REVIEWER IN SOIL MECHANICS
are transformed into new minerals by chemical
CHAPTER 1
SOIL – is defined as the uncemented aggregate of
mineral grains and decayed organic matter (solid
particles) with liquid and gas in the empty spaces
between the solid particles.
SOIL MECHANICS – is the branch of science that deals
with the study of the physical properties of soil and the
behavior of soil masses subjected to various types of
forces.
SOIL ENGINEERING – is the application of the principles
of soil mechanics to practical problems.
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING – is the sub discipline of
civil engineering that involves natural materials found
close to the surface of the earth.
NATURAL SLOPE – is what we now refer to as the
“Angle of Response”.
 Clean dry sand
Ɵ=31ᵒ, ɣ=18.1kN/m3
 Ordinary earth
Ɵ=45ᵒ, ɣ=13.4kN/m3
CHAPTER 2
ROCK CYCLE – the formation cycle of different types of
rock and the processes associated with them.
BASIC TYPES OF ROCKS
1. IGNEOUS ROCK
2. SEDIMENTARY ROCK
3. METAMORPHIC ROCK
MAGMA – molten rock beneath the surface
LAVA – above earth surface
INTRUSIVE / PLUTONIC – grains are coarse that can be
seen by the naked eye and hence easier to identify.
EXTRUSIVE / VOLCANIC – the grains fine and are
difficult to identify by the naked eye.
BOWEN’S REACTION PRINCIPLE – describes the
sequence by which new minerals are formed as magma
cools.
DISCONTINUOUS FERROMAGNESIAN REACTION SERIES
– in which the minerals formed from different in their
chemical composition and crystalline structure.
CONTINUOUS PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPAR REACTION
SERIES – in which the minerals formed have different
chemical compositions with similar crystalline
structures.
WEATHERING – is the process of breaking down rocks
by mechanical and chemical processes into smaller
pieces.
MECHANICAL WEATHERING – may be caused by the
expansion and contraction of rocks from the continuous
gain and loss of heat, which result in ultimate
disintegration.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING – the organic rock minerals
reaction.
RESIDUAL SOILS - the soils formed by the weathered
products at their place of origin.
TRANSPORTED SOILS
1. GLACIAL SOILS – formed by transportation and
deposition of glaciers
2. ALLUVIAL SOILS – transported by running water
and deposited along streams
3. LACUSTRINE SOILS – formed by deposition in
quiet lakes
4. MARINE SOILS – formed by deposition in the
seas
5. AEOLIAN SOILS – transported and deposited by
wind
6. COLLUVIAL SOILS – transported and deposited
by gravity
SEDIMENTARY ROCK – make up only 8% of the earth’s
crust, their presence on the earth surface of the earth is
the substantial.
DETRITAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS – they fill the spaces
between particles and form sedimentary rock.
CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - formed by chemical
process.
METAMORPHISM – is the process of changing the
composition and texture of rocks (without melting) by
heat and pressure.
RESIDUAL SOILS – are formed in areas where the rate of
weathering is more than the rate at which the
weathered materials are carried away by transporting
agents.
CREEP – residual soil on a steep natural slope can move
slowly downward.
LANDSLIDE – when the downward soil movement is
sudden and rapid.
COLLUVIUM – the soil deposit formed by landslides.
MUD FLOWS – are one type of gravity-transported soil.
ALLUVIAL SOIL DEPOSIT – derive from the action of
streams and rivers.
1. BRAIDED-STREAM DEPOSITS
2. MEANDER BELT DEPOSIT
BRAIDED STREAMS – are high-gradient, rapidly flowing
streams that are highly erosive and carry large amounts
of sediment.
MEANDER – is derived from the Greek word maiandros.
MEANDER BELT – the valley floor in which a river
meanders.
POINT BAR DEPOSITS – the soil from the bank is
continually eroded from the points where it is concave
in shape and is deposited at a point where the bank is
convex in shape.
OXBOW LAKE – the abandoned meander filled with
water.
NATURAL LEVEES – the sand and silt-size grains carried
by the river are deposited along the banks to form
ridges.
BACKSWAMP DEPOSITS – finer soil particles consisting
of silts and clays are carried by the river by the water
farther onto floodplains, often highly plastic clays.
DRIFTS – is a general term usually applied to the
deposits laid down by glaciers.
TILL – unstratified deposits laid down by melting
glaciers.
MORAINES – the landforms that developed from the
deposits of till.
TERMINAL MORAINE – is a ridge of till that marks the
maximum limit of a glacier’s advance.
RECESSIONAL MORAINES – are ridges of till developed
behind the terminal moraine at varying distances apart.
GROUND MORAINE – the till deposited by the glacier
between the moraines.
TILL PLAINS – ground moraines constitute large areas of
the central united states.
HYDROMETER ANALYSIS – for grain sizes smaller than
0.075 mm in diameter. Based on the principle of
sedimentation of soil grains in water.
GRAIN-SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE – the calculations are
plotted on semi-logarithmic graph paper with percent
finer as the ordinate (arithmetic scale) and sieve
opening size (i.e., grain size) as the abscissa (logarithmic
scale).
EFFECTIVE GRAIN SIZE – the diameter in the grain-size
distribution curve corresponding to 10% finer.
UNIFORMITY COEFFICIENT
D60
C u=
D10
Where
CU – uniformity coefficient
D60 – the diameter corresponding to 60% finer in the
particle-size distribution curve
COEFFICIENT OF GRADATION / COEFFICIENT OF
CURVATURE
D 230
C c=
D 60 D 10

