're appropriate for spanning long
lengths and holding heavyweight. One of the most well-recognized cable-stayed bridges is the
Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge (featured image) connecting Charleston to Mt. Pleasant in South
Carolina. The eight-lane bridge opened in 2005 and crosses the Cooper River; it replaced two
cantilever truss bridges and spans 1,546 feet.

Engineers consider cable-stayed bridges to be an improved version of suspension bridges,

although early suspension bridges have cable-stayed construction incorporated. These
suspension-cable hybrid bridges include the Dryburgh Abbey Bridge in Scotland (1817) and the
Brooklyn Bridge in New York (1883).

https://petroleumservicecompany.com/blog/history-cable-stayed-bridge/

Cable-stayed bridge, bridge form in which the weight of the deck is supported by a number of
nearly straight diagonal cables in tension running directly to one or more vertical towers. The
towers transfer the cable forces to the foundations through vertical compression. The tensile
forces in the cables also put the deck into horizontal compression.

Construction of cable-stayed bridges usually follows the cantilever method, so their construction
begins with the sinking of caissons and the erection of towers and anchorages. After the tower
 Definition History Structure Pros & Cons Types Construction Worldwide Local IDK

is built, one cable and a section of the deck are constructed in each direction. Each section of
the deck is prestressed before continuing. The process is repeated until the deck sections meet
in the middle, where they are connected. The ends are anchored at the abutments.

https://www.britannica.com/technology/cable-stayed-bridge
 Definition History Structure Pros & Cons Types Construction Worldwide Local IDK

History of Cable-Stayed Bridges

The first person to design a cable-stayed bridge was Fausto Veranzio, an inventor from Venice.
Veranzio was also the first person who designed the modern-day suspension bridge. Although
the inventor published a book called Machinae Novae in 1559 in which his designs featured, the
first cable-stayed bridges only appeared during the 19th century when several early suspension
bridges were cable-stayed, for example:

• The Victoria Bridge — Located in Bath, England, this bridge was patented by James Dredge
in 1836.
• The Dryburgh Abbey Bridge — This footbridge was erected in 1817 in Scotland and
connected the villages of Dryburgh and St. Boswells across the River Tweed.
• The Albert Bridge — A road bridge that crosses the Tideway of the River Thames and
connects Chelsea in Central London on the north bank to Battersea on the south. This bridge
was designed and built in 1873 by Rowland Mason Ordish.
• The Brooklyn Bridge — This bridge is a hybrid cable-stayed/suspension bridge that connects
Manhattan and Brooklyn and spans the East River. It was built in New York City in 1883.
• The Bluff Dale Suspension Bridge — Designed by Edwin Elijah Runyon and built in 1891,
this bridge stretches across the Paluxy River and is known as the United States’ oldest known
surviving true cable-stayed bridge.
• The Barton Creek Bridge — Now in ruins, this bridge was built in 1890 by Runyon Bridge Co.
and spans Barton Creek in Huckabay, Texas. It was abandoned in the 1930s.

Examples of cable-stayed bridges constructed in the 20th century:

Cassagnes Bridge — This unusual bridge was designed by A. Gisclard in which a horizontal tie
cable balances the cable forces to prevent excessive deck compression.
• Le Coq’s Bridge — Built in Lézardrieux in Brittany, France in 1924, this bridge was designed
by G. Leinekugel.
• The Tempul Aquaduct — Designed by Eduardo Torroja, this cable-stayed aqueduct was built
in 1926.
• Albert Caquot’s Bridge — Built in 1952 over the Donzère-Mondragon canal at Pierrelatte, this
concrete-decked bridge was one of the first contemporary cable-stayed bridges.
• Strömsund Bridge — Designed in 1955 by Franz Dischinger, this bridge significantly
influenced the design of bridges in the coming years.

Pioneering Cable-Stayed Bridge Building

Fabrizio de Miranda, Fritz Leonhardt, and Riccardo Morandi are designers considered to be the
pioneers of contemporary cable-stayed bridge building even though their designs generally had
high construction costs due to limited stay cables. In later years, designs began to feature more
cables, which turned out to be a more economical method of building.
 Definition History Structure Pros & Cons Types Construction Worldwide Local IDK

Variations of Cable-Stayed Bridges

There is a range of variations when it comes to cable-stayed bridges:

• Side-Spar — This type of cable-stayed bridge has a single tower and only receives support
from one side. Examples of bridges built in this way are a pedestrian bridge located in Manitoba,
Canada and the Jerusalem Chords Bridge, which has a curved design and is something the
design of this type of bridge is able to accommodate.

• Cantilever-Spar — This type of cable-stayed bridge features a single cantilever spar on one
side of the span. The spar is manufactured to resist bending, which results from cable forces not
balanced by opposing cables. Examples of bridges built in this way are the Puente de la Mujer
built in 2001, The Sundial Bridge built in 2004 and the Chords Bridge build in 2008. All of these
bridges are located in Spain.

• Multiple-Span — This type of cable-stayed bridge has over three spans. It is a highly complex
type of bridge because loads are not anchored back close to the end abutments. This also
makes the structure less rigid which necessitates other design solutions such as multi-legged
frame towers and cross-bracing stays.

• Extradosed — This type of cable-stayed bridge has a more rigid and powerful deck and the
cables are attached to the deck further from the towers which are also lower than standard
bridges.

