PALEONTOLOGY GROUP REPORT

REVIEW SHEET

GROUP #1 EARLY TAXONOMY

INVESTIGATING FOSSILS - Was over 2,400 years ago.

ARISTOTLE

 OUTLINE: - DEVELOPED the 1st WIDELY ACCEPTED

SYSTEM of BIOLOGICAL
- TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION CLASSIFICATION.
- SEDIMENTS DOMINATED BY FOSSILS o Mainly for plants and animals
- TECHNIQUES IN COLLECTING FOSSILS
IMPORTANCE OF PLACING THINGS INTO
- LABORATORY PREPARATION OF FOSSILS
CATEGORIES
- PROCEDURES IN FOSSIL DESCRIPTION
AND IDENTIFICATION CLASSIFICATION
- ILLUSTRATING FOSSILS
- Refers to a MULTILEVEL GROUPING of
- NAMING OF FOSSILS
individuals, which biologists use to
name organisms.
- This classification helps to draw
 TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION
conclusion.
TAXONOMY
THE LINEAN SYSTEM
- A SYSTEM for DIVIDING organisms into
- Is A MODERN CLASSIFICATION that we
different types.
use.
- A BRANCH of BIOLOGY that IDENTIFIES
- Each level of the system gets
and NAMES organisms.
INCREASINGLY SPECIFIC from
KINGDOM-SPECIES.

CAROLUS LINNAEUS (1707-1778)

- SWEDISH scientist who GROUPED

things into HIERARCHICAL
CATEGORIES.
- FATHER OF TAXONOMY
- BASIS = OBSERVABLE
CHARACTERISTICS
- Introduced SEVEN LEVELS OF
CLASSIFICATION.
- Introduced the binomial nomenclature.

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
 - A METHOD of SCIENTIFIC NAMING.
- Using this, Linnaeus identified
organisms by using a COMBINATION
OF GENUS AND SPECIES NAME.
- Made sure that no 2 species have the
same combination of genus and species
name.

SPECIES NAME

- Organisms are named in LATIN, and no

organism have the same name.

TAXON
SPECIES
- Refers to a group of organisms at a
- Group of individuals that CAN BREED
particular level in a classification.
with one another to produce FERTILE
WHY SHOULD THERE BE A UNIQUE NAME FOR OFFSPRING.
EACH ORGANISM? - About 1.5 million species have been
named during the time of Linnaeus.
- The reason why a unique name is - Scientists estimate that:
needed is because common names are o There are 10 MILLION SPECIES
misleading. that exist.
 APPROX 2/3 ARE
FOUND IN THE
TROPICS.

 SEDIMENTS DOMINATED BY FOSSILS

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

- Generally are formed from the

compaction and cementation of
MODERN SYSTEM sediments.
- CAPABLE OF CONTAINING FOSSIL.
HEIRARCHY OF BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
GRAIN SIZE
1. KINGDOM
2. PHYLUM - One of the most important
3. CLASS characteristics of sedimentary rocks.
4. ORDER - Can vary between coarse (boulders and
5. FAMILY gravel) and fine (mud, silt, and clay).
6. GENUS
7. SPECIES

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION GRAIN SIZE AND COMPOSITION

 - Can tell what TYPE of sediment surface o CRINOID
the animal lived on including what the o COLUMNALS
WATER FLOW was like or whether the o ECHINOID SPINES
fossil was TRANSPORTED in a current. o ECHINOID PLATES
o SPONGE SPICULES
QUIET WATER
o OSTRACODS
- Have very FINE-GRAINED sediments.
- ABLE to PRESERVE SMALL DETAILS.
FORAMINIFERA
FAST-MOVING WATER
- Are SINGLE-CELLED ANIMALS
- Deposit large amount of sediments (PROTOZOA) that are composed of a
quickly. jelly-like mass encased in a calcareous
- More likely to bury large objects. shell.
- Occur in:
o SANDSTONES
 MICROFOSSILS o MUDSTONES
o LIMESTONES

MICROFOSSILS

- TINY REMAINS of bacteria, protists,

fungi, animals, and plants.
- Can only be seen in detail with a
MICROSCOPE.
- GENERALLY SMALLER THAN 1mm.
- Usually OCCUR IN HUGE NUMBERS.
- Occur in ALL TYPES of sedimentary
rocks. PLANT MICROFOSSILS
- MOST ABUNDANT & MOST EASILY - Are usually CUTICLE and other small
ACCESSIBLE. parts.
- SEEDS
ANIMAL MICROFOSSILS o may be encountered in
microfossil samples from
- Include FISH SCALES, TEETH, and terrestrial rocks.
BONES, all of which are COMMON in - POLLEN AND SPORES
MARINE FINE-GRAINED ROCKS. o VERY COMMON microfossils.
- SMALL TEEETH AND BONES of o REQUIRE DIFFICULT
TERRESTRIAL VERTEBRATES can be EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES
found in NON-MARINE ROCKS. using dangerous acids and high-
powered microscopes.
SMALL PARTS OF INVERTEBRATES - Includes MARINE ALGAE and are,
together with PROTOZOA, the MOST
- MOST COMMON. ABUNDANT FOSSILS IN ROCKS.
- Small parts of invertebrates include:  MACROFOSSILS
o SHELLS
  SILTSTONE

MACROFOSSILS BRACHIOPOD-BEARING SILTSTONE

- Remains of organisms LARGE ENOUGH

to be SEEN WITHOUT MICROSCOPES.
- PROVIDE INFORMATION about the
TYPES OF ORGANISMS living at the
sampling location through time.
- Essential information may be obtained SECTION OF THE EARLY PERMIAN CUNDLEGO
with: FORMATION
o TRANSMISSION ELECTRON
MICROSCOPE
o SCANNING ELECTRON
MICROSCOPE

 SHALE

MARPOLIA SPISSA MISSISSIPPIAN BRACHIOPOD FOSSIL

HALLUCGENIA
LEPIDODENDRON FOSSIL BRANCH

WIWAXIA

ATRYPA

 SANDSTONE
MOLD FOSSIL OF LEPIDODENDRON BRANCH GOAL

o EXPLORE a huge area where

fossils may be found to locate
individual sites where there’s
something worth digging.

WHERE DO WE LOOK FOR FOSSILS?

CHONETES
- QUARRY SITES
o Because the it may already be
EXPOSED in such areas.
- BEACHES
- SEA CLIFFS
YUNANOCEPHALUS o Includes PEBBLE BEACHES
- BADLANDS AND DESERTS
And WUTINGASPIS TINGI - CAVES
(RIGHT) - ROADCUTS AND OUTCROPS
- RIVERS

 COLLECTING FOSSILS

TECHNIQUES FOR LARGE SPECIMEN:

TRACE FOSSIL
EXCAVATING

- Complicated because paleontologists

are oftentimes constrained by TIME,
MONEY, and MANPOWER.
- Often difficult and dangerous to
attempt to “FIELD PREPARE” or extract
 TECHNIQUES IN COLLECTING FOSSILS bones from the matrix in field
conditions.
- Though have different tools, the
PROSPECTING process generally involves:
- Many fossils are discovered purely by o REMOVAL OF OVERBURDEN
accident. o CONSOLIDATION
- Paleontologists actively seek out fossils o TRENCHING
o JACKETING
GEOLOGIC AGE

o Is a MAIN RULE in determining

where to search for fossils.
- When searching, look for FRAGMENTS REMOVING THE OVERBURDEN
of BONES and TEETH.
 o Overburden is removed using SURFACE COLLECTING
HAND TOOLS such as:
- Applied to specimens that can be
 HAMMERS
collected WITHOUT DIGGING a hole
 CHISELS
larger than one meter square.
 SMALL PICKS
- Even small pieces are worth collecting.
 AWLS
o Because they can be
 BRUSHES
INFORMATIVE FRAGMENTS of
o These tools are used until the
a larger bone.
EDGES of the specimen are
CLEAR, revealing the EXTENT of
the bone.
TECHNIQUES FOR SMALL SPECIMEN
CONSOLIDATION
o Purpose is to STRENGTHEN the
DRY SIEVING
fossil enough so that it can be - Uses SCREENS of progressively smaller
collected without damage. size to sieve out the smallest
o CONSOLIDANT SHOULD BE specimen.
REMOVABLE in the lab. - The materials is placed into and gently
 GLUE is an example. run through the sieves of progressively
smaller mesh size with a goal of
TRENCHING ISOLATING the fossil.
o Begins several inches away
from the bone, earth is SCREEN-WASHING
removed all the way around - The material is placed into a screen
the fossil, and down to well washing box or sieve, soaked and then
below the where the bottom of gently agitated with water.
the specimen is. - MESH SIZE can be varied as necessary,
DEPENDING ON THE SIZE of the fossil
JACKETING likely to be collected.
o Cover the entire surface with
toilet paper and make sure
there are NO MORE
UNDERCUTS.
o For much larger fossils and
skeletons, use BURLAP and
PLASTER.

