ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

REVIEW SHEET

CHAPTER 1 elevation and relative position of

continents and oceans.
INTRODUCTION
- JOULES PER YEAR = 1021
(3) ENERGY LOST BY SLOWING DOWN OF
EARTH’S ROTATION
Earth is not a static body but is constantly - JOULES PER YEAR = 1019
subjected to change both at its surface and at (4) ENERGY RELEASED BY EARTHQUAKES
deeper levels. - JOULES PER YEAR = 1018
Surface changes can be observed by geologists
and engineers alike, once example is EROSION.
 ENERGY TRANSACTIONS THAT
EROSION- is a dominant surface process which ACCOUNT FOR MANY CHANGES
in time, can destroy coastal cliffs and reduce the BELOW EARTH’S SURFACE:
height of continents, and transports the
material so removed either to the sea or to (1) GEOTHERMAL HEAT LOSS FROM
inland basins of deposition. EARTH’S INTERIOR
(2) ENERGY LOSS DUE TO SLOWING
Subsurface processes are not directly
DOWN OF EARTH’S ROTATION
observable yet may cause the slow movement
(3) ENERGY RELEASED BY EARTHQUAKES
of continents, while others cause rapid changes
that are associated with volcanic eruptions and
earthquakes. ROCK
CHANGES result from ENERGY TRANSACTIONS. - The term rock is used for those
materials of many kinds which
 MOST IMPORTANT ENERGY
form the greater part of the
TRANSACTIONS THAT CUASE CHANGE:
relatively thin outer shell or crust
of the Earth.
(1) SOLAR ENERGY RECEIVED AND
- Are made up of small crystalline
RADIATED
units called MINERALS.
- Are responsible for many
- Rocks can therefore be defined as
geological effects that are
an ASSEMBLAGE of minerals.
generated within a depth of about
30m of ground level, especially ENGINEERING PURPOSES
WEATHERING and EROSION.
- JOULES PER YEAR = 1025 - For engineering purposes, the two
(2) GEOTHERMAL HEAT LOSS FROM terms ROCK and SOIL have also
EARTH’S INTERIOR been adopted to DEFINE the
- Responsible for many deep-seated MECHANICAL CHARACTERS OF
movements that affect the GEOLOGICAL MATERIALS.
 ROCK
- Refers to a hard material.
SOIL
- Refers to a sediment which has not
er become rock-like, or a
GRANULAR RESIDUE from rock that
has COMPLETELY WEATHERED
- This is also called as RESIDUAL SOIL.
Rocks and soil may contain pore and fissures
that may be filled with liquid or gas.
 THE 3 BROAD ROCK GROUPS ON THE
BASIS OF ORIGIN
IGNEOUS ROCKS
- Are rocks that have been derived
from hot material that originated
below the Earth’s surface and
solidified (CRYSTALLIZED) at or near
the surface.
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
- Are rocks that mainly formed from
the break down products of older
rocks, the fragments having been
sorted by water or wind and build
up into deposits of sediment
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
- Are derived from earlier igneous or
metamorphic rocks but
transformed from their original
state by heat or pressure, resulting
to the acquisition of new
characteristics.
 THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH:
DIMENSIONS AND SURFACE RELIEF
- RADIUS
o Radius of earth at the
equator = 6,370km
- POLAR RADIUS
o Earth’s polar radius is only
SHORTER by about 22km.
- SURFACE AREA
o 510 x 106km2
o Of the given value for the
surface area, only 29% is
land.
o If shallow sea areas off the
shelf which surrounds the
continents are added, then
the TOTAL LAND AREA is
nearly 35% of whole
surface
 This means that
nearly TWO-
THIRDS is covered
by DEEP OCEAN.
- SURFACE RELIEF
o Mountains rise above the
sea level with a maximum
height of 8.9km at Everest.
o Average height of land
above sea level- 0.86km
o Mean depth of ocean floor
= 3.8 km.
o Mariana Trench and the
NW Pacific = greatest
known depth = 11.04km.
