HYDROLOGY- Study of water and its distribution
and movement of water both on and below the
earth’s surface.
HYDROGEOLOGY – Deals with the distribution
and movement of groundwater in the soil and
rocks of the earth’s crust. Also known as
Groundwater Hydrology.
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE (WATER CYCLE) - IT IS THE
NATURAL WATER RECYCLING SYSTEM ON
EARTH.
THE STAGES OF WATER CYCLE
EVAPORATION - IS A PROCESS WHERE WATER
AT THE SURFACE TURNS INTO WATER VAPORS.
TRANSPIRATION - IS THE PROCESS OF WATER
VAPOR BEING RELEASED FROM PLANTS AND
SOIL.
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION - IS THE COMBINED
PROCESS OF WATER SURFACE EVAPORATION,
SOIL MOISTURE EVAPORATION, AND PLANT
TRANSPIRATION.
SUBLIMATION - IS A PROCESS WHERE ICE
DIRECTLY CONVERTS INTO WATER VAPORS
WITHOUT CONVERTING INTO LIQUID WATER.
CONDENSATION - IS THE PROCESS OF WATER
VAPOR TURNING BACK INTO LIQUID WATER.
PERCIPITATION - IS ANY PRODUCT OF THE
CONDENSATION OF ATMOSPHERIC WATER
VAPOR THAT FALLS UNDER GRAVITATIONAL
PULL FROM CLOUDS.
SURFACE RUN OFF - F OCCURS WHEN THERE IS
MORE WATER THAN THE LAND CAN ABSORB.
INFILTRATION - IS THE DOWNWARD
MOVEMENT OF WATER THROUGH THE SUB-
SURFACE OF THE SOIL
PERCOLATION - INTO THE DEEPER LAYERS OF
THE SOIL, IT REACHES GROUND WATER, WHICH
IS WATER BELOW THE SURFACE
GROUNDWATER - IS THE WATER THAT EXISTS IN
THE PORE SPACES AND FRACTURES IN ROCKS
AND SEDIMENTS BENEATH THE EARTH'S
SURFACE.
THREE (3) SOURCES OF GROUNDWATER
1. METEORIC WATER - WHICH IS THE MAIN
SOURCE OF GROUNDWATER AND IS
RECEIVED IN THE FORM OF RAIN AND
SNOW.
2. CONNATE WATER - IT IS TRAPPED IN
PORES AND CAVITIES OF SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS OF OCEANIC AND FRESHWATER
SOURCES. IT IS ALSO CALLED
SEDIMENTARY WATER.
3. JUVENILE WATER - IS AN AQUEOUS
PHASE OF MINERALS THAT HAVE BEEN
DISSOLVED BY MAGMA DEEP WITHIN
THE EARTH'S CRUST AND IS RELEASED
TO THE ATMOSPHERE DURING A
VOLCANIC ERUPTION. ALSO KNOWN AS
MAGMATIC WATER.
ZONE OF AERATION - CONSISTS OF THE
UPPER LAYERS OF SOIL IN WHICH PORES OR
POCKETS ARE FILLED WITH AIR RATHER
THAN WATER.
THE ZONE OF AERATION IS SUBDIVIDED
INTO THREE (3) PARTS:
1. SOIL WATER ZONE - IT IS ADJACENT TO
THE GROUND SURFACE CONSISTING OF
THE TOPSOIL AND THE SUBSOIL. IN THIS
ZONE WATER IS LOST TO THE
ATMOSPHERE MAINLY DUE TO
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION. THE WATER
ABSORBED BY THE SOIL ARE USED BY
THE PLANTS.
2. PELLICULAR ZONE - THIS ZONE LIES
BETWEEN THE SOIL WATER ZONE AND
CAPILLARY WATER ZONE. THE WATER IN
THIS ZONE IS ALSO KNOWN AS VADOSE
WATER.
3. CAPILLARY FRINGE - THE CAPILLARY
FRINGE IS USUALLY THE FIRST
 INDICATION THAT THE WATER TABLE IS
NEARBY.
INTERACTIONS BETWEEN GROUNDWATER
SYSTEM AND STREAMS
