*Types of Folds
EARTH SCIENCE ANTICLINE – fold dips away from the
GEOMORPHIC PROCESS
- formation/ deformation of
landforms on the
surface of the earth
ENDOGENIC PROCESS
- forces from the earth’s interior
/mountain building, earthquakes,
volcanism/
1. SLOW MOVEMENTS (Diastrophic) -
forces generated by movement of
solid material of earth’s
crust
*Clas
sifica
tion
a. VERTICAL (Epeirogenic) - formation
of continents
b. HORIZONTAL (Orogenic) - side to
side movements
c. FORCES OF COMPRESSION - push
rock strata against a hard plane
from one side/ both sides
d. FORCES OF TENSION - horizontally,
but in opposite directions
FAULTING - displacement of rock
up/downward
FAULT LINE – line along displacement
of the fractured rock take place
HYDRATION - minerals take up
water and expand
crest OXIDATION - combination of a
SYCLINE – folds dip toward the trough mineral with oxygen
2. SUDDEN MOVEMENTS - volcanoes, c. BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING
earth quakes
2. MASS MOVEMENTS - transfer the
EXOGENIC PROCESS mass of rock debris down the slope
- forces from the earth’s exterior under the direct influence of
Denudation – strip off/ uncover gravity
*T *Slow Movements
yp a. CREEP - extremely slow
es b. SOLIFLUCTION - slow downslope
1. flowing of soil mass lubricated with
W water
EA *Rapid Movements
TH a. EARTHFLOW - movement of
ER water saturated clayey down low
IN angle terraces
G b. MUDFLOW – soil saturated with
a. PHYSICAL/ MECHANICAL - water flow down along definite
caused by thermal channels
expansion/pressure /unloading c. DEBRIS AVALANCHE - occurs in
and expansion, temperature narrow tracks on sleep slopes and is
changes, freezing, thawing, salt similar to snow avalanche
weathering/ d. LANDSLIDES - materials are
b. CHEMICAL WEATHERING relatively dry
SOLUTION - dissolved in water or
acids 3. EROSION and DEPOSITION -
CARBONATION - reaction of acquisition and transportation of rock
carbonate and bicarbonate with debris by geomorphic agents
minerals (running water, the wind, waves)

Mining
MINERAL OCCURRENCE – concentration
of mineral that is scientific/ technical
interest
MINERAL DEPOSIT – mineral
occurrence of sufficient size and grade
or concentration to enable
ORE DEPOSIT – mineral deposit that
has been tested and known to be
economically profitable to mine
ORE – naturally-occurring material
from which a mineral or minerals of
economic value can be extracted
*Ore Deposits
MAGMATIC
CRYSTAL SETTLING - as magma
cools down, heavier minerals tend
to crystallize early and
settle at the lower portion of the
magma chamber
FRACTIONAL CRYSTALLIZATION -
granitic magmas can concentrate rare
earth elements and heavy metals.
HYDROTHERMAL - concentration of
valuable substances by hot aqueous
fluids flowing through fractures and
pore spaces in rocks
HYDROTHERMAL SOLUTIONS - hot,
residual watery fluids derived during the
later stages of magma crystallization and
may contain large amount of dissolved
metals
SEDIMENTARY - concentrated by
chemical precipitation coming from lakes
or seawater
PLACER - formed by the concentration of
valuable substances through gravity
separation during sedimentary processes
RESDIUAL – accumulation of valuable
materials through chemical weathering
processes
*Methods of Mining
SURFACE MINING – extract ore minerals
close to the earth’s surface
/open pit, quarrying, placer mining, strip
mining/
UNDERGROUND MINING – extract ore
minerals deep
under the earth’s surface
*Milling/ Recovery Methods
HEAVY MEDIA SEPARATION – crushed
rocks are submerged in liquid where
heavier minerals sink thus separated from
lighter minerals
MAGNETIC SEPARATION – crushed ore
is separated from the waste materials
using a powerful magnet
FLOTATION –powdered ore is placed
into an agitated & frothy slurry where
some minerals and chemical may either
sink to the bottom or stick to the
bubbles and rise to the top thus
separating the minerals & metals from
the waste
CYANIDE HEAP LEACHING – used for
low-grade gold ore where the crushed
rock is placed on “leach pile”
where cyanide solution is sprayed on
top
Waste Management
WASTE - unwanted or useless materials
*Resources
NON RENEWABLE /nuclear energy,
coal, petroleum, gas/
RENEWABLE /solar, geothermal, wind,
biomass, water/
*Kinds of Waste
SOLID - domestic, commercial and
industrial wastes
/plastics, bottles, cans,
papers/
LIQUID /domestic washings,
chemicals, oils,
manufacturing industries/
*Classification according to Properties
BIO-DEGRADABLE - can be degraded
/paper, wood, fruits and others/
NON-BIODEGRADABLE - can't be
degraded /plastics,
bottles, cans, styrofoam containers/
*Classification according to Effects
HAZARDOUS - unsafe to use and
have properties- ignitability,
corrosivity, reactivity & toxicity
NON-HAZARDOUS - safe to use and
usually create disposal problems
*Classification according to Origin and
Type
MUNICIPAL SOLID - managed by any
municipality BIO-MEDICAL - products
generated during diagnosis, treatment
& research activities of medical sciences
INDUSTRIAL - generated by
manufacturing & processing units of
various industries like chemical,
petroleum, coal, metal gas, sanitary &
paper etc
AGRICULTURAL - generated from
farming activities
FISHERY - generated due to fishery
activities, found in coastal & estuarine
areas
RADIOACTIVE - containing radioactive
materials, byproducts of nuclear
processes
*Sources of Wastes
Households Commerce and industry
*Impacts of Waste
- some countries are expected to
become warmer, although sulfates
might limit warming in some areas. -
whether rainfall increases or decreases
cannot be reliably projected for specific
areas - C02 is released to the
atmosphere by the burning of fossil
fuels, wood and wood products, and
solid waste - CH4 is emitted from the
decomposition of organic wastes in
landfills, the raising of livestock, and the
production and transport of coal,
natural gas, and oil.
*Waste Hierarchy
1. Prevention
2. Minimization
3. Reuse
4. Recycle
5. Energy Recovery
Disposal