HYDROSPHERE
- Collective term for oceans, seas,
lakes, and rivers.
ATMOSPHERE
- Gaseous envelope
OCEAN FLOORS
Advancement of measurement techniques have
made possible much more detailed surveys,
particularly with the use of SEISMIC
REFRACTION METHODS, which enable a profile
of the ocean floor to be drawn.
CONTINENTAL SHELF
- Refers to a SUBMERGED
continuation of the land, with a
gentle slope of 1 in 1000 or less,
and is so VARYING in width.
- The gentle slope continues to a
depth of about 100 fathoms
(183m).
SHELF BREAK:
- Is the area where there is a marked
CHANGE IN SLOPE.
- Marks the beginning of the
CONTINENTAL SLOPE.
- This is also where the gradient is
becoming 1 in 40 or more.
CONTINENTAL SLOPE
- Reached after the shelf break, and
it continues until the gradient
begins to flatten out.
- Continental slopes in many places
show erosional features.
CONTINENTAL RISE
- Is the result when the gradient
flattens and merges.
- Is often several hundreds of
kilometers wide with a
DIMINISHING GRADIENT.
 EROSIONAL FEATURES SHOWN IN
CONTINENTAL SLOPES:
1. SUBMARINE CANYONS
o Are steep-sided gorge-like
valleys incised into the
seafloor.
o Some lie opposite the
mouths of large rivers.
o Many of the canyons are
excavated by TURBIDITY
CURRENTS of the canyon
THE EARTH’S INTERIOR
TEMPERARURE GRADIENT AND DENSITY.
- Is well known from mining
operations that temperature
INCREASES downwards at an
average rate of 30C per km.
o This rate is HIGHER near a
source of heat such as an
ACTIVE volcanic centre.
o The rate is also affected by
the THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY of the rocks
at a particular locality.
o Assuming that the
temperature gradient
continues at an average
rate, calculations show that
at a depth of some 30km,
temperature would be such
that most known rocks
would begin to MELT.
- The depth at which rocks become a
viscous fluid DEFINES the BASE of
the lithosphere.
- MEAN MASS DENSITY of the Earth
o Found from the Earth’s size
and motion around the
sun.
 o Mean mass density is 5.525 The worst effects of earthquakes are produced
gcm-3. in WEAK GROUND, especially young deposits of
o Greater than the density of SAND, SILT, and CLAY.
most rocks that are found
- These sediments may shake
at the surface, which rarely
violently IF their MODULI OF
exceeds 3.
ELASTICITY and RIGIDITY are
- Sedimentary rocks average density
INSUFFICIENT to attenuate
is 2.3 gcm-3.
adequately the acceleration that is
- The abundant igneous rocks and
imparted to their particles by
granite have average densities of
earthquakes.
about 2.7 gcm-3.
- Prior to a major earthquake,
- In order to bring the MEAN
STRAIN in the crust ACCUMULATES
DENSITY into 5.5, there must
to the extent that SMALL CHANGES
therefore be DENSER MATERIAL at
may be noticed in the shape of the
lower levels within the Earth.
land surface, in water levels, in the
o Confirmed by the study of
flow, temperature and chemistry of
ELASTIC WAVES generated
springs, in the magnetic properties
by earthquakes.
of the strained class, the velocity
 Research into the
with which it transmits vibrations,
way in which
and in the frequency and locations
earthquake waves
of small (micro-) earthquakes.
are BENT (by
- Most “active earthquake centers”
DIFFRACTION at
at the present day are located at
certain boundaries)
the TWO belts at the Earth’s
as they pass
surface:
through the Earth.
o Belt around the coastal
- Core is composed of heavy material
regions of the PACIFIC
with a density of about 8 gcm-3.
 From the east
- The average thickness of the crust
Indies through the
in continental areas is about 30km.
Philippines, Japan,
- The average thickness of the crust
the Aleutian Isles,
in oceanic areas (oceanic crust) is
and thence down
about 10 km.
the western coasts
- Mantle has a RANGE of density
of N and S America
intermediate between the crust and
o Belt that runs form
the core.
