Department of Physics, Govt Emerson College, Multan

Title:

12V DC to 50Hz Frequency and 220V Convertor (Physics Laboratory Mini UPS)
BS Physics Project Report

Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the Degree of

Bachelor of Physics

by
MCEP-15-5 Abdul Razzaq
MCEP-15-39 Ali Shahbaz
MCEP-15-14134 M. Sufyan

Supervisor :
Shafqat Hayyat Malik

Department of Physics, Govt Emerson College, Multan

 -

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the thesis entitled “12V DC to 50Hz Frequency and 220V Convertor (Physics
Laboratory Mini UPS)” is a bona fide record of the mini-project done by MCEP-15-5 Abdul

Razzaq, MCEP-15-39 Ali Shahbaz, MCEP-15-14134 M. Sufyan under my supervision

and guidance, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Degree of Bachelor of
Physics, Department of Physics, Govt Emerson College, Multan.

If
the
re

Project Supervisor
Shafqat Hayyat Malik
Department of Physics ………………………………………..

Govt Emerson College, Multan

Head of Department
Akhtar Iqbal
Department of Physics ………………………………………..
Govt Emerson College, Multan’

External Examiner
…………………………
Department of Physics ………………………………………..
Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan’

Table of Content
 s
Abstract……………………...
…………………………………………………………………..1
Acknowledgement…………..
…………………………………………………………………..2

Chapter-1
1.1 What is an UPS……………………………………………………………………………
4
1.2 Primary role of an
UPS………………………………………………………………………4
1.3 General Idea of Our
Project………………………………………………………………….5

Chapter-2
2.0 Block Diagram………………………………………………………………………………
8
2.1 DC Source…………………………………………………………………………………
8
2.2 Oscillator Circuit……………………………………………………………………………
9
2.3 Transformer…………………………………………………………………………………
11

Chapter-3
3.1 Components uses in invertor………………………………………………………………
14
3.2 S8050-NPN
Transistor…………………………………………………………………….17
3.3 Resistort……………………………………………………………………………………
20
3.4 Capacitor ……………………………………………………………………………….…
21
3.5 Transistor…………………………………………………………….……………………23
3.6 IRF-
244N………………………………………………………………………………….25
3.7 SETUP
Transformer……………………………………………………………………….29
3.8 555
Timer………………………………………………………………………………….33
3.9 Diode………………………………………………………………………………………
37
3.10 CFL Bulb…………………………………………………………………………………
43
3.11 Relay Module……………………………………………………………………………45

Chapter-4
4.0 Circuit Diagram……………………………………………………………………………
49

Chapter-5
5.1
Limitations………………………………………………………………………………...56

Chapter-6

6.1
References………………………………………………………………………………....59
 ABSTRACT
The aim of our project is to make a system where the battery will be charged using a rectified
voltage from an AC source ; this battery will take the load instantaneously when the main line
power interruption will occur. Here two types of conversions is taking place AC-DC &DC-
AC. Using rectification circuit ac-dc conversion is taking place .Then we have prepared a
micro-controller controlled inverter circuit where we assembled a full bridge inverter using
four MOS-FET. At any instant only two of them are triggered .This type of system can be
installed in a non-conventional energy generation project too where main line is separated
from the load and from the battery after dc-ac conversion the power is supplied. We have
taken this project keeping in mind how much informative it will be to us as well as it will
give us an opportunity to explore various types of electronic components and how the outputs
can be controlled by transistor switching and what are the various types of probable problems
to be faced. We have tried to develop this project to get the basic knowledge and importance
of the microcontroller in ups system.

1
 Page |2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is a great privilege for us to express our profound gratitude to our respected Prof. Akhtar
Iqbal, Head of Department of Physics, for his constant guidance, valuable suggestions,
supervision and inspiration throughout the course work without which it would have been
difficult to complete the work within scheduled time.

We would like to express our gratitude towards Prof. Shafqat Hayyat Malik for his kind co-
operation and encouragement which helped us in completion of this project.