 LABORATORY PREPARATIONS OF
TECHNIQUES FOR MEDIUM SPECIMENS
FOSSILS
PREPARATION
There are different preparation techniques and
they include the following:
MECHANICAL
- Preparation is done with the use of
various types of PHYSICAL FORCE to
REMOVE the matrix from around the
specimen.
- USE OF PHYSICAL FORCE TO REMOVE
THE MATRIX from the specimen.
- It utilizes TOOLS THAT APPLY PHYSICAL
FORCE to the matrix to remove it from
GRINDING
the fossil bone.
- MOST COMMONLY USED.
- Tools used for preparation can range
from:
o STEEL
o CARBIDE NEEDLE
o MINI-JACKHAMMERS
o MICRO-SANDBLASTER.
2 CATEGORIES OF MECHANICAL TECHNIQUE:
POINTS
MACROPREPARATION
o Involves the BULK REMOVAL of
matrix from fossils of any size
from small to very large.
MICROPREPARATION
o Any manual preparation of
vertebrate fossils on a scale
that requires the use of
microscope.
AIR ABRASIVE
 MECHANICAL TECHNIQUES
SCRIBING
- Similar to miniature jackhammers.
- COMPRESSED AIR is used to push a
piston back and forth at thousands of
cycles per minute.
- There are wide range of sizes and
powers of scribes
o From the PISTOL GRIP
HAMMERS made to remove
large amounts of hard rock to
very FINE TOOLS that remove
one grain of sand at a time.
- USED ON HEMATITIC SPECIMENS.
- This is also used on other matrices that
are RESISTANT to scribing.
- DIFFER TO SCRIBE BECAUSE OF THE
ROTATRY MOTION of the tool.
- Flexible shaft tools often have VARIABLE
SPEED CONTROLS, which ALLOW FINE-
TUNING of the speed of work.
- This refer to points or needles.
- Used for:
o MICROPREPARATION
o FINAL STAGES OF LARGE
SPECIMEN PREPARATION
- Made from:
o STEEL DRILL BLANKS
o CARBIDE ROD
Both can be held in PIN VISES and
shaped to fit the desired use.
- AKA: MICRO-ABRASIVE
 - Can be USED FOR:
o MATRIX REMOVAL
o FINAL CLEANING OF SPECIMENS
- AIR PRESSURE is used to create a
FOCUSED STREAM of fine particles
through a small nozzle.
- Commonly used materials:
SODIUM BICARBONATE
o Most commonly used
o it is the MOST GENTLE on the
specimen.
ALUMINUM OXIDE POWDER
o used where CUTTING of thee
matrix is NEEDED.
GLUING AND CONSOLIDATING
- should be aware of the PROPERTIES of
various adhesives and have them on
hand before beginning to work.
- It is IMPORTANT TO BE AWARE THAT:
o GLUES may need to be UN-
GLUED
o CONSOLIDATION may need to
be LOOSENED during
preparation.
CHEMICAL
- Involves the application of particular
COMPOUNDS or combinations of
compounds to the specimen TO
DISSOLVE THE SURROUNDING MATRIX.
- USE VARIOUS COMPOUNDS TO
DISSOLVE THE SURROUNDING MATRIX.
- Is TIME-CONSUMING because the
specimen must be REGULARLY RINSED
and RE-COATED to PREVENT
UNINTENTIONAL LOSS OF FOSSIL.
- LACK OF MONITORING during
preparation can RESULT TO serious
DAMAGE to the SPECIMEN.
CHEMICAL TECHNIQUES ARE FREQUENTLY USED
FOR:
- DELICATE SPECIMENS
o Which can be damaged by
mechanical techniques.
- CERTAIN TYPES OF INVERTEBRATE
FOSSIL
o Es pecially where FREEING both
the INNER and OUTER SHELL
surfaces might REVEAL
IMPORTANT MORPHOLOGY.
- COMPLETE REMOVAL OF BONES
o Lastly, this is used where the
complete removal of bones is
necessary.
 CHEMICAL TECHHNIQUES
ACID TREATMENT
- Is often USED in MATRICES partly or
wholly composed of limestone (calcium
carbonate), which DISSOLVES into CO2
and calcium ions in the presence of
acid.
- ACID = HIGHLY DILUTE = 3-7%
CONCENTRATIONS OF:
o ACETIC ACID
o FORMIC ACID
- These acids are often used with a
BUFFER to PROTECT THE CALCIUM
PHOSPHATE that comprises the fossil.
- The acids are diluted in WATER.
IRON REDUCTION
- A method of CLEANING AWAY the
CRUST by REDUCING FERRIC IRON to
FERROUS HYDROXIDE, which is more
soluble.
TWO TECHNIQUES:
- THIOGLYCOLLIC ACID
- WALLER METHOD
o Does not involve the use of acid
o Is therefore NON-CORROSIVE
and tends to be PREFERRED
FOR FOSSILS.
TRANSFER PREPARATION
- Still under chemical techniques.
- Developed in the 1950s by:
o TOOMBS and RIXON
- Remains in use today.
- In this method, ½ of the FOSSIL is
PLACED in a BATH of FORMIC ACID
where the ACID slowly EATS AWAY THE
MATRIX, revealing the fossil bone.
PEEL
- MINERAL ACIDS such as HYDROCHLORIC
ACID are USED to DISSOLVE the bone
from the rock, thereby LEAVING a
CLEAN MATRIX MOLD from which a
PEEL can be cast.
- Works well on:
o SHALES
o SANDSTONES
o QUARTZITES
o OIL SHALES
- Is useful when BONE IN THE MATRIX
OBSCURE THE PBSERVATION.
NON-INVASIVE
- Non-contact. Non-destructive
technological tool that can be used to
obtain information from the specimen.
 FOSSIL DESCRIPTION AND
IDENTIFICATION
TAXONOMY
- Is the study of the morphology and
relationship of organisms.
SYSTEMATICS
- Is the BROADER SCIENCE of Taxonomy
and evolutionary process.
CLASSIFICATION
- Refers to NAMING of organisms and
IDENTIFYING the NATURAL HIERARCHY.
HOW DO WE DETERMINE IF 2 ORGANISMS ARE
OF THE “SAME SPECIES”?
- Same species would mean
ASSEMBLAGES of individuals that
SHARE CERTAIN ATTRIBUTES
o SIMILAR APPEARANCE
o SIMILAR HABITS AND
BEHAVIORS
o SIMILAR HABITATS
DARWIN
- Did not regard species based on
biological entity, but he considered
them as essentially the same thing as
GEOGRAPHIC or STRATIGRAPHIC
VARIATIONS.
EXAMPLE:
o In an extinction event, the
surviving organisms would
BLEND into the closest living
relative group.
ERNST MAYR (20th CENTURY BIOLOGIST) SPECIES ORIGINATING WITHIN ANOTHER
SPECIES
- DEFINED “SPECIES” AS:
- Some species originate from
AN ARRAY OF POPULATIONS, which are
SUBPOPULATIONS of previously existing
actually or potentially interbreeding,
species.
and which are REPRODUCTIVELY
- The remaining subpopulations are free
ISOLATED from other factors such as
to persist under the original
natural conditions.
morphology, rang, habitat, gene
BIOLOGICAL SPECIES CONCEPT (BSC) exchange, etc.