Europe (the Alpine ranges)
through the eastern
Mediterranean to the
 EARTHQUAKES
Himalayas, and East Indies,
The numerous shocks which continually takes where it JOINS the first belt.
place are due to SHARP MOVEMENTS along o The belts are PARALLEL to
fractures (FAULTS) which RELIEVE STRESS in the younger mountain
the crustal rocks. chains, where much
 faulting is associated with some; windows and
CRUMPLED ROCKS. doors rattle.
o Numerous volcanoes are V Felt nearly by
also situated along the everyone; some
earthquake belts. windows broken;
pendulum clocks
stop.
VI Felt by all, many
- It has been estimated that frightened; some
o 75% of ALL earthquake heavy furniture
activities occur in the moved; some fallen
CIRCUM-PACIFIC BELT plaster; general
o 22% of ALL earth quake damage slight.
activities occur in the VII Everyone runs
ALPINE AREA. outdoors; damage
- Many smaller shocks also occur in to poorly
zones of SUBMARINE FAULT constructed
ACTIVITY associated with OCEANIC buildings; weak
chimneys fall.
RIDGES such as the MID-ATLANTIC
VIII Much damage to
RIDGE, and others in fault zones in
buildings, except
continents such as RIFT VALLEY
those specially
SYSTEMS. designed. Tall
- The INTENSITY of an earthquake chimneys, columns
can be estimated from the effects fall; sand and mud
felt or seen by an observer, and flow from cracks in
such observations are collected and ground.
used to determine the center of the IX Damage
disturbance. considerable in
- SCALE OF INTENSITY = MERCALLI substantial
SCALE buildings; ground
cracked, buried
 THE MERCALLI SCALE pipes broken.
X Disastrous; framed
GRADES buildings
I Detected only by destroyed, rails
instruments. bent, small
II Felt by some landslides.
persons at rest; XI Few structures left
suspended objects standing; wide
may swing. fissures opened in
III Felt noticeably ground, with
indoors; vibration slumps and
like passing of a landslides.
truck. XII Damage total;
IV Felt indoors by ground warped,
many, outdoors by waves seen moving
 through ground, - The Richter scale and the Mercalli
objects thrown scale are not strictly comparable;
upwards. but:
o M=5 corresponds roughly
The observed intensity at points in the area with GRADE VI (damage to
affected can be marked on a map, and lines chimneys, plaster, etc).
of equal intensity (ISOSEISMAL LINES) then - A relationship exists between the
drawn to enclose those points where MAGNITUDE of an earthquake that
damage of a certain degree is done, giving is likely to occur at a location and its
an ISOSEISMAL MAP. RETURN PERIOD, and this
relationship is USED to SELECT the
A more accurate measure of earthquake accelerations that must be resisted
activity is provided by the AMOUNT OF by the earthquake resisting
SEISMIC ENERGY RELEASED in an structures for the locality.
earthquake. - When an earthquake occurs,
ELASTIC VIBRATIONS (or waaves)
MAGNITUDE
are propagated in all directions
- Refers to the amount of SEISMIC from its center of origin (FOCUS).
ENERGY that is released in an - EPICENTER
earthquake. o Refers to the point on the
- The symbol “M” is used for Earth’s surface immediately
magnitude. above the earthquake
focus.
THE SCALE OF MAGNITUDES
o The effects in this area is
- Is based on the MAXIMUM usually the most intense
AMPLITUDES shown on records
2 KINDS OF WAVES RECORDED:
made with a standard seismometer.
