SOIL MECHANICS
Introduction
A. Foundation Engineering and Soil Mechanics
Soil is defined an uncemented aggregate of mineral
grains and decayed organic matter (solid particles) with
liquid and gas in the empty spaces between the solid
particles, and it supports structural foundations.
Soil Mechanics is the branch of science that deals with
the study of the physical properties of soil and the
behavior of soil masses subjected to various types of
forces.
Soils Engineering is the application of the principles of
soil mechanics to practical problems.
Geotechnical Engineering is defined as sub discipline
of civil engineering that involves natural materials found
close to the surface of the earth. It includes the
application of the principles of soil mechanics and rock
mechanics to the design of foundations, retaining
structures and earth structures.
Foundation Engineering is the branch of engineering
which deals with design, construction and maintenance
of shallow footings and deep foundations and other
structural members which comprise foundation of
buildings and other engineering structures. It also
includes investigation of sites for foundation purposes.
Karl Terzaghi is known as the “Father of Soil
Mechanics.”
B. Definition of Soil and Rock
1. Rock Cycle and the Origin of Soil
Soil is defined as a natural aggregate of mineral grains,
lose or moderately cohesive, inorganic in nature, that
have the capacity of being separated by means of simple
mechanical process, e.g. by agitation in water. This
definition is not the same by the agriculturist or the
geologist. To the agriculturist loose mantle at the surface
of the earth which is capable of supporting plant life
consists of soil; and similarly, to the geologist, the soil is
that material found in the relatively thin surface zone with
in which roots occur.
Rock is defined as hard and compact natural aggregates
of mineral grains cemented by strong and more or less
permanent bonds.
2. Soil Formation and Rock
Soils are formed from the physical and chemical
weathering of rocks. Physical weathering involves
reduction of size without any change in the original
composition of the parent rock. The main agents
responsible for this process are exfoliation, unloading,
erosion, freezing, and thawing. Chemical weathering
causes both reduction in size and chemical alteration of
the original parent rock. The main agents responsible for
chemical weathering are hydration, carbonation, and
oxidation. Often, chemical and physical weathering takes
place in concert. Soils that remain at the site of
weathering are called residual soils or transported soils.
A civil engineer is concerned mainly with 10-meter to
15-meter top mantle of soil in dealing with small and
medium sized projects.
All soils are derived from igneous, secondary or
metamorphic rocks. The rocks are weathered because of
process of mechanical disintegration, chemical
decomposition and solution. The process of rock
weathering is affected by climatic and other conditions
surrounding the rock undergoing alteration. Soil may
also vary from large size boulders to small crystals of
clay minerals.
The sands (coarse particles), silts and clays (fine
particles) resulting from the disintegration of rock may
stay at the place of their formation. These are known as
residual soils. If these soils are carried away by forces of
gravity, water, wind and ice deposited at another
location, they are known as transported soils.
3. Three (3) Basic Types of Rocks
Igneous rocks are formed by solidification of molten
magma ejected from deep within the earth’s mantle.
Sedimentary rocks are deposits of gravel, sand, silt and
clay formed by weathering may become compacted by
overburden pressure and cemented by agents like iron
oxide, calcite, dolomite and quartz.
Metamorphic rocks are either igneous or sedimentary
rocks that have undergone considerable in their
constitution, in their shape, structure and sometimes
even in their mineral composition.
Rock Cycle Process
4. Weathering is the process of breaking down
rocks by mechanical and chemical processes into
smaller pieces.
Two types of Weathering
Mechanical weathering- may be caused by the
expansion and contraction of rocks from the continuous
gain and loss of heat, which results in ultimate
disintegration.
Chemical weathering- the original rock minerals are
transformed into new minerals by chemical reaction.
SOIL MECHANICS
rock. 19mm-4mm
5. Products of Weathering or Residual Soils Coarse: 4mm-
1.7 mm
a. Glacial soils – formed by transportation and Rounded and/or
Medium:1.7mm-
deposition of glaciers. Sand angular bulky
0.380mm Fine:
b. Alluvial soils or Fluvial soils – transported by hard rock.
0. 380mm-0.
running water and deposited along streams. 075mm
c. Lacustrine soils – formed by deposition in quiet Particles smaller
lakes. than 0.075 mm,
d. Marine soils –formed by deposition in the seas. 0. 075mm-0.
Silt exhibit little or no
e. Aeolian soils – transported and deposited by 002mm
strength when
wind. dried.
f. Colluvial soils – formed by movement of soil Particles smaller
from its original place by gravity, such as during than 0.002 mm
landslides. exhibit significant
Clay < 0.002 mm
strength when
Metamorphism is the process of changing the dried, water
composition and texture of rocks, without melting by heat reduces strength.
and pressure; and chemical fluids.