We are also indebted to the all of the Department of Physics, we would like to take this
opportunity to thank all the respected teachers of this department for being a perennial source
of inspiration and showing the right path at the time of necessity.

MCEP-15-5 Abdul Razzaq

MCEP-15-39 Ali Shahbaz
MCEP-15-14134 M. Sufyan
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Chapter 01
Introduction

INTRODUCTION
 Page |4

1.1 WHAT IS AN UPS?

An uninterruptible power supply, also uninterruptible power source, UPS or battery backup is
an electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a load when the input power source,
typically the utility mains, fails. A UPS differs from an auxiliary or emergency power system
or standby generator in that it will provide instantaneous or near-instantaneous protection
from input power interruptions by means of one or more attached batteries and associated
electronic circuitry. The on-battery runtime of most uninterruptible power sources is
relatively short—5–15 minutes being typical for smaller units—but sufficient to allow time to
bring an auxiliary power source on line, or to properly shut down the protected equipment.
While not limited to protecting any particular type of equipment, a UPS is typically used to
protect computers, data centers, telecommunication equipment or other electrical equipment
where an unexpected power disruption could cause injuries, fatalities, serious business
disruption and/or data loss. UPS units range in size from units designed to protect a single
computer without a video monitor (around 200 VA rating) to large units powering entire data
centers, buildings, or even cities.

1.2 PRIMARY ROLE OF AN UPS:

1. Short time power: It provides short-term power when the input power source fails.
However, most UPS units are also capable in varying degrees of correcting common utility
power problems

2. Power failure: Defined as a total loss of input voltage and which can be taken over by the
ups

3.Power quality issues: Different power quality issues , which create problem in the power
supply can be optimized by ups . The names of such issues are given below-

a). Surge: Defined as momentary or sustained increase in the voltage.

b). Sag: defined as a momentary or sustained reduction in input voltage Spikes, defined as a
brief high voltage excursion.

c) Noise: Defined as a high frequency transient or a oscillation, usually injected into the line
by nearby equipment.
 Page |5

d) Frequency instability: Defined as temporary changes in the mains frequency.

e) Harmonic distortion: Defined as a departure from the ideal sinusoidal waveform expected
on the line.

4. DC power source: Many systems used in telecommunications use 48 V DC power,

because it is not considered a high-voltage by most electrical codes and is exempt from many
safety regulations, such as being installed in conduit and junction boxes. DC has typically
been the dominant power source for telecommunications, and AC has typically been the
dominant source for computers and servers.

There has been much experimentation with 48 V DC power for computer servers, in the hope
of reducing the likelihood of failure and the cost of equipment. However, to supply the same
amount of power, the current must be greater than an equivalent 120 V or 240 V circuit, and
greater current requires larger conductors and/or more energy to be lost as heat.

High voltage DC (380 V) is finding use in some data center applications, and allows for small
power conductors, but is subject to the more complex electrical code rules for safe
containment of high voltages.

Most switched-mode power supply (SMPS) power supplies for PCs can handle 325 V DC
(mains voltage * sqrt(2)) directly. Because the first thing most SMPS supplies designed for
AC does is to convert it to DC by rectification. The only catch is that half of the rectifier
stage may be loaded with the full load.

1.3 General Idea of our project:

Our project is a small version of an ups system, where we tried to show how a basic ups
system works? What are required component? How the conversions are taking place .The
different steps are given using a flow chart given below.
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Page |6
 Page |7

Chapter 02
Project Layout
 Page |8

CHAPTER - 2
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MINI INVERTER

2.0 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Fig: bock Diagram of Mini Inverter.