- Scale is LOGARITHMIC and is - BODY WAVES
related to the ELATIC WAVE o Comprising of
ENERGY (E), MEASURED IN JOULES COMPRESSIONAL WAVES or
(1 erg = 10-7 Joules). P-WAVES
- MAGNITUDE (M) ranges from  Fastest and the first
magnitude 0 to magnitude 9. to arrive at a
- SMALLEST FELT SHOCK recording station.
o usually have magnitudes of o TRANSVERSE OR SHEAR
2-2-and-a-half. VIBRATIONS
- DAMAGING SHOCKS o S-WAVES
o Usually are magnitude 5  Slower than the p-
- MAJOR DISASTER waves.
o Any earthquake with a - SURFACE WAVES
magnitude GREATER than o Also known as L-waves
M=7 is considered as a o Is similar to the ripples seen
major disaster. expanding from the point
 where a stone is dropped
into water.
o Surface waves are of long
period following the
periphery of the Earth.
o Slowest
o Have the LARGEST
AMPLITUDE
o Do the GREATEST DAMAGE
on the surface.
o Magnitude (M) is calculated
from their AMPLITUDE.
o Comprising of:
 LOVE WAVES (LQ)
 RAYLEIGH WAVES
(LR)
SEISMOGRAPH
- Is an instrument that consists of a
lightly suspended beam which is
pivoted to a frame that is fixed to
the ground and which carries a
heavy mass, and it functions to
detect and record earthquake
vibrations.
- Owing to the inertia of the heavy
mass, a movement is imparted to
the beam when vibrations reach the
instrument, and the movement is
recorded on a chart on a rotating
drum.
SEISMOGRAM
- Refers to the record.
- On a seismogram, time intervals are
marked, from which the times of
arrival of the vibrations can be read
off.
NOTE:
- The DISTANCE OF AN EPICENTER
FROM THE RECORDING
APPARATUS can be calculated using
KNOWN VELOCITIES OF
TRANSMISSION for the vibrations.
- 2 instruments are needed to record
the NORTH-SOUTH and EAST-WEST
components of the vibrations.
- A THIRD INSTRUMENT is needed to
DETECT VERTICAL MOVEMENTS.
- NOTE THAT LARGE EXPLOSIONS,
WHICH ARE ALSO DETECTED BY
SEISMOGRAPHS, CAN BE
DISTINGUISHED FROM
EARTHQUAKES.
- For large earthquakes,
seismographs that are situated
105o of arc from the epicenter
RECORD THE ONSETS of P,S, and L
waves.
SHADOW ZONE
- Refers to the region that is situated
BETWEEN 105o and 142o of arc, and
it is where NO P or S waves arrive.
- Note that the P-waves will only
reappear FROM 142o ONWARDS.
Though it should be noted that the
reappearing p-waves must have
already been slowed having
traveled far through the Earth.
This phenomenon was interpreted by R.D.
OLDHAM in 1906 as being DUE TO THE
PRESENCE OF A CENTRAL EARTH CORE, of such
composition that P-WAVES penetrating to a
greater depth than 105o path enter the core
and move there with a lower velocity.
Since the transverse S-vibrations are not
transmitted through the core, it indicates that
the core has the properties of FLUID (which
would not transmit shear vibration).
Modern works suggest that while the outer part
of the core is liquid, the innermost part could be
solid, and is mostly composed of IRON IN
DENSELY PACKED STATE.
The CORE EXTENDS TO WITHIN 2900KM OF THE
EARTH’S SURFACE, i.e. its radius is rather more
than half of the Earth’s radius.
There is a SHARP DISCONTINUITY between the
core and the overlying mantle; the latter
transmits both P and S vibrations.
A.MOHOROVICIC
- Was a SERBIAN SEISMOLOGIST
- In 1909, he noticed that 2 SETS of P and
S waves were sometimes recorded, and
the two sets have slightly different
travel time.
- He later suggested that one set of
vibration traveled a DIRECT PATH from
the focus, while the other set by a
different route.
 ISOSTASY
ISOSTASY
- Came from the Greek word that means
“EQUIPOISE”
- This term is used to DENOTE an IDEAL
STATE OF BALANCE between different
parts of the crust.
- Isostasy implies that for a land area
undergoing DENUDATION, there is a
SLOW RISE ON THE SURFACE AS IT IS
LIGHTENED, with an INFLOW of denser
material below the area.
- In this principle, the continental masses
can be visualized as EXTENSIVE BLOCKS
or rafts essentially of granitic
composition supported by underlying
sub-crustal material.
