CHAPTER 1. Soil Formation.
Geotechnical Engineering After 1927
A. Geotechnical Engineering
GEOTECHNICAL ENGG - application of soil
mechanics
SOIL MECHANICS - physical properties
FOUNDATION ENGG - selection of type/design of
foundation
B. Historical Perspective
1. Prior to 18th Century
2. Pre-Classical Period (1700 – 1776)
a. Henry Gautier - studied the natural slopes or angle
of repose of soils when tipped in a heap
b. Bernard Forest de Belidor - published a textbook
for military and civil engineers; theory of Lateral Earth
Pressure
c. Francois Gadroy - observed the existence of slip
planes in the soil at failure
d. John Grundy - one of the earlier contributors to the
literature of earth-dam design
e. Jean – Rodolphe Perronet - studied slope stability
3. Classical Period – Phase I (1776 – 1856)
a. Charles Augustin Coulomb - Classical Earth
Pressure Theory (1776)
b. Claude Louis Marie Henri Navier- studied
Coulomb’s work relating to inclined backfills
c. Jean Victor Poncelet - bearing capacity theory
d. Alexander Collin - theorized that in all cases failure
in the soil when the portion of maximum cohesion
developed along the failure plane or the mobilized
cohesion exceeds its existing cohesion.
e. William John Macquorn Rankine - new earth
pressure theory; simplied Coulomb’s work
4. Classical Period – Phase II (1856 - 1910)
a. Henri Philibert Gaspard Darcy - published a study
on the permeability of sand filters
b. George Howard Darwin - conducted lab tests to
determine the overturning moment on a hinged wall
retaining sand in loose and dense state of compaction
c. Joseph Valentin Bousinessq - theory of stress
distribution in an elastic period
d. Osborne Reynold - understanding fluid dynamics
5. Modern Soil Mechanics (1910 - 1927)
a. Albert Mauritz Atterberg - A Swedish chemist and
soil scientist who explained the consistency of cohesive
soils by defining liquid, plastic and shrinkage limit
b. Jean Fontard - conducted undrained double-shear
tests on clay specimens under constant vertical stress to
determine their shear strength parameters
c. Arthur Langley Bell - developed relationships for
lateral pressure and resistance in clay
d. Wolmar Fellenius -stability analysis of saturated
clay slopes
e. Karl Terzaghi - theory of consolidation of clays;
Father of Soil Mechanics
6.
C. Soil and its Constituents
Origin of Soil
1. Rock Cycle - describes the time consuming transition
through geologic time
Three Main Types of Rocks:
IGNEOUS ROCKS - solidification of molten magma
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - deposits of gravel, sand, silt
and clay compacted by overburden pressure
METAMORPHIC ROCKS - transformation of pre-
existing rock; very high heat and pressure
2. Geological Cycle - also termed as soil formation
EROSION - remove soil, rock or dissolved material
from one location to another
TRANSPORTATION - transportation of rock from one
location to another
DEPOSITION - sediments, soil, rocks are added to a
landform or land mass
3. Weathering - breaking down rocks into smaller pieces
to form soil
a. Mechanical/Physical Weathering - without
changing the chemical composition of the rock
FROST ACTION/ICE WEDGING - caused by freezing
and thawing of water
ABRASION - wearing down of rocks as they rub or
bounce against each other
EXFOLIATION - peeling away of large sheets of
loosened materials at the surface of a rock
b. Chemical Weathering - broken down by chemical
action resulting in change of composition of a rock
OXIDATION - oxygen interacts chemically with
minerals
HYDRATION - water interacts chemically with
minerals
CARBONATION - carbon dioxide interacts chemically
with minerals
4. Residual Soil - remain at place of formation as the
result of the weathering of parent rocks
5. Transportation of Soil
a. Transported Soil - found at locations for removed
from their place of promotion
AEOLIAN / EOLIAN SOIL - moved by wind
GLACIAL - formed from the interaction of ice and
snow
COLLUVIAL SOIL - transported by gravity
ALLUVIAL SOIL - transported by running water
6. Deposition of Soil