• GAINING STREAMS – RECEIVE WATER
FROM THE GROUNDWATER SYSTEM.
• LOSING STREAMS (CONNECTED) –
PROVIDE WATER TO THE
GROUNDWATER SYSTEM.
• LOSING STREAMS (DISCONNECTED) –
WHEN LOSING STREAMS ARE
SEPARATED FROM THE GROUNDWATER
SYSTEM BY THE UNSATURATED ZONE, A
BULGE MAY FORM IN THE WATER
TABLE.
ZONE OF SATURATION IS THE AREA OF EARTH
THAT IS UNDERNEATH THE WATER TABLE AND
IS COMPLETELY SATURATED WITH WATER.
POROSITY OF A ROCK IS MEASURED OF ITS
ABILITY TO HOLD A FLUID.
PERMEABILITY IS A MEASURE OF THE EASE OF
FLOW OF A FLUID THROUGH A POROUS SOLID.
ZONE OF SATURATION ARE CLASSIFIED INTO
FOUR (4) CATEGORIES:
AQUIFER IS A GROUNDWATER RESERVOIR
COMPOSED OF GEOLOGIC UNITS THAT ARE
SATURATED WITH WATER AND SUFFICIENTLY
PERMEABLE TO YIELD WATER IN A USABLE
QUANTITY TO WELLS AND SPRINGS.
TWO TYPES OF AQUIFER;
A. UNCONFINED (OPEN) - DIRECTLY
CONNECTED TO THE SURFACE AND
BELOW THE WATER TABLE. THIS IS ALSO
CALLED AS WATER TABLE AQUIFER OR
FREE AQUIFER.
B. CONFINED (CLOSED) - AN AQUIFER
BOUNDED ABOVE AND BELOW BY
AQUITARD.
AQUITARD - GEOLOGICAL MATERIAL THROUGH
WHICH SIGNIFICANT QUANTITIES OF WATER
CAN NOT MOVE. ALSO KNOWN AS CAP ROCKS.
AQUICLUDE - A UNIT OF ROCK OR LAYER OF
ROCKS, WHICH IS IMPERMEABLE AND ACTS AS
BARRIER TO FLUIDS TO FLOW. CLAY IS AN
EXAMPLE OF AQUICLUDE.
AQUIFUGE IS AN IMPERMEABLE GEOLOGICAL
FORMATION WHICH IS NEITHER POROUS NOR
PERMEABLE.
TYPES OF WELL
• DUG WELL
• GRAVEL – PACKED WELL
• OPEN HOLE WELL
• DRY WELL
ARTESIAN WELL - IS A SYSTEM WERE
GROUNDWATER UNDER PRESSURE RISES ABOVE
THE LEVEL OF THE AQUIFER
TYPES OF ARTESIAN WELL
NONFLOWING ARTESIAN WELL — PRESSURE
SURFACE IS BELOW GROUND LEVEL.
FLOWING ARTESIAN WELL — PRESSURE
SURFACE IS ABOVE THE GROUND.
CONE OF DEPRESSION OCCURS IN AN AQUIFER
WHEN GROUNDWATER IS PUMPED FROM A
WELL. IN AN UNCONFINED AQUIFER (WATER
TABLE), THIS IS AN ACTUAL DEPRESSION OF THE
WATER LEVELS.
PETROLOGY Petra = rock, and logos = study, is a
branch of geology which deals with the study of
rocks.
Rock is an aggregate of minerals; it is formed by
various minerals or rock fragments come
together or consists of many accumulations of a
single mineral.
Magma is applied when the melt is
underground. When it reaches the earth’s
surface and flows over it, is called lava.
IGNEOUS ROCKS - are formed at a very high
temperature directly because of solidification or
assimilation.
TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
Intrusive rocks - consist relatively large grains of
crystals that develop due to slow cooling and less
pressure in spaces and cracks at depths near the
earth.
Extrusive rocks - rocks formed by cooling magma
lavas near a surface with a chimney or by moving
to the surface.
Semi-deep rocks - as the magmatic rocks which
eventually solidify on the earth during upward