Resonance circuit or the oscillator circuit is known as the tank circuit. It is built up by using
suitable power transistor and a combination of inductor and capacitor with resistors of
required value. The resistor, capacitor, inductor etc. Used for building up the oscillations are
called the Resonant Element.The D.C is fed to the oscillator from d.c source. The oscillator
builds up oscillation at the designed frequency at low voltage. The basic condition for
producing damped oscillation by the tank circuit.
( R2 ) < [ 4L/C]
The low voltage a.c output from the oscillator is then fed to a step up transformer for raising
the output a.c. voltage at the required voltage. The explanation about the each part in the
block diagram of mini inverter.
2.1 D.C SOURCE:

Direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of electric charge. Direct current is
produced by sources such as batteries, power supplies, thermocouples, solar cells, or
dynamos. Direct current may flow in a conductor such as a wire, but can also flow through
 Page |9

semiconductors, insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams. The

electric current flows in a constant direction, distinguishing it from alternating current (AC).
A term formerly used for this type of current was galvanic current.[1]
The abbreviations AC and DC are often used to mean simply alternating and direct, as when
they modify current or voltage.[2][3]
Direct current may be obtained from an alternating current supply by use of a rectifier, which
contains electronic elements (usually) or electromechanical elements (historically) that allow
current to flow only in one direction. Direct current may be converted into alternating current
with an inverter or a motor-generator set.
Direct current is used to charge batteries and as power supply for electronic systems. Very
large quantities of direct-current power are used in production of aluminum and other
electrochemical processes. It is also used for some railways, especially in urban areas. High-
voltage direct current is used to transmit large amounts of power from remote generation sites
or to interconnect alternating current power grids.

Fig: Current Graph & Symbols of DC Voltages Sources.

2.2 OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT:

An electronic circuit that generates a sine wave is called an oscillator.  To oscillate

means to move back and forth continuously between two points.  A sine wave signal also
oscillates continuously between its maximum and minimum value.Oscillators designed to
produce a high-power AC output from a DC supply are usually called Inverters.

An electronic oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a periodic, oscillating

electronic signal, often a sine wave or a square wave.[1][2] Oscillators convert direct current
(DC) from a power supply to an alternating current (AC) signal. They are widely used in
many electronic devices. Common examples of signals generated by oscillators include
 P a g e | 10

signals broadcast by radio and television transmitters, clock signals that regulate computers
and quartz clocks, and the sounds produced by electronic beepers and video games.

2.2.1 Oscillators are often characterized by the frequency of their output signal:
 A low-frequency oscillator (LFO) is an electronic oscillator that generates a frequency
below ≈20 Hz. This term is typically used in the field of audio synthesizers, to
distinguish it from an audio frequency oscillator.
 An audio oscillator produces frequencies in the audio range, about 16 Hz to 20 kHz.[2]
 An RF oscillator produces signals in the radio frequency (RF) range of about 100 kHz
to 100 GHz.
2.2.2 There are two main types of electronic oscillator:
2.2.2.1 Linear or Harmonic Oscillator.
2.2.2.2 Nonlinear or Relaxation Oscillator.
2.2.2.1 Harmonic Oscillator:
The harmonic or linear oscillator produces a sinusoidal output.
There are two types:
1. Feedback oscillator:
The most common form of linear oscillator is an electronic amplifier such as a
transistor or op amp connected in a feedback loop with its output fed back into its input
through a frequency selective electronic filter to provide positive feedback. When the power
supply to the amplifier is first switched on, electronic noise in the circuit provides a non-zero
signal to get oscillations started. The noise travels around the loop and is amplified and
filtered until very quickly it converges on a sine wave at a single frequency.
Some of the many Feedback Oscillator circuits are listed below:
 RC oscillator circuit,
 LC oscillator circuit
 Crystal oscillator circuit
2. Negative resistance oscillator:
Negative resistance oscillators, a resonant circuit, such as an LC circuit, crystal, or
cavity resonator, is connected across a device with negative differential resistance, and a DC
bias voltage is applied to supply energy. A resonant circuit by itself is "almost" an oscillator;
it can store energy in the form of electronic oscillations if excited, but because it has
electrical resistance and other losses the oscillations are damped and decay to zero. The
 P a g e | 11