a. Deposited Soil
DUNE - is a hill or sand formed by aeoline process
GLACIAL TILL -deposited at the shout or toe
COLLUVIUM - a sediment that has been moved
 downhill of the slope without the help of running
water or stream
ALLUVIUM - loose, unconsolidated soil or
sediments which has been eroded or reshaped by
water
LACUSTRINE SOIL - sedimentary rock
formations which formed at the bottom of ancient
lakes
LOESS - usually bluff or yellowish in colour and
chiefly deposited by the wind
MARINE SOIL - materials carried into the seas
PEAT - fibrous aggregate of finer fragment of
decayed vegetable manner
D. Causes of Soil Changes
ADDITION - occurs as materials such as fallen leaves,
windblown dust, or chemicals from air pollution are
added to the soil
LOSS - occurs when materials are lost from the soil
because of deep leaching or erosion from the surface
TRANSLOCATION - movement of material within the
soil
TRANSFORMATION - material are altered in the soil
E. Soil Profile - is a vertical cross section of the soil
a. Soil Horizon - layers, running parallel to the
surface; tells a story about the makeup, age, texture, and
characteristics of that layer
A Horizon - referred to as top soil, root zone and
zone of loss; where organic matter accumulate
E Horizon - zone of greatest eluviation ; low clay
content
B Horizon - referred to as subsoil; zone of
accumulation
C Horizon - called substratum; also known as
saprolite
R Horizon - underlying bedrock, material,
compacted and cemented by the weight of the overlying;
unweathered parent material
F. Clay Minerals
KAOLINITE - derived from GAOLING meaning HIGH
RIDGE; held together by hydrogen bonds
ILLITE - Illinois; held together by potassium ions
MONTMORILLONITE - swelling or expansive clay;
held together by weak Van der Waals forces
G. Structure of Soils - manner of arrangement and state
of aggregation of soil grains
SINGLE-GRAINED STRUCTURE - coarse grained soil
HONEY-COMBED STRUCTURE - fine grained soil;
very large void spaces
FLOCCULENT STRUCTURE -grains forming a floc
is called flocculation; fine grained soil
H. Some Types of Soil
BENTONITE - decomposed volcanic ash; W. C Knight
BLACK COTTON SOIL - black sticky materials that
exhibits high degree of shrinkage and swelling
BOULDER CLAY - glacial clay containing all sizes
of rock fragments from boulders down to finely
pulverized clay material
CALICHE - calx, meaning lime; gravel, sand, clay
cemented by calcium carbonate (lime)
HARDPAN - densely cemented soil which remains
hard when wet; difficult to penetrate
LATERITE - derived for LATER meaning A BRICK;
rich in iron and aluminum
LOAM - composed of sand, silt and clay
MOORUM - powdered rock consisting of small
pieces of disintegrated rock; gravel mixed with red clay
VARVED CLAY - annual layer of sediment that display
contrasting color as they dry
CHAPTER 2. Soil Composition.
Volumetric Ratios:
A. Void Ratio
B. Porosity
C. Degree of Saturation
D. Air Content
E. Air Void Ratio
Weight-Volume Relationship:
A. Moisture Content
B. Bulk / Mass / Total / Wet / Moist Unit Weight
C. Dry Unit Weight
D. Saturated Unit Weight
E. Unit Weight of Soil Solids
F. Submerged / Buoyant / Effective Unit Weight
G. Bulk / Mass Specific Gravity
H. Specific Gravity of Soil Solids
CHAPTER 3. Index Properties and Soil
Classification.
SOIL COLOR - depends upon the minerals, organic
matters present in the soil mass.
Red, Brown or Yellow – Iron compounds
Black – Manganese compounds
Gray or White – Absence of compounds
Light Gray – Small amount of organic matter
Particle Shapes:
A. Angular
B. Sub-angular
C. Sub-rounded
D. Rounded
E. Well-rounded
Index Properties:
A. SPECIFIC GRAVITY - useful in computing the unit
weight of the soil under different conditions
B. DENSITY/RELATIVE INDEX - indicates the
relative compactness of the soil mass; in a dense
condition, the void ratio is low whereas in a loose
condition, the void ratio is high
C. IN-SITU UNIT WEIGHT - to estimate the quantity
of soil required for placing and compacting a certain fill
or embankment
(i) Sand-replacement method.