- Pools of shared genes which do not get SPECIES CONCEPT

mixed with their closest relatives.
- Clusters 2 major ideas:
PROBLEMS IN BSC:
SIMILARITY CRITERION
- IMPOSSIBLE to DEFINE for ASEXUAL
o Species are RECOGNIZED BY
SPECIES.
SHARED ASPECTS OR
- Extremely DIFFICULT TO TEST in most
ATTRIBUTE held in common by
WILD POPULATIONS.
members of the species.
o Also IMPOSSIBLE TO TEST FOR
FOSSILS. DIFFERENCE CRITERION
- EXISTENCE OF RING SPECIES shows that
o Species are DISTINGUISHED
you can go through a continuum with
FROM OTHEER SPECIES BY
no boundaries and yet reach conditions
ATTTRIBUTE THAT MAKES
of genetic incompatibility between end
THEM DIFFERENT FROM
members.
OTHER.
- EXISTENCE OF RARE BUT REAL
NATURAL HYYBRIDS.

MORPHOSPECIES
SPECIES PROBLEM - Are taxonomic species BASED WHOLLY
ON MORPHOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES
- It is difficult to fins a good, useful
FROM RELATED SPECIES.
criterion that can be broadly applied to
- ALL FOSSILS ARE MORPHOSPECIES.
our ideas of what species are and how
we recognize their boundaries.
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
INTROGRESSION
- Compare and contrast the structures of
- Related BACKCROSS of hybrids with
different kinds of organisms through
their parent species, which results to
their distinctive combination of
SIGNIFICANT GENE TRANSFER from one
features.
species to another. Common in:
o PLANTS
o MANY TYPES OF MAMMALS
THERE ARE 2 UNDER COMPARATIVE ANATOMY:
HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES
- Organisms that has the SAME BODY
PART BUT ARE SHAPED DIFFERENTLY,
DUE TO DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS.
ANALOGOUS STRUCTURES
- STRUCTURES OF THE SAME FUNCTION
BUT ARE DERIVED FROM DIFFERENT
BODY PARTS.
 2 OPPOSING APPROACH IN
CLASSIFYING FOSSILS
TYPOLOGICAL APPROACH
- 2 fossils are assumed to be from 2
distinct species under MINOR
DIFFERENCES
- Some important fossil discovery have
tended to take this approach.
- IS EGO BOOSTING
POPULIST APPROACH
- Individuals in all populations of
organisms are assumed to normally
have minor differences.
- Therefore SIMILAR BUT UNIDENTICAL
FOSSILS ARE PUT TO THE SAME
SPECIES.
- IT IS ONLY THROUGH THE EXISTENCE
MAJOR DIFFERENCES THAT ORGANISMS
ARE SEPARATED INTO 2 DISTINC
SPECIES.
- DOMINANT IN BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
FOR PHSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS.
NUMERICAL TAXONOMY (PHENETICS)
- Introduced by ROBERT SOKAL and
PETER SNEATH.
- Concluded that since CLASSIFICATIONS
CANANOT REFLECT BOTH
EVOLITIONARY HISTORY AND DEGREE
OF OVERALL SIMILARITY, then they
should give up trying to make
classifications phylogenetically and
instead BASE THEM ON OBJECTIVE
STATISTICAL SIMILARITIES AND
DIFFERENCES, or overall phenetic
similarity.
- OBJECTIVE OF PHENETICS
o TAKE AWAY THE ELEMENT OF
SUBJECTIVITY.
- Numerical taxonomists ARGUE THAT
CLASSIFICATION SHOULD BE PURELY
OBJECTIVE AND IN THE FORM OF
STATISTICAL EXERCISE THAT CAN BE
CODED AND DECIPHERED BY A
COMPUTER.
PROCEDURES IN PHENETICS
- MEASURING AND CODING numerous
anatomical features, or characters, in
each specimen taxon (called
OPERATIONAL TAXONOMIC UNITS or
OTUs) to create a large data matrix of
OTUs versus characters.
- NEXT, a COMPUTER PROGRAM SORTS
the data and FUNDS CLUSTERS OF OTUs
that have the most characters in
common.
- When the computer analysis is finished,
a BRANCHING DIAGRAM OF SIMILARITY
IS PRODUCED.
REASONS FOR REJECTION:

- The original concentration of

pheneticists in Lawrence, Kansas, broke
up as SOKAL, ROHLF, and FARRIS all
went to the state university of New
York at stony brook in 1969.
- Numerical taxonomists tried to apply
their methods so widely that their
efforts in systematics were dissipated.
- More importantly, the majority of
systematists never accepted the
fundamental goals of phenetics.
- Most still wanted classification to
reflect evolutionary relationships in
some way, even if this was a difficult
task.
 THE RATE OF CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION OF
SALTS.
GROUP 2
- These limestones are regarded as
CALCAREOUS FOSSILS precipitates of calcium and magnesium
carbonates, thrown down when the
river-borne salts DIFFUSED to the
 INTRODUCTION ancient sea-bottom.
- CHIEF REAGENT FOR THE
CALCAREOUS
PRECIPITATION:
- Means “CONTAINING o AMMONIUM CARBONATE
MOSTLY/PARTLY” calcium carbonate.  Generated by the
DECAY OF ANIMAL
CALCAREOUS FOSSILS MATTER.
- Are fossils that HAVE SHELLS composed - It is postulated that in pre-Cambrian
of: time, the “ACTIVE SCAVENGING
o CALCITE SYSTEM” had not yet been evolved 
o ARAGONITE this means that the AMOUNT OF
DECAYING MATTER ON THE PRE-
CAMBRIAN SEA-FLOOR WAS VASTLY
 COMPOSITION/HISTORY GREATER THAN THE AMOUNT NOW
ALLOWED TO DECAY ON THE BOTTOM
- The origin of calcareous organisms can OF THE OCEAN.
be traced back to the early history of In the Cambrian period, the animal species had
ocean water. begun to ARMOR THEMSELVES with the new
2 IMPORTANT FACTORS THAT LED TO THE material, henceforth present in the sea-water in
ORIGIN OF CALCAREOUS FOSSILS: sufficient amount.

1. VARIATIONS in the SUPPLY OF RIVER- PRIMITIVE CHITINOUS SHELL now became

BORNE SALTS. STRENGTHENED WITH PHOSPHATE and
2. RATE of CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION OF CARBONATE OF CALCIUM.
SALTS. In the ORDOVICIAN  MANY SPECIES HAD
VARIATIONS IN THE SUPPLY OF RIVER-BORNE ADOPTED THE ARMOR OR SKELETON OF PURE
SALTS CALCIUM CARBONATE.

- The secretion of calcareous hard parts

by marine organisms was first made
possible as a RESULT of THE INCREASE
OF THE LAND AREAS during the POST-
HURONIAN GLACIATION.
- The supply was especially enlarged by
the erosion of the thick limestones
which had been deposited on the
seafloor of earlier pre-cambrian time.
  CALCAREOUS ALAGAE AND
CYANOBACTERIA - CALCIFIED RED ALGAE
o VITAL COMPONENTS OF
CALCAREOUS ALGAE
NEARSHORE ECOSYSTEMS.
- MAJOR ALGAL GROUPS = GROUPED - In tropical coral reef environments,
BASED ON THEIR PIGMENT. CRUSTOSE CORALLINE ALGAE
- MAJOR GROUPS: REINFORCE THE SKELETAL STRUCTURE
o RED (RHODOPHYTA) OF CORALS, FILLING CRACKS and
o GREEN (CHLOROPHYTA) CEMENTING TOGETHER SAND, DEAD
o BROWN (PHAEOPHYTA) CORAL, AND DEBRIS, creating STABLE
- Calcareous algae are those BIOTA that SUBSTRATE, and REDUCING REEF
are CAPABLE of SECRETING OR EROSION.
DEPOSITING CARBONATE AROUND OR
BIOSTRATIGRAPHY
WITHIN THEIR BODY.
- FOSSIL CALCAREOUS ALGAE = ACHAEOAMPHIROA
CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR
- DEVONIAN-AGED RED ALGAE. Is
“MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS”.
interpreted as having grown in a
RED ALGAE (RHODOPHYTA) SHALLOW and SURF-SWEPT REEF
ENVIRONMENT.
- The modern species of red algae
occupies POLAR TO TROPICAL
REGIONS.
- FOSSIL RED ALGAE  CRUCIAL for the
FORMATION OF REEF COMMUNITIES.
o OCCURRED AS EARLY AS THE
SILURIAN.