negative resistance of the active device cancels the (positive) internal loss resistance in the
resonator, in effect creating a resonator with no damping, which generates spontaneous
continuous oscillations at its resonant frequency.
Some of the many Negative Resistance Oscillator circuits are listed below:
 Armstrong oscillator
 Clapp oscillator
 Colpitts oscillator
 Cross-coupled oscillator
 Dynatron oscillator
 Hartley oscillator
 Meissner oscillator
 Opto-electronic oscillator
 Pierce oscillator
 Phase-shift oscillator
 Robinson oscillator
 Tri-tet oscillator
 Vackář oscillator
 Wien bridge oscillator
2.2.2.2 Relaxation oscillator:
A nonlinear or relaxation oscillator produces a non-sinusoidal output, such as a square,
sawtooth or triangle wave.[3] It consists of an energy-storing element (a capacitor or, more
rarely, an inductor) and a nonlinear switching device (a latch, Schmitt trigger, or negative
resistance element) connected in a feedback loop. The switching device periodically charges
and discharges the energy stored in the storage element thus causing abrupt changes in the
output waveform.
Some of the more common Relaxation Oscillator circuits are listed below:
 Multivibrator
 Pearson-Anson oscillator
 Ring oscillator
 Delay line oscillator
 Royer oscillator
2.3 TRANSFORMER:
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A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or

more circuits through electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic induction produces an
electromotive force within a conductor which is exposed to time varying magnetic fields.
Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric power
applications.

2.3.1 Step-Up Transformer:

A step-up transformer is the direct opposite of a step-down transformer. There are
many turns on the secondary winding than in the primary winding in the step-up
transformers. Thus, the voltage supplied in the secondary transformer is greater than the one
supplied across the primary winding. That means Step-up transformer convert 12V AC input
into 230V AC output at 50HZ.
Because of the principle of conservation of energy, the transformer converts low
voltage, high-current to high voltage-low current. In other words, the voltage has been
stepped up.

Fig: Step-up Transformer

You can find step-up transformers located near power plants that are designed to operate
megawatts of power. Apart from the power plants, step-up transformers can also be used for
local and smaller applications such as x-ray machine which requires about 50,000 volts to
work. Even a micro-wave oven requires a small step-up transformer to operate.
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Chapter 03
Hardware Components
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3.1 COMPONENTS USED IN MINI INVERTER:

Battery 12V DC.
Relay Module
Resistors
Capacitors
Transistor S8050
IC TL494N
CFL Bulb
Diode
FZ44N
12V DC BATTERY:
A battery converts chemical energy to electrical energy. This conversion enables
electrical power to be stored. An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more
electrochemical cells with external connections provided to power electrical devices such as
flashlights, smart phones, and electric cars. When a battery is supplying electric power, its
positive terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode. The terminal marked
negative is the source of electrons that when connected to an external circuit will flow and
deliver energy to an external device. When a battery is connected to an external circuit,
electrolytes are able to move as ions within, allowing the chemical reactions to be completed
at the separate terminals and so deliver energy to the external circuit. It is the movement of
those ions within the battery which allows current to flow out of the battery to perform work.
Historically the term "battery" specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells,
however the usage has evolved to additionally include devices composed of a single cell.[4]
Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded; the electrode
materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are the alkaline
battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable electronic devices. Secondary
(rechargeable) batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple times using mains power
from a wall socket; the original composition of the electrodes can be restored by reverse
current. Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion batteries
used for portable electronics such as laptops and smart phones.
 P a g e | 15

Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing
aids and wristwatches to small, thin cells used in smart phones, to large lead acid batteries
used in cars and trucks, and at the largest extreme, huge battery banks the size of rooms that
provide standby or emergency power for telephone exchanges and computer data centers.

Principle of Operation:
An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with
external connections provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, smartphones,
and electric cars. When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive terminal is the
cathode and its negative terminal is the anode. The terminal marked negative is the source of
electrons that when connected to an external circuit will flow and deliver energy to an
external device. When a battery is connected to an external circuit, electrolytes are able to
move as ions within, allowing the chemical reactions to be completed at the separate
terminals and so deliver energy to the external circuit. It is the movement of those ions within
the battery which allows current to flow out of the battery to perform work. Historically the
term "battery" specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells, however the usage
has evolved to additionally include devices composed of a single cell.