(ii) Core-cutter method.
D. PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION - determines the
range of sizes of particles in the soil and the percentage
of particles in each of these size ranges
(i) Sieve analysis, for the coarse fraction.
(ii) Sedimentation analysis or wet analysis, for the fine
fraction.
SIEVING - The most direct method for determining
particle sizes
FIVE PARAMETERS OF PSD:
1. EFFECTIVE SIZE, D10 - Ø corresponding to 10%
finer
2. AVERAGE SIZE, D50- Ø corresponding to 50% finer
3. UNIFORMITY COEFFICIENT, Cu
4. COEFFICIENT OF GRADATION, CC
5. SORTING COEFFICIENT, So
SOIL CLASSIFICATION - used to specify a certain soil
type that is best suited for a given application
1. USDA
United State Department of Agriculture
2. USCS
Unified Soil Classification System
3. ASTM
American Society for Testing and Materials
4. AASHTO
American Association for State Highway and
Transportation Officials
SOIL CONSISTENCY - refers to the strength with
which the soil materials are held together
CONSISTENCY LIMITS (ATTERBERG LIMITS)
1. LIQUID LIMIT -soil is just about to pass from the
plastic state into the liquid state; minimum moisture
content
a. Casagrande Apparatus
b. Fall Cone Penetrometer
2. PLASTIC LIMIT - soil tends to pass from the plastic
state to the semi-solid state of consistency; minimum
water content
a. defined as the moisture content at which the soil
crumbles, when rolled into threads of 3.2mm (1/8”)
b. Fall Cone Penetrometer
3. SHRINKAGE LIMIT - soil tends to pass from the
semi-solid to the solid state; constant in volume
4. PLASTIC INDEX - range of water content within the
soil exhibits plastic properties (LL-PL)
5. SHRINKAGE INDEX - range of water content within
which the soil is in a semi-solid state (PL-SL)
6. LIQUIDITY INDEX - ratio of the diff bet the natural
water content and PL to PI
7. CONSISTENCY INDEX - ratio of the diff bet the LL
and natural water content to PI
8. TOUGHNESS INDEX - ratio of the PI to FI
ACTIVITY OF CLAY - the ratio pf the plasticity index
to the percentage of clay sizes.
CHAPTER 4. Compaction.
COMPACTION - the densification of soil by removal of
air which requires mechanical energy to decrease its
porosity and thereby increase its dry density
The following are the important effects of compaction:
1. Compaction increases the dry density of the soil, thus
increasing its shear strength and bearing capacity
through an increase in frictional characteristics.
2. Compaction decreases the tendency for settlement of
soil.
3. Compaction brings about a low permeability of the
soil.
Effect of Compaction Effort:
1. Standard Proctor Test
2. Modified Proctor Test
SATURATTION (ZERO-AIR VOIDS) LINE - the line
showing the relation between water content and dry
density at a constant degree of saturation
COMPACTION EQUIPMENT:
1. SMOOTH-WHEEL / SMOOTH-DRUM ROLLERS -
used for base courses; the equipment weighd 50 to
125kN; another type weighs 10 to 200kN
2. PNEUMATIC RUBBER-TIRED ROLLERS - max.
wt of this roller may reach 2000kN; (for cohesive and
cohesionless soil)
A. SMALLER ROLLER - 9 to 11 tires on two axles; tire
load ranges 7.5kN
B. LARGER ROLLER - tire load ranges from 100 to
500kN
3. SHEEPSFOOT ROLLERS - available in drum widths
ranging from 120 to 180cm and Ø ranging from 90 to
180cm; 30kN for smaller tires, 130kN for larger (for
cohesive soil)
4. VIBRATORY ROLLERS - 120 to 300kN; produced
by weights placed eccentrically on a rotating shaft in
vertical direction (cohesionless soil)
FOR DEEPER LAYERS OF SOIL:
5. VIBROFLOTATION -used for compacting granular
soils only
6. DYNAMIC COMPACTION - one of the simplest
methods; for cohesionless or cohesive soils; uses crane
to lift a concrete steel block weighing up to 500kN and
up to heights 40 to 50m
7. BLASTING - through the use of buried, time-delayed
explosive charges deposits of sand and gravel form good aquifers.