MORPHOLOGY

- Range from UNICELLS and UNISERIATE CORALLINALES

or MULTISERIATE FILAMENTS TO
LARGE PSEUDOPARENCHYMATOUS, - one of the most common “groups” of
BRANCHED OR UNBRANCHED. Others fossilized red algae that is observed in
are: the geological record.
o TERETE (CYLINDRICAL) TO - 2 LIVING FAMILIES:
o CORALLINACEAE
FOLIOSE (BLADE-LIKE) THALLI.
o SPOROLITHACEAE
o Including CRUSTOSE and ERECT
o BOTH CAN BE FOUND IN
forms.
MESOZOIC AND CENOZOIC
ECOLOGY STRATA.
- Can be found in many different SOLENOPORA
environments:
o MARINE - Famous red algae. ARE ANCESTRAL
o FRESHWATER CORALLINALES KNOWN FOR THEIR
o TERESTRIAL
“RED AND WHITE LAMINATIONS”.
RHODOLITHS
- Form of free-living red algae.
- OCCURRING IN THE ABSENCE OF A
HARD SUBSTRATE, resulting in a
number of species occurring as FREE-
LIVING RHODOLITH NODULES within
SANDY FLOORS.
- PRODUCE DISTINCT RHOGALDAL
FACIES which CONTAINS an
ABUNDANCE OF CORALLINE RED
ALGAE, developing within nutrient rich
zones under LIMITED-LIGHT
CONDITIONS.
- FIRST DOCUMENTED DURING
PALAEOGENE, becoming widespread
throughout the NEOGENE.
GREEN ALGAE (CHLOROPHYTA)
- Modern green algae are LARGE and
DIVERSE GROUP of organisms
including:
o UNICELLULAR
o COLONIAL
o COCCOID
o FILAMENTOUS FORMS
o LARGE, MULTICELLULAR FORMS
 SEAWEEDS
- FOSSIL GREEN ALGAE are ALMOST
EXCLUSIVELY MARINE in nature and
have been DESCRIBED FROM
PRECAMBRIAN STRATA.
MORPHOLOGY
- ALGAL BODY:
o UNICELLULAR OR
MULTICELLULAR
o BRANCHED OR UNBRANCHED
FILAMENTS
o FLAT PARENCHYMATOUS OR
SIPHONACEOUS
- CELL WALL
o MAJOR COMPONENT =
CELLULOSE
- PIGMENT:
o CHLOROPHYLL a and b
o BETA-CAROTENE
- PHOTOSYNTHETIC PRODUCT:
o STARCH.
MORPHOLOGY
- Important morphological features:
o CYLINDRICAL CENTRAL STEM
o RADIAL SYMMETRY
o VARIETY OF BRANCH FORMS
ECOLOGY
- Can be found in BOTH FRESHWATER
and MARINE ENVIRONMENTS.
- Minor members of marine temperate
intertidal communities.
- Important members of freshwater
phytoplankton.
- Important members of tropical
intertidal communities.
BIOSTRATIGRAPHY
DASYCLADALES
- MOST WELL-KNOWN AMONG GREEN
ALGAE.
- Became INCREASINGLY DIVERSE from
the MIDDLE ORDOVICIAN through the
EARLY CRETACEOUS, where they
suffered a significant decline.
- From the CARBONIFEROUS ONWARDS,
Dasycladales have an IMPORTANT
ROLE IN THE ACCUMULATION OF
SHALLOW-MARINE CARBONATES ON
FORMS AND RAMPS.
- Towards the END OF THE PALEOZOIC,
and throughout thee Mesozoic,
dasycladales have been FOUND TO BE
IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTORS OF
“BIOGENIC MOUNDS”.
BROWN ALGAE (PHAEOPHYTA)
- COMPRISES THE CLASS PHAEOPHYCEAE BIOSTRATIGRAPHY
- Consisting mainly o complex,
microscopic seaweeds. - UNUSUAL AND RARE IN THE OVERALL
- Modern brown algae have no FOSSIL RECORD.
calcareous groups, so their - FOSSIL RECORD = SPARSE DUE TO
preservation potential into the fossil THEIR GENERALLY SOFT-BODIED
record is particularly low. NATURE, and scientists continue to
debate to the identification of some
MORPHOLOGY finds.
- Majority of the soft-bodied fossils are
- CHARACTERISTIC OLIVE GREEN TO
preserved as flattened outline, making
VARIOUS SHADES OF BROWN COLOR.
it difficult to distinguish an accurate
- GREEN PIGMENT (CHLOROPHYLL a and
systematic or morphological group
c) is being MASKED by BROWN
affinity.
PIGMENT (FUCOXANTHIN).
- Earliest known fossil that can be
- THALLUS
assigned to the Phaeophyceae come
o Body of brown algae.
from MIOCENE DIATOMITE DEPOSITS
o Indicates that brown algae
OF THE “MONTERY FORMATION IN
LACKS the complex xylem and
CALIFORNIA”.
phloem of vascular plants.
- HOLDFAST ECOLOGY
o ROOTLIKE STRUCTURE present
- DWELL ALMOST EXCLUSIVELY IN
at the BASE of the alga.
MARINE (OR COASTAL)
- STIPE
ENVIRONMENTS.
o Stemlike structure.
- Members of the group dominate many
- SIMPLEST BROWN ALGAE ARE
BENTHIC MARINE BIOTAS.
FILAMENTOUS.
- In general, they ARE NOT FREE-
- 2 MAIN TYPES OF TISSUE
FLOATING ORGANISMS, but are
ORGANIZATION:
ATTACHED TO ROCK, CORAL, OR
o PSEUDOPARENCHYMATOUS
OTHER FIRM SURFACES.
(HAPLOSTICHOUS)
- Found PRIMARILY IN COLDER WATERS
o PARENCHYMATOUS
OF THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE.
(POLYSTICHOUS)
- LARGEST FORMS OCCU IN COOLER
- CELL WALL CONSISTS OF 2 LAYERS:
WATERS.
o INNER LAYER
 CELLULOSE
o OUTER LAYER
 MAINLY ALGIN.
 SUBSEQUENT COMPETITION FROM
METAZOAN ORGANISMS.
CYANOBACTERIA
- OTHER HYPOTHESES FOR THE DECLINE
- Commonly referred to as “BLUE-GREEN OF STROMATOLITES:
ALGAE” o BURROWING OF METAZOANS
- PROKARYOTIC (SINGLE CELLED) o PREDATION
- Was RESPONSIBLE FOR THE “GREAT o CHANGE IN SEAWATER
OXYGENATION EVENT”. CHEMISTRY.
- CALCIFICATION occur via the:
STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A TYPICAL
o IMPREGNATION or
STROMATOLITE:
ENCRUSTATION of
MUCILAGINOUS SHEATH WITH
CARBONATE.