Fig: Basic Chemical Production Of Electrical Power.

Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded; the
electrode materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are the
alkaline battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable electronic devices. Secondary
(rechargeable) batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple times using mains
 P a g e | 16

powerfrom a wall socket; the original composition of the electrodes can be restored by
reverse current. Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion
batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops and smartphones.
Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing
aids and wristwatches to small, thin cells used in smartphones, to large lead acid batteries
used in cars and trucks, and at the largest extreme, huge battery banks the size of rooms that
provide standby or emergency power for telephone exchanges and computer data centers.

Fig: Electron Flow through a Battery.

Each half-cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive
electric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the
difference between the emfs of its half-cells.[15] Thus, if the electrodes have emfsE1and E2,
then the net emf isE2-E1. In other words, the net emf is the difference between the reduction
potentials of the half-reactions.
Battery Testing:
Battery testing can be done in more than one way. The most accurate method is
measurement of specific gravity and battery voltage. To measure specific gravity buy a
temperature compensating hydrometer, to measure voltage use a digital D.C. Voltmeter. A
quality load tester may be a good purchase if you need to test sealed batteries.
 P a g e | 17

fig: Battery Levels & a 12V DC battery

For any of these methods, you must first fully charge the battery and then remove the
surface charge. If the battery has been sitting at least several hours (I prefer at least 12 hours)
you may begin testing.
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3.2 S8050 - NPN Transistor ’

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S8050 Pin Description

Pin Number Pin Name Description

1 Emitter Current Drains out through emitter

2 Base Controls the biasing of transistor

3 Collector Current flows in through collector

Features

 Low Voltage, High Current NPN Transistor

 Small Signal Transistor
 Maximum Power: 2 Watts
 Maximum DC Current Gain (hFE) is 400
 Continuous Collector current (IC) is 700mA
 Base- Emitter Voltage (VBE) is 5V
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 Collector-Emitter Voltage (VCE) is 20V

 Collector-Base Voltage (VCB) is 30V
 High Used in push-pull configuration doe Class B amplifiers
 Available in To-92 Package

 Brief Description on S8050

S8050 is a NPN transistor hence the collector and emitter will be left open (Reverse biased)
when the base pin is held at ground and will be closed (Forward biased) when a signal is
provided to base pin. It has a maximum gain value of 400; this value determines the
amplification capacity of the transistor normally S8050. Since it is very high it is normally
used for amplification purposes. However at a normal operating collector current the typical
value of gain will be 110. The maximum amount of current that could flow through the
Collector pin is 700mA, hence we cannot drive loads that consume more than 700mA using
this transistor. To bias a transistor we have to supply current to base pin, this current (IB)
should be limited to 5mA.

When this transistor is fully biased then it can allow a maximum of 700mA to flow across the
collector and emitter. This stage is called Saturation Region and the typical voltage allowed
across the Collector-Emitter (VCE) or Collector-Base (VCB) could be 20V and 30V
respectively. When base current is removed the transistor becomes fully off, this stage is
called as the Cut-off Region.

S8050 in Push-Pull Configuration

As mentioned in the features the S8050 transistor is commonly used in push pull

configuration with Class B amplifier. So let us discuss how that is done.

A push pull amplifier, commonly known as Class B amplifier is type of multistage amplifier
commonly used for audio amplification of loudspeakers. It is very simple to construct and
requires two identical complimentary transistors operate. By complimentary it means that we
need a NPN transistor and its equivalent PNP transistor. Like here the NPN transistor will be
S8050 and its equivalent PNP transistor will be S8550. A simple circuit diagram of the Class
B amplifier with the using the S8050 is shown below.
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Applications

 Audio Amplification Circuits

 Class B Amplifiers
 Push pull Transistors
 Circuits where high gain is required
 Low signal applications