OUTWASH – the sand, silt, and gravel that are carried Where
by the melting water from the front of a glacier.
CC – coefficient of gradation or coefficient of curvature
COMPACT SAND DEPOSIT – windward side.
D30 – diameter corresponding to 30% finer
LOOSE DEPOSIT – leeward side
GRAIN SHAPE
LOESS – is an Aeolian deposit consisting of silt and silt-
1. BULKY GRAINS – are formed mostly by
sized grains, collapsing soil.
mechanical weathering of rock and minerals
ORGANIC SOILS – are usually found in low-lying areas (angular, subangular, subrounded, rounded).
where the water table is near or above the ground 2. FLAKY GRAINS – have very low sphericity,
surface. usually 0.01 or less.
3. NEEDLE-SHAPED GRAINS – are much less
GRAVELS – are pieces of rocks with occasional grains of common than the other two grain types.
quartz, feldspar, and other mineral.
CHAPTER 3
SAND GRAINS – are made of mostly quartz and
feldspar. VOID RATIO (e) – is defined as the ratio of the volume
of voids to the volume of solids.
SILTS – are the microscopic soil fractions that consist of
very fine quartz grains and some flake-shaped grains Vv
e=
that are fragments of micaceous minerals. Vs
CLAYS – are mostly flake-shaped microscopic and G s ρw
submicroscopic grains of mica, clay minerals, and other e= −1
ρd
minerals.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY – it is the ratio of the density of the POROSITY (n) – is define as the ratio of the volume of
material to the density of water. voids to the total volume.

MECHANICAL ANALYSIS – is the determination of the

Vv
n=
size range of grains presents in a soil, expressed as a V
percentage of the total dry weight (or mass).
e
n=
SIEVE ANALYSIS – for grain sizes larger than 0.075 mm 1+ e
diameter. Consist of shaking the soil sample through the
DEGREE OF SATURATION (S) – is defined as the ratio of
set of sieves that have progressively smaller openings.
the volume of water to the volume of voids.
 Vw content, in percent, at which the volume
S= change of the soil mass ceases.
Vv
2. PLASTIC LIMIT – the moisture content at the
wG s point of transition from semisolid to plastic
S= state. Is defined as the moisture content, in
e
percent, at which the soil when rolled into
MOISTURE / WATER CONTENT (w) – is defined as the thread of 3.2 mm in diameter, crumbles.
ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solids in a 3. LIQUID LIMIT – from plastic to liquid state. The
given quantity of soil. moisture content, in percent, required to close
Ww a distance of 12.7mm along the bottom of the
w= groove after 25 blows.
Ws
N tanβ
¿=w N ( )
Se 25
w=
Gs Where
n N – no. of blows in the liquid limit device for 12.5 mm
w=
( 1−n ) G s groove closure