MORPHOLOGY

- Contain PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS:

CHLOROPHYLL (GREEN) and
PHYCOCYANIN (BLUE)
- May live as:
o SINGLE CELLS
o COLONIES
 COCCOID GROWTH
FORM =
CHROOCOCCALES
- They may also LINK TOGETHER TO
FORM THREADS OR TRICHOMES.
- FILAMENTOUS GROWTH FORM =
HORMOGONOPHYCEAE.
- Each filament consists of a SHEATH of
MUCILAGE and one or more cellular
strands called TRICHOMES. RHYNIE CHERT

BIOSTRATIGRAPHY - LOWER DEVONIAN

- FORMALLY DESCRIBED AND NAMED
- RARE IN THE FOSSIL RECORD, and their
CYANOBACTERIA IN THE RHYNIE CHERT
PRESENCE IS A SUBJECT OF
ARE:
CONTROVERSY.
o ARCHAEOTHRIX
STROMATOLITES o CONTEXTA
o ARCHAEOTHRIX
o OLDEST KNOWN FOSSIL
OSCILLATORIFORMIS
EVIDENCE ON EARTH.
o KIDSTONIELLA FRITSCHII
- DECREASED IN ABUNDANCE and
o LANGIELLA SCOURFELDII
DIVERSITY with the onset of the
o RHYNIELLA VERMIFORMIS
CAMBRIAN due to the RISE IN
o RHYNIOCOCCUS UNIFORMIS
ATMOSPHERIC OXYGEN AND
 - 2 SPECIES OF ACHAEOTHRIX WERE: - PLANKTONIC:
o ARCHAEOTHRIX CONTEXTA o MORE DOMINAN
 Cells are approximately o Includes:
2 microns in diameter.  NODULARIA
o ARCHAEOTHRIX  APHANIZOMENON
OSCILLATORIFORMI  MICROCYSTIS
 The cell range from 3  ANABAENA
microns to 4 microns. - BENTHIC
o PHORMIDIUM
ECOLOGY
BIOSTRATIGRAPHY
- PRECAMBRIAN
o Cyanobacteria are found to
have been CALCIFYING within a
normal marine environment.
- AFTER CRETACEOUS
o RESTRICTED TO NON-MARINE
SETTINGS
- MODERN DAY CYANOBACTERIA
o Are commonly observed from:
 FRESHWATER
 HYPERSALINE
 BRACKISH
ENVIRONMENTS
- MODERN BLUE-GREEN ALGAE
o Are commonly associated with
RESTRICTED ENVIRONMENTS,
which include:
 SHARKBAY
(HYPERSALINE
LAGOON), AUSTR.
 YELLOWSTONE
NATIONAL PARK
(HYDROTHERMAL
POOLS).
 BAHAMAS (SHALLOW
MARINE CARBONATE
PLATFORM).
o MOST ABUNDANT
POPULATIONS
 LIVE IN TROPICAL TO DISTRIBUTION OFMAJOR ALGAL GROUPS
SUBTROPICAL CLEAR BAR THICKNESS = RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF THE
MARINE WATERS. GROUPS AS THEY APPEAR IN THIN SECTION.
  BRYOZOA BIOLOGY: GROWTH FORMS:

- ERECT
- Most commonly encountered animal
o RAMOSE (DENDROID)
that ATTACH to SUBMERGED SURFACES
o FRONDOSE
in freshwater.
o BIFOLIATE
- FOUND IN ALMOST ANY LAKE OR
o FENESTRATE
STREAM.
- NON-ERECT
- Are notorious for CLOGGING the
o ENCRUSTING
distribution pipelines of public water
o HEMISPHERICAL
systems.
o MASSIVE
- Are SESSILE. MODULAR INVERTEBRATES
with CILIATED TENTACLES that
CAPTURE SUSPENDED FOOD MORPHOLOGY
PARTICLES.
- ZOARIUM
BIOLOGY o ENTIRE SKELETAL STRUCTURE
- 2 BASIC PARTS of each ZOOID in a - POLYPIDE
colony: o ORGAN SYSTEM
o ORGAN SYSTEM - ZOOECIUM (CYSTID)
o BODY WALL o BODY WALL that is CHITINOUS,
- Zooids may be POLYMORPHIC and CALCIFIED, AND GELATINOUS,
SPECIALIZED. SECRETED BY THE ZOOID.
o AUTOZOOIDS o ENDOCYST
o HETEROZOOIDS o ECTOCYST
o KENOZOOIDS - ORIFICE
o AVICULARIA o CENRAL OPENING OR MOUTH
o VIBRACULA - LOPHOPHORE
o A RING OF CILIATED TENTACLES
- BRYOZOANS are considered
HERMAPHRODITIC. on the mouth.
- LIFE CYCLE INCLUDES BOTH ASEXUAL - COELOM
AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTION. o BODY CAVITY
- GANGLION
LIFE CYCLE: o SMALL CENTRAL BRAIN
- STATOBLAST
o ENCAPSULATED DORMANT
BUDS OR A RESISTANT BODY
THAS HAS BEEN PRODUCED
ASEXUALLY.
CLASSIFICATION SUBTIDAL ROCKY BOTTOMS, COBBLES, AND
PEBBLES
- KINGDOM
o ANIMALIA - Found associated with:
- SUBKINGDOM o PEBBLES
o EUMETAZOA o LITHIC CLASTS
- CLADE o SUBTIDAL COBBLES
o BILATERIA o COBBLES AND PEBBLES.
- SUPERPHYLUM
SEDIMENTARY HARDGROUNDS
o LOPHOPHORATES
- PHYLUM - LITHIFIED CARBONATE SEAFLOORS that
o BRYOZOA became hardened in situ by the
- CLASS precipitation of a carbonate cement in
o STENOLAEMATA the primary pore spaces.
o ORDER
SUBMARINE CAVES AND CAVITIES
 CYCLOSTOMATA
 TREPOSTOMATIDA - WALLS of submarine caves provide
 FENESTRIDA habitats for many bryozoans.
 HEDERELLIDA
 CRYPTOSTOMIDA SHELLGROUNDS
 CYSTOPORIDA - SHELLS of mollusks are FREQUENTLY
- CLASS: ENCRUSTED by bryozoans, and often
o GYMNOLAEMATA form concentrations represented by
o ORDER shell ground today and by shellbeds in
 CTENOSTOMATA the fossil record.
 CHEILOSTOMATA
- CLASS SEEPS AND VENTS
o PHYLACTOLAEMATA - Cold seeps and hot vents can be
o ORDER colonized by bryozoans.
 PLUMATELLIDA
ALGAL EPIPHYTES

- Many modern bryozoans are EPIPHYTES

BRYOZOA: ECOLOGY of laminarian and other marine algae.
 BRYOZOAN HABITATS: SEAGRASSES

- Habitat of many bryozoans which can

INTERTIDAL BOULDERS
- Boulders in intertidal zones are
commonly colonized today by
bryozoans.
attach to the BLADES or to the
RHIZOMES.
MANGROVES
- Coastal mangroves may host bryozoans,
encrusting the submerged roots.
WOODGROUNDS SILURIAN

- FLOATING WOOD is well known as a - STEINSFJORDEN FORMATION

substrate for bryozoans. o 2 cytoporates
o 6 trepostomes
DEEP SEA
o 2 cryptostomes
- Mostly non-mineralized ctenostomes or o DOMINANCE OF TREPOSTOME
(weakly) calcified anascan BRYOZOANS
cheilostomes.
DEVONIANS
FINE-GRAINED MOBILE SEDIMENTS
- LEPTOTRYPA, ERIDOTRYPELLA,
- Include free-living lunulitiform colonies, CYPHOTRYPA, BOARDMANELLA
as well as recently discovered (TREPOSTOMES), and
interstitial bryozoan communities. PSEUDONEMATOPORA (cryptosome).
o Lower to middle Devonian,
--------------------------------------------------------
Western Argentina.
- Bryozoans are occasionally CONSUMED
CARBONIFEROUS
by predators such as:
o NUDIBRANCHS - AKIYOSHI LIMESTONE GROUP, JAPAN.
o SEA URCHINS o Carboniferous bryozoans from
o SEA STARS the Uzura quarry and Permian
- Anti-Predatory defenses can be ones from the Sigeyasu quarry.
energetically costly to produce on some
PERMIAN
species.
- Evidence of such predation is sparse in - FISTULIPORA, GONIOCLADIA,
the fossil record. PARALIOCLEMA, RHABDOMESON,
- Notable EXCEPTIONS: POLYPORA, STREBLASCOPORA, and
o SEA URCHINS SEPTOPORA (GENUS).
o SHELL-BORING PREDATORS o LATE PERMIAN.