3.3.RESISTOR:
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow,
adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines,
among other uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as
heat may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for
generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time
 P a g e | 22

or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a
volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or
chemical activity.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be
composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented within circuits.
The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial
resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal
value of the resistance falls within the manufacturing tolerance, indicated on the component.
Theory of operation:
The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's law:
V=IR
Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current
(I), where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). For example, if a 300
ohm resistor is attached across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 =
0.04 amperes flows through that resistor.
Practical resistors also have some inductance and capacitance which affect the relation
between voltage and current in alternating current circuits.
The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm.
An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured
over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10 −3 Ω), kilohm (1
kΩ = 103 Ω), and megaohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in common usage.

Fig: different types of Resistors & 330Ω Resistor.

3.4 CAPACITOR:
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical
component used to temporarily store electrical energy in an electric field. The forms of
practical capacitors vary widely, but most contain at least two electrical conductors (plates)
 P a g e | 23

separated by a dielectric (i.e. an insulator that can store energy by becoming polarized). The
conductors can be thin films, foils or sintered beads of metal or conductive electrolyte, etc.
The non-conducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. Materials
commonly used as dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper, mica, and oxide
layers. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical
devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor
stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.
When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is
attached across a battery), an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive
charge +Q to collect on one plate and negative charge −Q to collect on the other plate. If a
battery has been attached to a capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow
through the capacitor. However, if a time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the
capacitor, a displacement current can flow.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, its capacitance.
Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the electric charge Q on each conductor to the potential
difference V between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F), which is equal to one
coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Typical capacitance values range from about 1 pF (10−12 F) to
about 1 mF (10−3 F).
The larger the surface area of the "plates" (conductors) and the narrower the gap
between them, the greater the capacitance is. In practice, the dielectric between the plates
passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, known
as the breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and
resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of
power supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric
power transmission systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow.
 P a g e | 24

Fig: Symbols of Different Capacitors.

Fig:123J & 104J Capacitors.

The value 123J indicates the value 12 with 3 zeros added after it. This means that the
value is 12000pF. and104J indicates the value 10 with 3 zeros added after it. This means that
value is 14000pF. The letter “J” following indicates the tolerance of the part (5% in this
case).

3.5 TRANSISTOR:
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A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switchelectronic signals and

electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material usually with at least three
terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the
transistor's terminals changes the current through another pair of terminals. Because the
controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can
amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are
found embedded in integrated circuits.

Bipolar Junction Transistor:

A bipolar junction transistor (bipolar transistor or BJT) is a type of transistor that uses
both electron and hole charge carriers. In contrast, unipolar transistors, such as field-effect
transistors, only use one kind of charge carrier. For their operation, BJTs use two junctions
between two semiconductor types, n-type and p-type.
BJTs are manufactured in two types, NPN and PNP, and are available as individual
components, or fabricated in integrated circuits, often in large numbers. The basic function of
a BJT is to amplify current. This allows BJTs to be used as amplifiers or switches, giving
them wide applicability in electronic equipment, including computers, televisions, mobile
phones, audio amplifiers, industrial control, and radio transmitters.

Working:
BJTs come in two types, or polarities, known as PNP and NPN based on the doping
types of the three main terminal regions. An NPN transistor comprises two semiconductor
junctions that share a thin p-doped anode region, and a PNP transistor comprises two
semiconductor junctions that share a thin n-doped cathode region.

Fig:NPN BJT with forward-biased E–B junction and reverse-biased B–C junction.
 P a g e | 26