- The DIFFERENCE IN DENSITY implies
that the continents are largely
SUBMERGED in DENSER sub-crustal
material rather like BLOCKS OF ICE
FLOATING ON WATER.
LEVEL OF COMPENSATION
- Refers to the STATE OF BALANCE that
tends to be maintained above a certain
level.
- This principle requires that below the
relatively strong outer shell of the Earth
(lithosphere), there must be a WEAK
LAYER which HAS THE CAPACITY TO
YIELD TO STRESSES which persist for a
long time.
ASTHENOSPHERE
- From the Greek words “a” which means
NOT and “sthene” which means
STRENGTH.
- Refers to the weak zone below the
earth’s lithosphere that is required to
permit the principles of isostasy.
- It is also the zone that lies above the
mantle.
- DISTINCTIVE FEATURE = COMPARATIVE
WEAKNESS
 CONTINENTAL DRIFT
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
- Refers to the possible movements of
the continents relative to one another
in the geological past.
- Highlighted by ALFRED WEGENER in
1912
- Evidence that supported this came
largely form the STUDY OF THE
 MAGNETISM OF ROCKS and from the
DETAILED SURVEY OF THE OCEAN
FLOORS
o Demonstrated that the
continents have not remained
in their same relative position
and that the ocean floors are
much younger than the
continents they separate.
- Jigsaw puzzle evidence is another
evidence that supported the
continental drift; it is when Wegener
pointed out the similarity of the
coastline of south America and Africa.
- This lead Wegener to postulate the
existence of a super continent and
named it PANGAEA.
- Other similarities of the 2 continents
were shown through FOSSIL FAUNA.
o HIPPARION
 Refers to the early
horse, which is found at
either sides of the
Atlantic.
GONDWANALAND
- Was once the land in the southern
hemisphere, and it includes:
o South America
o Africa
o Antarctica
o Australia
o Peninsular India.
 OCEANIC RIDGES
OCEANIC RIDGES
- Resemble submerged mountain ranges
and are found in all oceans.
- From radiometric dating, it is known
that basalts become older with
increasing distance on either side of the
rift.
FLOOR SPREADIING
- Refers to the process where volcanic
material is envisaged as rising long the
line of median rift and being pushed
aside laterally, in either direction away
from the rift by subsequent eruptions.
 ROCK MAGNETISM
ROCK MAGNETISM
- Studies of rock magnetism in BASALTIC
ROCKS have yielded independent
evidence for ocean floor spreading and
continenetal drift.
- Magnetic minerals such as MAGNETITE
are found in BASALTIC ROCKS.
PALEOMAGNETISM
- When the crystals formed, they act as
small magnets and BECOME LINED UP
in the earth’s magnetic field of that
time.
- This is also known as FOSSIL
MAGNETISM.
- Paleomagnetism is retained in rocks,
and in many instances, its direction
DOES NOT agree with that of the
Earth’s present magnetic field.
- The last reversal in the Earth’s magnetic
field was about 700,000 years ago
based on radiometric dating.
The present rate of seafloor spreading is
between 1cm and 3cm per year.
The separation of the American continents from
Eurasia and Africa probably began in LATEE
JURASSIC OR EARLY CRETACEOUS TIMES
  MECHANISM OF DRIFT THREE WAYS BY WHICH PLATES CAN MOVE
RELATIVE TO EACH OTHER:

MECHANISM OF DRIFT 1. ONE PLATE SLIDING PAST ANOTHER

ALONG ITS MARGIN.
- The continental drift is associated with
o Expressed at the Earth’s surface
the OPENING and EXTENSION of the
by movement along major
ocean floor at the oceanic ridges.
TRANSCURRENT FAULTS.
- Material from the mantle rises towards
2. TWO PLATES MOVING AWAY FROM
the surface in the hotter central part of
ONE ANOTHER.
a ridge.
o Is expressed by the
- The cause of the upward flow is
FORMATION OF OCEANIC
believed to be the operation of slow-
RIDGES.
moving CONVECTION CURRENTS in the
3. TWO PLATES MOVING TOGETHER AND
Earth’s mantle.