UNCONFINED AQUIFER - ground water table is
CHAPTER 5. Soil Moisture. the upper surface of the zone of saturation and it lies
SOIL WATER - Water present in the void spaces of a in the test stratum. Also called ‘free’, ‘phreatic’,
soil mass. ‘non-artesian’ aquifer.
SOIL MOISTURE - Part of the subsurface water which
occupies the voids in the soil above the ground water
table
FREE WATER OR GRAVITATIONAL WATER -
Water in the excess of the moisture that can be retained
by the soil
FREE SURFACE WATER (BULK WATER) -
Moves at all times under the influence of gravity, or
because of the difference in hydrostatic pressure
head
FREE SURFACE WATER - precipitation, run-off,
flood water, melting snow, water from certain
hydraulic operation CONFINED AQUIFER - ground water remains
GROUND WATER - fills up the voids in the soil entrapped under pressure greater that atmospheric
up to the ground water table. pressure, by overlying relatively impermeable
CAPILLARY WATER - in a suspended condition, strata. Also known as ‘artesian’ aquifer.
held by the forces of surface tension within the
interstices and pores of capillary size in the soil.
HELD WATER -held in soil pores or void spaces
because of certain forces of attraction.
STRUCTURAL WATER - chemically combined as
a part of the crystal structure of the mineral of the
soil grains.
ADSORBED WATER
Hygroscopic moisture. Very thin films of moisture
around the mineral grains.
Film moisture. Attached to the surface of the soil
particle as a film upon the layer of the hygroscopic AQUITARD - only seepage is possible and thus the
moisture film. yield is insignificant compared to an aquifer. Sandy clay
Significance: is an example.
1. The rate at which water flows through soil AQUICLUDE - essentially impermeable to the flow of
(Determination of rate of leakage through an earth water. Clay is an example of aquiclude.
dam). AQUIFUGE - neither porous nor permeable. Massive
2. Compression (Determination of the rate of compact rock without any fractures is an aquifuge.
settlement of a foundation).
3. Strength (Evaluation of factors of safety of an ASSUMPTIONS:
embankment). 1. The aquifer is homogenous with uniform permeability
and is infinite areal extent.
LABORATORY TESTS: 2. The flow is laminar and Darcy’s law is valid.
1. Constant-Head Permeameter 3. The flow is horizontal and uniform at all points in the
2. Falling-Head Permeameter vertical section.
3. Direct and Indirect Measurements 4. The well penetrates the entire thickness of the aquifer.
INDIRECT METHODS: 5. Natural groundwater regime affecting the aquifer
A. Allen Hazen Equation remains constant with time.
B. Kozeny-Carman Equation 6. The velocity of flow is proportional to the tangent of
C. Samarasinghe Equation the hydraulic gradient
D. Casagrande Equation
E. Poisuelle’s Equation
F. Muskat Equation ASTM:
4. Horizontal Capillary Test ASTM D-422 - Determination of Particle Size of Soils
ASTM D-4318 - Casagrande Cup Method
GROUND WATER ASTM D-4318 - Plastic Limit Test
SATURATED FORMATION ASTM D-427 and ASTM D-4943 - Shrinkage Limit
AQUIFER - allows a significant quantity of water to ASTM D-1140 and ASTM D-1557 - Proctor
move through it under field conditions. Unconsolidated Compaction Test
ASTM D-1556 - Sand Cone
ASTM D-2167 - Balloon Test
ASTM D-2922 and ASTM D-5195 - Nuclear Density
Meter