TRIASSIC

BIOSTRATIGRAPHY - PSEUDOBATOSTOMELLA
(TREPOSTOME).
ORDOVICIAN
o MIDDLE TRIASSIC.
- NEKHOROSHEVIELLA, ORBIRAMUS, and
JURASSIC
PROPHYLLODICTYA (GENUS)
o Late Tremadocian, China. - CYCLOSTOMES
- PERONOPORA (GENUS) o Europe and the CALLOVIAN
o Abundant in upper Ordovician MATMOR FORMATION of Israel.
of the N. American
CRETACEOUS
Midcontinent.
- KOPE FORMATION - LATE CRETACEOUS CHALK.
o Late Ordovician, Indiana, o N. Europe & W. Asia.
Kentucky, Ohio o Cheilostomata & cyclostomata
  CALCAREOUS SPONGES DIVERSITY

- 400 DESCRIBED SPECIES of sponges in

- Sponges of class CALCAREA are
the CALCAREA GROUP.
members of the animal phylum
PORIFERA, the cellular sponges. HABITAT
- Are CHARACTERIZED by SPICULES MADE
OUT OF CALCIUM CARBONATE IN THE - Are only found in the marine in
FORM OF: temperate regions. May found in
o CALCITE sheltered waters less than 1000m.
o ARAGONITE
- May also be associated with coral reefs
in tropical regions.
BIOLOGY
BEHAVIOR
- Small and conspicuous
- They are SESSILE.
- Occur in a VARIETY OF FORMS, as single
- However, some sponges MAY MOVE AS
tubes.
AMOEBOID CELLS at the base move.
- Are sometimes vase shaped.
- A bushy arrangement of single tubes, or ECOSYSTEM ROLES
sometimes massive without any
apparent symmetry. - Sponges in general may make up a
- 3 BODY TYPES: significant portion of the BENTHIC
o ASCONOID BIOMASS.
o SYCONOID SKELETAL MORPHOLOGY
o LEUCONOID
- ARE HEMAPHRODITES - CHARACTERIZED BY 3 PRINCIPAL CELL
TYPES:
o CHOANOCYTES
3 BODY TYPES:  CREATES WATER FLOW
IN THE BODY.
o ARCHAEOCYTES
 CELLULAR
DIFFERENTIATION.
o PINACOCYTES
 PLAY A ROLE IN
MOVEMENT THAT
HELPS MAINTAIN THE
SHAPE AND STRUCTURE
OF SPONGES.
- Calcareous sponges grow skeletons
composed ENTIRELY OF CALCIUM
CARBONATE SPICULES.
- SPICULES are the MOST COMMONLY
PRESERVED EVIDENCE of sponges in
fossil community.
SKELETAL MORPHOLOGY (ILLUSTRATION): - Body may be:
o CYLINDRICAL
o VASE-LLIKE
- They may either:
o LIVE IN COLONIES
o SOLITARY
- Body organization may be:
o ASCONOID TYPE
o SYCONOID TYPE
o LEUCONOID TYPE

PALEOECOLOGY

- They inhabit BOTH MARINNE AND

FRESHWAETER ENVIRONMENTS.
- Found at ALL LATITUDES beneath the
world’s oceans, and from the intertidal
to the deep-sea.
- Some sponges bore into the shells of
CLASSIFICATION
bivalves, gastropods, and thee colonial
- KINGDOM skeletons of corals by slowly etching
o ANIMALIA away chips of calcareous material.
- PHYLUM - Another interesting thing can happen
o PORIFERA when a sponge settles on a snail shell
- CLASS that is being used by aa hermit crab.
o CALCAREA
BIOSTRATIGRAPHY
 CLATHRINA
 LEUCOSOLENIA - OLDEST RELIABLE SPONG FOSSILS
 SCYPHA o Date back 535 Ma., Cambrian
o DESMOSPONGIA period from N. IRAN.
 CLIONA - Sponges are thought to have DIVERGED
 SPONGIA from the animal phylogeny during the
 SPONGILLA Precambrian, which lasted up until 540
 CHALINA million years ago.
o HEXACTANELLIDA - The group of organisms known as
 EUPLECTELLA sponges (PORIFERA), is considered the
 HYALONEMA EARLIEST BRANCHING GROUP of
METAZOANS, or animals with ofssils
CLASS-I: CALCAREA
described from the VENDIAN PERIOD,
- The sponges of this class are SMALL. dating back 650-543 million years ago in
- Are all EXCLUSIVELY MARINE froms CAMBRIAN PERIOD.
living in SHALLOW WATERS.
- Skeleton is made up of CALCAREOUS
SPICULES. - PORIFERA
o Are the 1ST ANIMALS ON THE
METAZOAN PHYLOGENY,
having DIVERGED FROM
CHOANOFLAGELLATES 1020
MILLION YEARS AGO DURING
PROTEROZOIC ERA.
o Sponge fossils found in
Australia that date back to the
EDIACAARAN PERIOD
(PRECAMBRIAN) give some
insight into what these 1st
sponges must have looked like.
o Gehling and Rigby (1996), found
that these fossils were FORMED
IN HYPO-RELIEF on
BIOLOGY
SANDSTONES, with external
molds of fossils commonly
found.
2 SUB SPECIES:
CORAL BODY
POLYPS
 CNIDARIA (CORALS)
- Corals are fully marine organisms which
are commonly encountered today in
most tropical settings as the MAJOR
COMPONENTS OF REEFS.
- Corals are amongst the MOST
PRIMITIVE MULTICELLULAR
ORGANISMS.
- Corals are COMMON IN THE FOSSIL
RECORD.
- Corals NEED WARM WATER, if possible,
TEMPERATURES SHOULD BE BETWEEN
18C AND 30C.
- KINGDOM
o ANIMALIA
- PHYLUM
o CNIDARIA
- Are SESSILE animals.
- Coral species are generally divided into
2 subspecies DEPENDING ON HOW
MANY TENTACLES THE CORAL
INDIVIDUAL HAS.
- ALCYONARIA
o 8 TENTACLES
- ZOANTHARIA
o MORE THAN 8 TENTACLES
- The main body of coral that is made up
of millions of tiny polyps.
- When polyps diem the hard parts of
their body form a platform for the coral
to spread.
- Tiny polyps make up the living part of
the coral.
- They look like flowers, but they are
actually animals.
2 BASIC CNIDARIAN BODY SHAPES: build itself a HARD, CUP-SHAPED
SKELETON MADE OF CaCO (limestone).
POLYP
- Have a simple digestive system.
- SESSILE OR ATTACHED, although some - Nematocysts acts like a POISON DART.
CAN JUMP.
SKELETAL MORPHOLOGY (ILLUSTRATION):

MEDUSA/MEDUSAE

- Medusa CAN SWIM, trailing their

tentacles like the deadly and viscous
snakes.