ONE SLIDING UNDERNEATH THE EDGE
- The currents rise towards the BASE of
OF THE OTHER.
the lithosphere and SPREAD OUT
o Is expressed by the
HORIZONTALLY, passing the continental
FORMATION OF DEEP OCEAN
margins and descending again.
TRENCHES, where the edge of
- The hotter rock-material in the rising
one plate has moved
current is less dense and possesses
downwards under the other
buoyancy, which is the driving force of
and is dispersed in the mantle
the mechanism.
in the process called
- BUOYANCY = DRIVING FORCE OF THE
SUBDUCTION.
MECHANISM.
- DIFFERENCES in the rate of movement MAIN TRENCHES:
of adjacent masses away from the
oceanic ridges are accommodated by - ALEUTIAN TRENCH
displacement on fractures called - KURIL TRENCH
TRANSCURENT FAULTS. - JAPAN TRENCH
- MARIANAS TRENCH
- PHILIPPINE TRENCH
- INDONESIAN TRENCH
 PLATE TECTONICS

- The word “tectonic” is derived from the

Greek work “tekton” which means a
BUILDER.
- Plate tectonics came to be used to
DENOTE the PROCESSES that are
involved in the MOVEMENT and
INTERACTIONS of the plates.
CONTINENTAL PLATE
- Is capped by the continental crust, i.e.
the continents RIDE on the underlying
plate.

- In this principle, the Earth’s lithosphere

is considered as a MOSAIC of twelve or
more large RIGID PLATES.
  THE 7 MAJOR TECTONIC PLATES margin. Such planes intersect the ocean floor at
(arranged from the biggest to the the deep trenches bordered by island arcs.
smallest)
1. PACIFIC PLATE
2. NORTH AMERICAN PLATE  EARTH AGE AND ORIGIN
3. EURASIAN PLATE
4. AFRICAN PLATE - The earth and other members of the
5. ANTARCTIC PLATE Solar System are believed to have been
6. INDO-AUSTRALIAN PLATE formed about 4600 million years ago by
7. SOUTH AMERICAN PLATE CONDENSATION from a flattened
rotating cloud of gas and dust.
 THE MINOR TECTONIC PLATES: - The flattened rotating cloud eventually
contracted, forming the sun at its
1. SOMALI PLATE center, which is a new star surrounded
2. NAZCA PLATE by a mass of cosmic gases in which local
3. ARABIAN PLALTE condensations generated the planets.
4. CARRIBEAN PLATE - The old primitive Earth became
5. JUAN DE FUCA PLATE gradually heated as its interior was
6. COCOS PLATE compressed by the increasing weight of
7. CAROLINE PLATE accumulated matter and by the DECAY
8. SCOTIA PLATE of natural radioactive materials.
9. BURMA PLATE - Heat was produced more rapidly than it
10. NEW HERBIDES PLATE could escape from the compressed
mass, resulting in the MELTING of some
constituents and heavier matter being
OCEANIC PLATE
drawn by gravity towards the Earth’s
- Is covered by a thin oceanic crust that is center. The planet thus gradually
mainly basaltic in composition and acquired a core, surrounded by a
having a thin covering of sediments. mantle of less dense material and an
outer crust.

COLLISION ZONE
- Is the term that can be used where two
continental plates have converged, with
the formation of a belt of
intercontinental fold-mountains.
It has been shown that at a subduction zone,
earthquakes are generated at deep foci (more
than 300 km below the surface) and are related
to inclined planes dipping at angles around 30
degrees to 40 degrees beneath the continental
- The oldest rocks discovered so far are
dated about 3900 million years, and as
rock samples from the moon range in
age from 4400 to 3200 million years, it
is probable that a primitive crust
formed on earth about 4400 to 4500
million years ago.
- CHONDRITES (Stony meteorites) which
have fallen on the present surface of
the earth also give ages of the same
order.
- The results together suggest AN AGE OF
4600 MILLION YEARS FOR THE EARTH
AND ITS MOON.