UNIT WEIGHT (ɣ) – is the weight of soil per unit volume. WN – corresponding moisture content

W tanɮ - 0.121
ɣ=
V BASIC STATES OF SOIL
W s (1+w) 1. SOLID
ɣ=
V 2. SEMISOLID
3. PLASTIC
Gs ɣ w (1+w)
ɣ= 4. LIQUID
1+ e
FALL CONE METHOD – another method of determining
ɣ=G s ɣ w (1−n)(1+w) liquid limit that is popular in Europe and Asia. In this
test the liquid limit is defined as the moisture content at
DRY UNIT WEIGHT (ɣd) – weight per unit volume of soil
which a standard cone of apex angle 30ᵒ and weight of
excluding water.
0.78N (80gf) will penetrate a distance d=20mm in 5s
Ws when allowed to drop from a position of point of
γ d= contact with the soil surface.
V
ɣ w
γ d= ¿=
1+ w 0.65+ 0.0175 d

G sɣ w Where w – moisture content for 17mm ≤ d ≤23mm

γ d=
1+e PLASTICITY INDEX (PI) – is the difference between liquid
limit and plastic limit of soil.
γ d =Gs ɣ w (1−n)
PI =¿−PL
SATURATED UNIT WEIGHT (ɣSAT) – the void spaces are
LIQUIDITY INDEX (LI) – the relative consistency of a
( G +e)ɣ w
ɣ SAT = s cohesive soil in the natural state.
1+ e
w−PL
ɣ SAT =ɣ w [ ( 1−n ) G s +n] LI =
¿−PL
RELATIVE DENSITY – is commonly used to indicate the CASAGRANDE – studied the relationship of the
in situ denseness or looseness of granular soil. plasticity index and liquid limit of a wide variety of
natural soil.
e(max ⁡)−e
Dr = A LINE – seperates the inorganic clays from the organic
e(max ⁡)−e(min ⁡)
silts.
γ d (max ) γ d −γ d (min)
Dr = ( ) PI =0.73(¿−20)
γd γ d (max )−γ d (min)
U LINE – lies above A Line and approximately the upper
ALBERT MAURITZ ATTERBERG – a Swedish scientist, limit of the relationship of the plasticity index to the
developed a method to describe the consistency of fine- liquid limit foe any soil found so far.
grained soils with varying moisture contents.
PI =0.9(¿−8)
1. SHRINKAGE LIMIT – the moisture content, in
percent, at which the transition from solid to CHAPTER 4
semisolid state takes place. The moisture
AASHTO CLASSIFICATION – American Association of PROCTOR COMPACTION TEST – the laboratory test
State Highway and Transportation Officials, was generally used to obtain the maximum dry unit weight
developed in 1929 as the Public Road Administration of compaction and the optimum moisture content.
Classification System.
NOTE: Volume of Mold – 943.3cm3
The classification system is based on the following
Diameter of Mold – 101.6mm
criteria:
1. GRAIN SIZE Hammer weighs – 24.4N (mass≈ 2.5kg)
 GRAVEL: fraction passing the 75mm sieve and MOIST UNIT WEIGHT OF COMPACTION
retained on the No.10 (2mm) U.S. sieve
 SAND: fraction passing the No.10 (2mm) U.S. W
γ=
sieve and retained on the No.200 (0.075mm) VM
U.S. sieve
 SILTY and CLAY: fraction passing the No.200 U.S.
sieve DRY UNIT WEIGHT
2. PLASTICITY: The term silty is applied when the
fine fraction of the soil having a plasticity index γ
γ d=
of 10 or less. The term clayey is applied when w (%)
1+
the fine fractions have a plasticity index of 11 or 100
more.
3. If COBBLES and BOULDERS (size larger than 75 MAXIMUM DRY UNIT WEIGHT
mm) are encountered, they are excluded from G s γw
the portion of the soil sample on which γ ZAV =
1+e
classification is made.
GROUP INDEX (GI) – a number for the evaluation of the
quality of a soil as a highway subgrade material and is γw
also incorporated with the groups and subgroups of the γ ZAV =
1
soil. w+
Gs
GI =( F−35 ) [0.2+ 0.005 ( ¿−40 ) ]+ 0.01( F−15)(PI −10) FACTORS AFFECTING COMPACTION
where 1. EFFECT OF SOIL TYPE
F – percent passing the No.200 sieve  SOIL TYPE – grain-size distribution, shape of the
soil grains, specific gravity of soil solids, and
LL – liquid limit amount and type of clay minerals present
a. TYPE A COMPACTION CURVE – are those
PI – plasticity index
the ones that have single peak. This type of
The following are some rules for determining the group curve is generally found in soils that have LL
index: between 30 and 70.
b. CURVE TYPE B – is one and one-half peak
1. If equation yields a negative value for GI, it is curve.
taken as 0. c. CURVE TYPE C – is a double peak curve.
2. The group index calculated from equation is d. CURVE TYPE D – are ones that do not have
rounded off to the nearest whole number. aa definite peak.
3. There is no upper limit for the group index. 2. EFFECT OF COMPACTION ENERGY
4. The group index of soils belonging to groups A-
 COMPACTION ENERGY PER UNIT VOLUME (E)
1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, A-3 is always 0. No . of blows per layer x No. of Layers x Weight o
5. When calculating the group index for soils that E=
Volume of mol
belong to groups A-2-6 and A-2-7, use the
partial group index for PI NOTE: If the compaction energy per unit volume of soil