SKELETAL MORPHOLOGY

- Has a sac-like body and an opening, or

mouth, ENCIRCLED BY STINGING
TENTACLES CALLED “NEMATOCYSTS OR
CNIDAE”.
- The poly USES CALCIUM and
CARBONATE IONS from the seawater to
CLASSIFICATION BIOSTRATIGRAPHY:

- KINGDOM DISTRIBUTION OF CORALS OVER TIME:

o ANIMALIA
- PHYLUM
o CNIDARIA
- CLASS
o ANTHOZOA
- ORDER
o OCTOCORALLIA
- FAMILY
o ALCYONACEAA
- SCIENTIFIC NAME:
o ANTHOZOA

CLASS: ANTHOZOA

- LARGEST CLASS of cnidarians,

containing over 6000 species.
- Secretes substance around outside of
body to support and protect soft body
RUGOSE AND TABULATE CORALS
tissues.
- Reproduces sexually by producing a
free-swimming larva or asexually by
budding or fission.
EOLOCY/PALEOECOLOGY
- Corals live in marine water, at most
depths and latitudes.
- Have been found in water 6000 m deep,
SCLERACTINIAN CORALS
but are most common at depths of less
than 500 m.
- Coral reefs on the other hand, are
restricted to the warmer regions of the
world’s oceans such as the SEYCHELLE
ISLANDS in the Indian Ocean and
Australia.
- Rugose corals appear in the geological
record in MIDDLE ORDOVICIAN ROCKS
from North America.
- A mass extinction event took place at
the end of Permian, when over 90% of
all invertebrates became extinct,
including all tabulate and rugose corals.
- Evolved during TRIASSIC, which
replaced those extinct groups.
- By late Triassic times they had begun to
form small patch reefs, and their
importance as reef-builders has been
continuous since then.
- ALL MODERN CORALS BELONG TO THE
ORDER SCLERACTINIA.

FAMOUS FOSSILS:

- ENTELOPHYLLUM
o OHIO, USA
 o DEVONIAN PERIOD - STALKLIKE ORGAN, develops from a so-
- PRISMATOPHYLLUM called mantle fold along valve margin.
o JEFFERSON LIMESTONE
INTERNAL MORPHOLOGY
o DEVONIAN PERIOD
o CLASSIFIED AS RUGOSE CORAL - DIVIDED INTO:
because the walls of individual o BODY
chambers are NOT SHARED. o MANTLE
- HELIOPHYLLUM o PEDICLE
o A MOUND-SHAPED coral that is o LOPHOPHORE
found in DEVONIAN STRATA. o MUSCLES
- ILLUSTRATION:

 BRACHIOPODA

- The oldest fossil brachiopods are found

in CAMBRIAN ROCKS, which are over
500 million years old.
- The animals first became abundant in
ORDOVICIAN time and remained so
throughout the Paleozoic era.
- HAVE CALCAREOUS SHELLS.

3 GROUPS ALIVE TODAY:

- LINGULATA
- RHYNCHONELLIDA
- TEREBRATULID

BIOLOGY: EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY:

- PHYLUM: - ALL BRACHIOPODS HAVE 2 SHELLS.

o BRACHIOPODA - Each shell valve is SYMMETRICAL about
- LOPHOPHORATES the mid line, but the two shell valves
- Brachiopods are INVERTABRATE are often unequal in size.
animals that contain 2 shells held
together by muscular tissue.
- Brachiopods ARE TWIN-VALVED
SHELLFISH, with a lophophore and
usually a PEDICLE, adapted to a wide
range of life strategies on the seafloor.

LOPHOPHORE

- FILAMENTOUS FEEDING ORGAN

PEDICLES
EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY: BRACHIOPODS VS
BIVALVES:
TRADITIONAL CLASSIFICATION:

INARTICULATES:

- Shells LACK defined hinges and are

made of calcium phosphate.
(PHOSPHATIC).
o EX: ORDER LINGULIDA

ARTICULATES

- Shells WITH ARTICULATE HINGES (with

teeth sockets) and made of CALCIUM
CARBONATE.
o EX: ALL BRACHIOPOD.

MODERN CLASSIFICATION (SUBPHYLA)

LINGULIFORMEA

BRACHIOPOD MORPHOLOGY: ILLUSTRATION: - ORGANO-PHOSPHATIC SHELLS

- NO TEETH SOCKETS ALONG HINGE
- PEDICLE IS PRESENT.
- EX: ORDER LINGULIDA

CRANIIFORMEA

- CALCIUM CARBONATE SHELLS.

- NO TEETC OR SOCKETS ALONG HINGE
- NO PEDICLE (ABSENT).
- EX: ORDER CRANIIDA.

RHYNCHONELLIFORMEA

- CALCIUM CARBONATE SHELLS

- BOTH TEETH & SOCKETS ALONG HINGE
- PEDICLE SOMETIMES PRESENT
- EX: ORDER STROPHOMENIDA

LINGULIDA (EARLY CAMBRIAN TO RECENT)

- LINGULID SHELLS ARE COMPOSED OF

CALCIUM PHOSPHATE.

CRANIIFORMEA:
ORDER CRANIIDA (ORDOVICIAN TO RECENT)
- CRANIID BRACHIOPODS ARE CIRCULAR
TO SUBCIRCULAR IN SHAPE.
EX: Isocrania costata from the Upper
Maastrichtian (Upper Cretaceous),
- Maastricht, The Netherlands.
RHYNCHONELLIFORMEA:
ORDER ATRYPIDA (ORDOVICIAN TO DEVONIAN)
- Juvenile atrypids possess a pedicle,
which is lost during maturation.
- They were among the first brachiopods
to evolve a spiral-shaped lophophore
brachidium.
ORDER ARTHYRIDIDA (ORDOVICIAN TO
JURASSIC)
- Have a slightly more complex spiral
BRACHIDIUM and RETAIN THEIR
PEDICLE AFTER MATURATION.
ORDER ORTHIDA (CAMBRIAN TO PERMIAN)
- Distinguishing characteristics include:
o STROPHIC HINGE
o SHELL THAT IS TYPICALLY
ORNAMENTED WITH STRONG
RIBBING.
ORDER PENTAMERIDA (CAMBRIAN TO
DEVONIAN)
- PENTAMERIDS are aptly named for the
5-sided (PENTAGONAL) shape of their
shell.
ORDER PRODUCTIDA (ORDOVICIAN TO
PERMIAN)
- PRODUCTIDS ARE BEST KNOWN FOR
THEIR SPINE-COVERED SHELLS.
ORDER RHYNCHONELLIDA (ORDOVICIAN TO
RECENT).
- Strong ribbing, plication of zig-zag
shapes, and a strong FOLD/SULCUS are
characteristic of the rhynchonellids.
- THIS GROUP LACKS A “BRACHIDIUM”
ORDER SPIRIFERIDA (ORDOVICIAN TO TRIASSIC)
- ALL SPIRIFERS have a SPIRAL-SHAPED
BRACHIDIUM, which PROVIDES THE
STRONGEST LOPHOPHORE SUPPORT.
ORDER STROPHOMENIDA (ORDOVICIAN TO
CARBONIFEROUS).
- Strophomenids characteristically have a
STROPHIC (STRAIGHT) HINGE LINE,
often with distinguishing dental socket
patterns and NO SPINES.
ORDER TEREBRATULIDA (DEVONIAN TO
RECENT)
- LAMP SHELLS, AROSE BECAUSE OF
THEIR SMOOTH, BULBOUS SHAPES, and
their pedicle openings, which in
combination, cause them to resemble
ancient oil lamps.
ECOLOGY/PALEOECOLOGY
BRACHIOPODS ARE:
- EXCLUSIVELY BENTHIC MARINE
ANIMALS.
- DO NOT ACTIVELY SEARCH FOR FOOD
but rather DEPEND ON CURRENTS to
bring food and oxygen and carry away
waste products.
 - Brachiopods with robust , strong
pedicles required a hard substrate and
were able to tilt the shell to maximize
the current flow passing through the
lophophore.
- Fossil brachiopods are also known to
have ENCRUSTED AND CEMENTED
THEMSELVES.
- The shell-shape of encrusters reflected
the nature of the attachment surface.
- Unattached brachiopods, with a closed
pedicle opening, must have lain on the
seafloor, a rather unstable lifestyle.
- Some brachiopods had large, saucer-
shaped shells that helped distribute the
weight evenly.
BIOSTRATIGRAPGY
- DUE TO ABUNDANCE AND
DIVERSIFICATION TO MANY SPECIES,
BRACHIOPODS ARE USEFUL TIME
MARKERS.
BRACHIOPODS NEAR THE CARBONIFEROUS
BOUNDARY
- In the absence of the latter traditional
marker fossils, they are potentially
important for LOCATING DEVONIAN-
CARBONIFEROUS BOUNDARY in shallow
water depositional settings in
conjunction with rugose corals and
foraminifers.
- Brachiopods flourished in NERITIC
ENVIRONMENTS THAT WERE
UNFAVOURABLE FOR CONODONTS AND
AMMONOIDS.
 MOLLUSCA
BIOLOGY
- It is estimated that 23% of all known
marine species are MOLLUSKS in which
there are over 75,000 described
species.
- The name “MOLLUSCA” signifies SOFT
BODY (MOLLIS = SOFT), since the
earliest descriptions of mollusks came
from observations of unshelled
cuttlefish.
- Mollusks’ development suggest a CLOSE
ANCESTRAL RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER
PROSTOSTOMES, notably the
ANNELIDS.
- They are divided into 7 DIFFERENT
CLASSES.
SKELETAL MORPHOLOGY
- Mollusks are INVERTEBRATES and have
exoskeletons as their skeletal system.
MANTLE
- A SIGNIFICANT BODY CAVITY THAT
COVERS THE ORGANISM IN WHICH IS
POSSIBLE FOR THE EXCRETION AND
SOMETIMES BREATHING OF THE
ORGANISM.
RADULA
- IT IS A MINUTELY TOOTHED, CHITINOUS
RIBBON, which is typically used for
SCRAPING OR CUTTING FOOD before
the food enters the esophagus.
FOOT
 - ARE POSSIBLE FOR LOCOMOTION OF
MOLLUSKS.