Mechanical analysis of soil is the determination of the Particle Size U.S. Standard U.S. Standard
range of particles present in a soil, expressed as a Classification Sieve Passing Sieve Retained
percentage of the total dry weight. Gravel #8 #10
Sand #10 #200
Soil refers to all solid particles with or without organic Silt Can’t be. Separated by
constituents which are produced by the disintegration of sized.
rocks found overlying the solid rock crust of the earth. Clay Sieving by wet. Determine by
analysis.
In general soil is composed of solid, liquid and gaseous
matter.
A soil is called gravel if its particles are bigger than 2
mm; the upper limiting diameter is usually 8 inches or
a. Solid phase maybe mineral organic or both.
203 mm standard. But in highway engineering it is only 3
b. Liquid phase is usually the soil water that fills
inches. All particles smaller than 0.005 mm is called clay
part or all of the open spaces between the solid
those smaller than 0.001 mm is called colloids.
particles.
c. Gaseous phase usually air, occupies part of the
7. The following are the simple visual and manual
space between particles not filled with water.
tests used for the identification of fine-grained
soils in the field.
6. Major Division of Soil
a. Dry strength- The wet soil sample is molded to
A soil is considered as coarse grained if its individual
any convenient shape and allowed to dry in the
particle is visible to unaided eyes.
air or by heating. A small fragment of the dried
sample is obtained and passed between the
A soil is said to be fine grained if its individual particle is
thumb and forefingers.
not visible to unaided eyes.
b. Plasticity- If a sample of moist soil can be
molded and rolled into threads without breaking
Organic soils are those which contain an amount of
or crumbling the soil. A thin thread of clay or foot
decayed animals and/ or plant matter
or more can supports its own weight or will not
break when held.
Principal Types of Soil, Description, and Average
c. Water mobility- A soil sample is mixed with
Grain Sizes According to Unified Soil Classification
water to the consistency of a thick paste, then it
System (USCS)
placed and shaken in palm of the hand.
d. Dispersion- A small quantity of soil is dispersed
with water in a glass cylinder or tests tube and
allowed to settle. The coarse particle will fall and the
finer particles will remain in suspension, sand will
settle 3 inches in about 10 seconds.
Particle Size Average Grain
Description
Classification Size (mm) 8. Significant Properties of Soils
Gravel Rounded and/or Coarse: 75mm-
angular bulky 19mm Fine:
SOIL MECHANICS
The properties of soils are important for a project depend
upon the nature of the project. The following properties
are important for different types of engineering projects.

a. Permeability is a measure of the ability of soil to

let water pass through its pores. This property is
of importance in earth dams and drainage
problems.
b. Consolidation and compressibility deal with
changes in volume of pores in a soil under load.
This property is made use of computing
settlement of structures.
c. Shear strength is a measure of the ability of soil
to sustain stresses without failure. This property
is of interest in computation of stability under
load, stability of fills behind earth retaining
structures and stability of earthen embankments.
d. Other simple physical properties are Atterberg
limits, moisture content, void ratio, relative
density, grain size and sensitivity.
e. Base Exchange is the property of the soil to bind
exchangeable base from a solution onto its
surface. This property is exhibited by some clay
minerals.

C. Mineralogical Composition and Structure of

Soils

The structure of soils means arrangements of soil

particles and the electrical forces acting between
adjacent particles.

Two (2) Methods of particle Size Distribution

The distribution of particle sizes or average grain
diameter of coarse grained soils – gravels and sands – is
obtained by screening a known weight of the soil through
a stack of sieves of progressively finer mesh size.
a. Sieve analysis consists of shaking the soil sample
through a set of sieves that have progressing smaller
openings.
b. Hydrometer analysis is based on the principle of
sedimentation in water. The particle shape can generally
be divided into three major categories.
 Bulky particles are mostly formed by mechanical
weathering of rocks and minerals. Shapes: Angular, sub
angular, rounded and sub rounded.
 Flaky particles have very low sphericity – usually 0.01
or less. These particles are predominantly clay minerals.

 Needle – shape particles are much less common than

the other two particle types. Examples of soils containing
needle-shaped particles are some coral deposits and
attapulgite clays.