GI =0.01( F−15)( PI−10) is changed, the moisture unit weight curve will also
change.
USCS – Unified Soil Classification System, the original
form of this system was proposed by Casagrande in 1. As the compaction energy is increased, the
1948 for use in the airfield construction works under maximum dry unit weight of compaction is also
taken by the Army Corps of Engineers during World War increased.
II. 2. As the compaction energy is increased, the
optimum moisture content is decreased to
CHAPTER 5
some extent.
COMPACTION – the densification of soil by removal of
MODIFIED PROCTOR TEST – the standard proctor test
air, which requires mechanical energy.
was modified to better represent field conditions.
OPTIMUM MOISTURE CONTENT – moisture content at Hammer weighs 44.5 N (mass = 4.536 kg), Drop of
which the maximum dry unit weight is attained. hammer = 457.2mm, 5 layers.
COMMON TYPES OF ROLLERS:
1. SMOOTH-WHEEL ROLLER / SMOOTH-DRUM
ROLLER – are suitable for proof rolling subgrade
and for the finishing operation of fills with
sandy and clayey soils. They provide 100%
coverage under the wheels with ground contact
pressures as high as 310-380kN/m2.
2. PNEUMATIC RUBBER-TIRED ROLLER – are
better in many respects than smooth-wheel
rollers. These tires are closely spaced-four to six
in a row. The contact pressure under the tires
can range from 600 to 700 KN/m2, and they
produce 70% to 80% coverage. Can be used for
sandy and clayey soil compaction, Compaction
is achieved by a combination of pressure and
kneading action.
3. SHEEPSFOOT – are drums with large number of
projections. The area of each of these
projections may range from 25 to 85 cm2. And
are most effective in compacting clayey soils.
The contact pressure under the projections can
range from 1380 to 6900 kN/m 2.
4. VIBRATORY ROLLERS – are very efficient in
compacting granular soils. Vibrators can be
attached to smooth-wheel, pneumatic rubber-
tired, or sheepsfoot rollers to provide vibratory
effects in the soil.
5. HAND-HELD VIBRATING PLATES – can be used
for effective compaction of granular soils over a
limited area.
RELATIVE COMPACTION (R)
γ d (field )
R ( % )= x 100
γ d (max−lab)
R0
R=
1−D r (1−R 0)
γ d (min)
R0 =
γ d (max )
RELATIVE DENSITY (Dr)
γ d (field ) −γ d (min) γ d (max)
Dr =
γ d (max)−γ d (min) γ d (field )
Three standard procedures used for determining the
field unit weight of compaction:
1. SAND CONE METHOD – the sand cone device
consists of a glass or plastic jar with a metal
cone attached at its top. The jar is filled with
very uniform dry Ottawa sand.
W2
W 3=
w (%)
1+
100
W 5 =W 1−W 4
W −W c
V= 5
γ d (sand)
γ d(soil excavated¿the hole)
γ d=
V hole
W3
γ d=
V
Where
W1 – weight of jar + cone + sand filling the jar
W2 – weight of soil excavated from the hole
W3 – dry weight of excavated soil
W4 – weigh of jar + cone + remaining sand
W5 – weight of sand to fill the hole and cone
Wc – weight of sand to fill the cone only
ɣd(sand) – dry unit weight of Ottawa sand used
2. RUBBER BALLON METHOD – is similar to sand
cone method; a test hole is made, and the
moist unit weight of the soil removed from the
hole and its moisture content are determined.
3. NUCLEAR METHOD – nuclear density meters
are used often to determine the compacted dry
unit weight of soil. The density meters operate
either in drilled holes or from the ground
surface. The instrument measures the weight of
wet soil per unit volume and also the weight of
water present in a unit volume of soil.
CHAPTER 6
DISCHARGE VELOCITY – is the quantity of water flowing
in unit time through a unit gross cross-sectional area of
a soil at right angles to the direction flow.
v=ki
HYRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY – otherwise known as the
coefficient of permeability.
SEPAGE VELOCITY – actual velocity of water through
the void spaces.
Laboratory Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity
1. CONSTANT HEAD TEST – the water supply at
the inlet is adjusted in such a way that the
difference of head between the inlet and outlet
remains constant during this period. After a
constant flow rate is established, water is
collected in a graduated flask for a known
duration.
Q= Avt
Q= Akit
h
i=
L
h
Q= Ak t
L
QL
k=
Aht
Where
A – area of cross section of the soil specimen
t – duration of water collection
Q – volume collected at time t
L – height of soil, distance travelled
2. FALLING HEAD TEST – water from a standpipe
flows through the soil. The initial head
difference, h1, at time t=0 is recorded, and
water is allowed to flow through the soil
specimen such that the final head difference at
time t=t2 is h2.
aL h1
k= ln
At h2
Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified Soil H
Nd
1. HORIZONTAL