• Cable-Stayed Cradle-System — This type of cable-stayed bridge is one of the most

sophisticated types. It has a “cradle system”, which supports the strands within the stays from the
one bridge deck to another. These cables are uninterrupted which means that the bridge does
not have to be anchored and pylons and cables can be regularly removed and inspected.

https://medium.com/@RBaisarov/what-are-cable-stayed-bridges-all-about-107e9a8f29d0

History: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W8_wRcGUud4

Structure Construction Types: https://www.slideshare.net/sadekabdelraheem/cable-stayed-

bridge-50681292

Construction

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281174801_CONSTRUCTION_SEQUENCE_TECHNI
QUES_FOR_CABLE_STAYED_BRIDGES_AND_BOW_STRING_BRIDGES

Pros and cons:

https://connectusfund.org/6-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-cable-stayed-bridges

https://www.ablison.com/important-pros-and-cons-cable-stayed-bridge/

https://vittana.org/11-foremost-cable-stayed-bridge-pros-and-cons
 Definition History Structure Pros & Cons Types Construction Worldwide Local IDK

Worldwide

2012 https://www.enr.com/articles/5151-the-worlds-top-10-longest-cable-stayed-bridges

2020 https://structurae.net/en/structures/bridges/cable-stayed-bridges

https://www.bridgeweb.com/Design-revealed-for-worlds-longest-and-tallest-cable-stayed-
bridge/7214

2014 https://www.roadtraffic-technology.com/features/featurethe-worlds-longest-cable-stayed-
bridges-4180849/

Local

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Cable-stayed_bridges_in_the_Philippines

https://www.acciona.com/updates/news/cebu-bridge-being-constructed-acciona-philippines-
more-than-50-complete/

https://news.abs-cbn.com/business/10/15/20/cebu-cordova-link-expressway-50-percent-
complete-says-developer

The pylons are the most visible structural element of a cable-stayed bridge simply because of their scale and together
with the arrangement of the cable planes the pylons define the characteristics of a particular bridge. Consequently,
aesthetic considerations including good proportions and careful detailing are very important for a successful overall
appearance of the bridge. The pylons are sometimes referred to as towers or bridge towers.

2.4 Structural elements

The main structural elements of cable stayed bridges are as follows:

2.4.1 Decks

Decks can be realized entirely in steel, entirely in concrete, or as a steel-concrete composite structure. Generally, the
concrete solution is the most convenient for spans up to approximately 250 m. The composite structure can be used
successfully in all spans up to about 600 m, but it adapts well to spans from 200 to 500 m (i.e., crossings of large
rivers). The steel solution is the most expensive, but it is also the most suitable for bridges with spans exceeding
approximately 500 m (that is, for long-span bridges).

Bridge deck with two planes of stays are realized effectively with two lateral girders, a series of cross-members with
pitches varying from 3.50 to 7.00 m, and one slab in a concrete or orthotropic deck. Aerodynamic fairings, improving
aerodynamical stability, and reducing drag, can be required for larger spans or higher winds. The decks of bridges
with a unique central plane of stays are always realized with a central box girder; two lateral overhangs are usually
envisioned with variable length from 2 to 8 m. Bridge decks, mainly for longer spans, must be streamlined, with
minimum depth and good aerodynamic properties. This not only reduces the wind drag and increases the deck flutter
stability, but also reduces vibration amplitudes in the deck so it can withstand vibrations of the stay cables.

2.4.2 Towers

Like decks, towers can be realized in steel, concrete, or in a steel-concrete composite. The main technical problems
are related to the upper part of the pylons, where very high vertical loads must be transferred in a limited space to the
 Definition History Structure Pros & Cons Types Construction Worldwide Local IDK

tower shaft and the horizontal components of the stay cables have to be equilibrated. Towers are not only a
fundamental structural element, but they become the main aesthetical element in a cable stayed bridge. For this
reason, their design is a difficult, challenging task of integrations of structural/engineering statements and
aesthetical/architectural aspects.

2.4.3 Stay cables

Stay cables are the main and more special elements in this type of bridges. Their behavior, and mainly their axial
stiffness due to the sag effect, are nonlinear. The nonlinear axial stiffness can be taken into account in an effective
engineering form by the equivalent Ernst modulus.

The following types of cable are mainly used:

 Locked coil rope

 Parallel wire cables
 Parallel strand cables
Solid bars and twisted ropes are used less frequently today. The locked coil rope system was used in the first
German cable stayed bridges, and it is still used today, especially for bridges with small and medium spans. The
advantages of prefabrication and the consequent high executive quality are balanced by the difficulties regarding
transport and installation of these very long elements (which, for larger bridges, may weigh a great deal). Cables with
parallel wires are very stiff and have high resistance to fatigue and low aerodynamic resistance and therefore, except
for the difficulty of installation of the large prefabricated elements, they are suitable for bridges with large spans.
Cables with parallel strands, in which the strands are installed on site one after the other, are currently the most
popular system just by virtue of their easy installation, which requires light and easy tensioning in the cantilevered
construction. The design of stay cables is influenced by four main aspects: strength, fatigue, durability, and
aerodynamic stability, listed in order of increasing severity. In fact, strength aspects are well addressed, knowledge is
sufficient, and the codes seem to cover all aspects. Fatigue, although there is more uncertainty, is a clear issue from
a design point of view, even if the uncertainties of aerodynamic aspects must be taken into account. The durability of
stay cables, related to frequent lack of proper inspection and maintenance, is an important issue that requires more
research.