MOLLUSK SKELETAL MORPHOLOGY

CLASSIFICATION
(ILLUSTRATION):

ECOLOGY

- Can be found in pretty much any

terrestrial or aquatic environment, both
shallow and deep regions of the ocean,
fresh water, and most land areas.
- GASTROPODS
o Are diverse in a sense that
some are herbivores and some
are carnivores.
 oMarine gastropods are found in - Is characterized by an internal shell,
all oceans. consisting of a conical phragmocone
- BIVALVES covered apically by a thin rostrum or
o Are successful inhabitant of guard, homologous to the bullet-
most marine environments, shaped rostrum of true belemnites.
ranging from shallow coastal
RUDIST
regions to deep within the
ocean. - 1st appeared from Late Jurassic to Late
- CEPHALOPODS Cretaceous period.
o Are carnivorous predators or - Had 2 ASYMMETRIC VALVES with one
scavengers that eat other valve attached to the seafloor.
invertebrates and fish. - The hard outer shells of the rudists
were RECRYSTALLLIZED FROM
BIOSTRATIGRAPHY
ARAGONIC OR CALCITIC SHELLS TO
- After their initial appearance, molluscan CALCITIC FOSSILS.
taxonomic diversity tended to remain
low until the Ordovician, when
gastropods, bivalves, and cephalopods
show large increase in diversity.
- For bivalves and gastropods, this
diversification increases throughout the
Phanerozoic, with relatively small losses
at the end-Permian and end-Cretaceous
extinction events.

NOTABLE FOSSILS:

AMMONITES (AMMONOIDEA)  ECHINODERMATA

- 1st appeared in the DEVONIAN PERIOD
and ended in the Cretaceous period. - Phylum where ECHINODERM is
- Can be distinguished by their speta, the considered as its member.
dividing walls that separatee the - EXCLUSIVELY MARINE ORGANISMS:
chambers in the phragmocone, by the o SEA STARS
nature of their sutures where the septa o SEA CUCUMBER
join the outer shell wall, and in general o SEA URCHINS
by their siphuncles. o SAND DOLLARS
o BRITTLE STARS
BELEMNITES (BELEMNITIDA) - Known for their SPINY SKIN:
- ST
1 appeared from the Late Triassic and o ECHINOS = SPINY
Late Cretaceous. o DERMOS = SKIN
- Closest living relatives are squid and - OWNS 7000 LIVING SPECIES.
cuttlefish but with shells as their inner
body cavity.
BIOLOGY: ANATOMY
 - Has “PENTARADIAL SYMMETRY” for
ADULT ECHINODERMS, EXCEPT FOR SEA
CUCUMBER.
- CALCAREOUS ENDOSKELETON made of
OSSICLES (BONY STRUCTURE).
- HAS GONADS IN EACH ARM
- ABILITY TO REGENERATE IF 70% OF
BODY MASS IS LOST.
- HAS TRUE “COELOM” CALLED THE
“WATER VASCULAR SYSTEM”.

SEA STAR ANATOMY:

BRITTLE STAR ANATOMY:

SEA URCHIN ANATOMY:

SEA CUCUMBER ANATOMY:

SAND DOLLAR ANATOMY

WATER VASCULAR SYSTEM
- Consisting of central ring canal, and
central ring canal that connects to
numerous tube feet.
- Water circulates through these
structures, aiding both food and waste
circulation, respiration, and movement.
- Water comes from aboral side and
moves all the way to the AMPULLAE.
STARFISH
- Star fish’s water vascular system
provides the water pressure that
operates the animal’s tube feet.
- From the madreporite, water moves
into the ring canal, then into the rays
through radial canals, and finally to the
tube feet.
- The canals are like a network of water
pipes attached to the tube feet.
- Water also exits the body through the
MADREPORITE.
STARFISH WATER VASCULAR SYSTEM
(ILLUSTRATION):
NERVOUS SYSTEM
- Simple structure with nerve ring at the
center and five radial nerve along each
arm.
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
- PODOCYTES (CELLS FOR
ULTRAFILTRATION OF BODY FLUIDS) are
present near the center of
echinoderms.
REPRODUCTION
- Sexually “DIPHROMATIC” releases eggs
and sperm in the water, and this is for
external fertilization.
CLASSFICATION
SEA STARS
- Members of CLASS “ASTEROIDEA”
- Has thick arms that extends from
central area containing its organs.
- Has 2 stomachs that releases digestive
fluids to DISINTEGRTE PREY.
BRITTLE STARS
- Members of CLASS “OPHIUROIDEA”
- Long, thin, and sharp arms that extends
from the center.
- Some members are dissiparous with the
disk splitting in half.
SEA URCHINS
- CLASS “ECHINOIDEA”
- HEMISPHERICAL
- EARLY “BILATERAL SYMMETRY”,
“RADIAL SYMMETRY” = MATURE
SAND DOLLARS
- CLASS “ECHINOIDEA”
- FLAT BODY, SHELLS.
SEA CUCUMBER
- CLASS “HOLOTHUROIDEA”
 - THE ONLY ECHINODERM THAT HAS echinoderms, based on specimens found on
FULLY FUNCTIONAL BILATERAL LAURENTIA and GONDWANA.
SYMMETRY.

ECOLOGY

ECOLOGICAL ROLE:

- Sea cucumbers and sea urchins

provides oxygen at greater depths by
burrowing in sand, allowing more
organisms to reside.
- Sea stars helps corals to filter-feed
easily by preventing growth of coral
algae.
- Sea cucumbers also provide habitat for
crabs, worms, and snails.
- Stable diet of many animals (sea otters)
- Most echinoderms consume seaweed
to prevent destruction of reefs.

ECHINODERMS AS FOOD:

- Considered as delicacies (especially sea

urchin).
- Around 5000 sea urchins are collected
yearly for human consumption.
- JAPAN, PERU, SPAIN, FRANCE.

ECHINODERMS AS MEDICINE:

- SEA CUCUMBER TOXINS are said to

SLOW DOWN TUMOR GROWTH
- Sea cucumbers, used for biological
research in terms of fertilization
mechanism.
- HARD SKELETON = SOURCE OF LIME.

PALEOSTRATIGRAPHY:

The figure below shows the stratigraphic

distribution of early to middle Cambrian