k eq(H )=
∑ kh RATE OF SEEPAGE
H H
2. VERTICAL ∆ q=k
H Nd
k eq(V )=
h TOTAL RATE OF SEEPAGE
∑k
H Nf
Where q=k
Nd
K – hydraulic conductivity
Where
h – height
H – head difference between the upstream and
H – total height downstream sides
Nd – number of potential drop

Permeability Test in the Field by Pumping from Wells Nf – number of flow lines

1. Pumping test from a well in an unconfined CHAPTER 8

permeable layer underlain by an impermeable
TOTAL STRESS (σ)
stratum
r1 σ =H γ w +(H A −H)γ sat
Qln
r2
k= σ =σ ' +u
π (h1−h 22)
2

2. Pumping test from a well penetrating the full Where

depth in a confined aquifer ɣw – unit weight of water
r1
Qln ɣsat – saturated unit weight of the soil
r2
k=
2 πH (h1 −h2) H – height of water table from the top of the column

CHAPTER 7 HA – depth of point A below water table

FLOW LINE – is a line along which the water molecules
will travel from the upstream to the downstream side in
the permeable soil medium.
EQUIPOTENTIAL LINE – is a line along which the
potential head at all points is equal.
u – pore water pressure
EFFECTIVE STRESS – the sum of the vertical components
of the forces developed at the points of contact of the
solid particles per unit cross-sectional area of the soil
mass.

FLOW NET – a combination of a number of flow lines P1 (V ) + P2(V ) + P3 (V ) +… .+ Pn (V )

and equipotential lines. σ' =
A
Boundary Condition: PORE WATER PRESSURE – hydrostatic pressure at A
1. The upstream and downstream surfaces of the
permeable layer (lines ab and de) are
equipotential lines.
2. Because ab and de are equipotential lines, all
the flow lines intersect them at right angles.
3. The boundary of the impervious layer—that is,
line fg—is a flow line, and so is the surface of
the impervious sheet pile, line acd.
4. The equipotential lines intersect acd and fg at
right angles.
Note: while drawing the flow net, it is necessary to
ensure that two flow lines do not intersect.
Similarly, two equipotential lines should not
intersect.
FLOW CHANNEL – the strip between any two adjacent
flow lines.
POTENTIAL DROP – the drop in piezometric level
between any two adjacent equipotential lines