movement following the discontinuities such as
cracks.
INTRUSIVES
Dikes - Cut across the bedding of the rocks in
which they intrude, vertical to steeply inclined
and sheet like body.
Sills - Relatively thin tabular bodies of magma
which essentially penetrate parallel to the
bedding pianos of foliations of the country rocks.
Laccoliths - is an intrusion with a flat floor and
domed roof, the roof having been arched by the
pressure from magma.
Batholiths - the largest kind of plutons, irregular
in shape and occupies large area. Their side
sloping away from each other which makes them
larger and large downwards extending to greater
depth.
Stocks - are smaller irregular bodies with 10 km
in maximum dimension, and are associated with
batholiths.
Phacoliths - These are concordant bodies that
occurs along the crests and troughs of the folded
sedimentary strata.
Lopoliths - These are basin or saucer-shaped
concordant bodies with top nearly flat and
convex bottom.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS - rocks that form when a
pre-existing rock changes due to temperature or
pressure, and/or as a result of squashing or
shearing.
Texture - refers to the size, shape, and
arrangement of grains within a rock.
Foliated Rock - bands of minerals in parallel
layers. Foliation refers to any planar
arrangement of mineral grains or structural
features within a rock.
Non-foliated Rock - Without bands.
Metamorphic rocks that lack foliation are
referred to as nonfoliated.
Sedimentary rocks - are formed by the
consolidation of loose sediments or chemical
precipitation from the solution at or near the
earth's surface. Also called layered rocks
because weathered sediments are transported
and deposited on the oceanic floor in the form of
layers.
Sediments are loose, solid particles originating
from weathering and erosion of preexisting
rocks. Chemical precipitation from solution,
including secretion by organisms in water.
Four phases in the generation of Sedimentary
Rocks
1. Weathering and erosion - Erosion and
weathering transform boulders and even
mountains into sediments, such as sand/mud.
2. Transportation - Movement of the material
coming from the decay of the rocks in various
ways
3. Deposition - Storage or sedimentation of
transported material in certain places,
4. Lithification - Compaction and consolidation THREE (3) MAJOR PRINCIPLES OF
of stored or deposited sediments after STRATIGRAPHY
diagenesis
LAW OF SUPERPOSITION - In a series of
Diagenesis is the term used for all the changes undisturbed beds, a bed that overlies another
that a sediment undergoes after deposition and bed is always the younger. The youngest bed will
before the transition to metamorphism. be at the top of the sequence.

TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS FOSSIL CONTENT - Each of the sedimentary beds

contain a particular set of fossils by which it can
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks - formed from broken
be identified.
rock fragments weathered and eroded by river,
glacier, wind and sea waves. LITHOLOGICAL CHARACTER A sedimentary bed
may be identified by its distinct lithological
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks - these rocks form
character. But as similar rock beds are known to
as a result of chemical weathering dissolving
occur in formations of widely different geological
chemicals and transporting it in solution.
ages.
Organic Sedimentary Rocks - These rocks form
PRINCIPLES OF CORRELATION
as a result of once living material accumulating
to form solid rock. Correlation is the technique of piecing together
information from widely separated rock
WEATHERING - process that cause the
outcrops in order to create an accurate
breakdown of rocks, either to form new
chronological profile of an entire geologic time
minerals that are stable on the surface of the
period.
Earth, or to break the rocks down into smaller
particles. LITHOLOGY - Correlation by means of lithology is
not reliable because a rock bed when traced
TYPES OF WEATHERING
laterally may change its character.
Mechanical Weathering - It is the process by
FOSSIL CONTENT - Fossiliferous rocks are
which rocks are broken down into smaller pieces
characterized by the presence of distinct and
by external conditions.
definite set of fossils in them.
Chemical Weathering - It is a process where
UNCONFORMITIES - The unconformities are of
chemical alteration or decomposition of rocks
great significance in classifying and correlating
and minerals takes due to rain, water, and other
rock formations. The unconformities represent
atmospheric agents.
breaks in depositional sequence hence they are
Biological Weathering - Occurs when plants significant in the interpretation of the geological
break up rocks with roots or root exudates. The history.
process is slow but may strongly influence
IGNEOUS INTRUSION - The igneous history of a
landscape formation.
particular region may be identical to another
STRATIGRAPHY Strata- a set of sedimentary region.
beds, graphy - description) The climatic and
RADIOMETRIC DATING - The age of intrusive
geological changes including tectonic events in
igneous bodies may be determined by the
the geological past can also be known from these
radiometric methods and the correlation may be
investigations.
done.
FOSSILS - remains or impressions of ancient
animals and plants which have been preserved
Within the sedimentary rocks.
FORMS OF FOSSILS
- ENTIRE ORGANISM PRESERVE
- PETRIFICATION OF HARD
- MOLDS
- CAST
- CARBONIZATION
- IMPRINTS
Group the major divisions of rock formations are
called "Group." Each Group includes a thick
succession of rocks which extends over a large
area.
FORMATION - It is the basic unit used for naming
the rocks in stratigraphy.
BED - A bed is the smallest lithological unit.
PENINSULAR INDIA - is primarily made up of
rocks of the Archaean and Precambrian age. The
Archaean rocks have been metamorphosed to
varying degrees.
Indo-Gangetic Plain is chiefly made up of sands
and clays of Pleistocene and Recent age. The
basement of the Punjab shelf is made up of the
Precambrian rocks.
EXTRA PENINSULAR INDIA The rock formations
of the Extra Peninsular India have been disturbed
greatly by the complex folding, faulting and over
thrusting. The Extra-Peninsular India has been
subdivided into four longitudinal geomorphic
zones:
(i) Himalayan zone, (ii) Central crystalline zone of
the Higher Himalaya (iii) Lesser Himalayan zone
(iv) Foredeep folded belt.
Mining in the engineering discipline is the
extraction of minerals from underneath, open
pit, above or on the ground.
MINING GEOLOGY -The study of application of
geology to mining engineering in such way that
the selection of suitable sites for quarrying and
mines can be determined.
Ore minerals from which metals can be
extracted. Also known as economic minerals.
Ore often contains a high concentration of
minerals that can be extracted.
MAGMATIC DEPOSITS - When magma intrusion
cools and starts to solidify, sulfide ore minerals
may crystallize preferentially in distinct lenses or
bands.
HYDROTHERMAL DEPOSITS - The heat from an
intrusion can cause groundwater to start
convecting through the pluton and the wall rocks
surrounding the intrusion.
SECONDARY-ENRICHMENT DEPOSITS -
Groundwater passes through ore-bearing rock
long after the rock first formed. The
groundwater dissolves some of the metal and
carries the ions away. Eventually they are
deposited, and a new metal is formed.
SEDIMENTARY DEPOSITS OF METALS - Some ore
minerals accumulate in sedimentary
environments under special conditions.
RESIDUAL MINERAL DEPOSITS - Rainwater sinks
into the earth and can leave behind elements in
the soil. Locally these metals can become so
concentrated that the soil itself becomes an ore
deposit.
PLACER DEPOSITS - Ore deposits may develop
when rocks containing native metals erode,
producing a mixture of sand grains and metal
flakes or nuggets that can be concentrated by
streams because the moving water carries away
lighter mineral grains but can’t move the heavy
metal grains.
 MINING TECHNIQUES

Surface mining is done by removing (stripping)

surface vegetation, dirt, and, if necessary, layers
of bedrock in order to reach buried ore deposits.

TECHNIQUES OF SURFACE MINING

- Open-Pit Mining [typically used to mine

gravel and sand and even rock (when
open-pit mining is used to extract rock
from the earth, the pit is often called a
"quarry ").]
- Strip Mining (used for coal, phosphates,
clays, and tar mining.)
- Mountaintop Removal (commonly
associated with coal mining.)

Sub-surface/Underground mining consists of

digging tunnels or shafts into the earth to reach
buried ore deposits. Ore, for processing, and
waste rock, for disposal, are brought to the
surface through the tunnels and shafts.

TECHNIQUES IN SUB-SURFACE MINING

- Drift Mining (utilizes horizontal access

tunnels)
- Slope Mining (uses diagonally sloping
access shafts)
- Shaft Mining (utilizes vertical access
tunnels)