Charge flow in a BJT is due to diffusion of charge carriers across a junction between
two regions of different charge concentrations. The regions of a BJT are called emitter,
collector, and base.[note 1] A discrete transistor has three leads for connection to these regions.
Typically, the emitter region is heavily doped compared to the other two layers, whereas the
majority charge carrier concentrations in base and collector layers are about the same. By
design, most of the BJT collector current is due to the flow of charges injected from a high-
concentration emitter into the base where they are minority carriers that diffuse toward the
collector, and so BJTs are classified as minority-carrier devices.
In typical operation, the base–emitter junction is forward biased, which means that the p-
doped side of the junction is at a more positive potential than the n-doped side, and the base–
collector junction is reverse biased. In an NPN transistor, when positive bias is applied to the
base–emitter junction, the equilibrium is disturbed between the thermally generated carriers
and the repelling electric field of the n-doped emitter depletion region. This allows thermally
excited electrons to inject from the emitter into the base region. These electrons diffuse
through the base from the region of high concentration near the emitter towards the region of
low concentration near the collector. The electrons in the base are called minority carriers
because the base is doped p-type, which makes holes the majority carrier in the base.
To minimize the percentage of carriers that recombine before reaching the collector–
base junction,x the transistor's base region must be thin enough that carriers can diffuse
across it in much less time than the semiconductor's minority carrier lifetime. In particular,
the thickness of the base must be much less than the diffusion length of the electrons. The
collector–base junction is reverse-, and so little electron injection occurs from the collector to
the base, but electrons biased that diffuse through the base towards the collector are swept
into the collector by the electric field in the depletion region of the collector–base junction.
The thin shared base and asymmetric collector–emitter doping are what differentiates a
bipolar transistor from two separate and oppositely biased diodes connected in series.

3.6 IRF-Z44N
IRF-Z44N basically belongs to the family of Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field
Effect Transistor (MOSFET). It is a power MOSFET. There are two types of MOSFET i.e.
N-channel and P-channel. IRF-Z44N belongs to the N-channel family. It uses “Trench”
technology and is enveloped in a plastic structure. It has very low on state resistance. It has
zener diode which provides ESD protection up to 2 kilo-volt. It is a low cost device and
 P a g e | 27

provides higher efficiency. It is easily available in the market these days and is mostly known
because of its vast applications. IRF-Z44N has several different amazing features. It’s
features include ultra low on resistance, advance processing technology, dynamic rating,
avalanche rated completely, quick switching process and many more. It has a wide range
of real life applications including full bridge, push pull applications, consumer full bridge and
a lot more. The further detail about the basic use of MOSFET IRF-Z44N will be given later
in this article.

Introduction to IRFZ44N

 IRFZ44N belongs to the family of  N-channel Power MOSFETs, covered in plasteic

body and uses “Trench” technology.
 Similar to other transistors, it has three terminals named as Gate,
Drain and Source. They are denoted by the alphabets G, D and S respectively.

 Its features include very low on state resistance, high speed processing technology,
completely avalanche rated etc.

 Push pull systems and full bridge are few of its real life applications.
IRF-Z44N is given in the figure shown below.

1. IRFZ44N Pinout

 It has total three (3) pins having different individual functions.

 IRFZ44N Pinout is as follows:

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o Pin # 1: Gate.
o Pin # 2: Drain.
o Pin # 3: Source.

2. IRFZ44N Pins Symbols

 Each pin is usually denoted by the different symbol.

 Symbols associated with each of the pin are listed in the table given in the figure
shown below.

3. IRFZ44N Pinout

 Pin configuration of any device can be understood through pinout diagram.

 I have already shared pinout diagrams of other IC’s in Introduction to

LM2575, LM2902, LM2904, LM4040, MAX232 and LT1054.

 IRF-Z44N pinout diagram is given in the figure shown below.

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4. IRFZ44N Ratings

 Before using any electronic device its power requirements must be known.

 These power requirements can be known through its ratings.

 IRF-Z44N ratings are listed in the table given in the figure shown below.

5. IRFZ44N Features

 Features are such parameters which can make a device more and more popular.

 IRF-Z44N major features are listed in the table given in the figure shown below.
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6. IRFZ44N Applications

 Most of the devices are usually known on the basis of their applications.

 IRF-Z44N real life applications are provided in the table shown in the figure given
below.

3.7 STEP-UP TRANSFORMER:

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or
more circuits through electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic induction produces an
electromotive force within a conductor which is exposed to time varying magnetic fields.
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Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric power
applications.
On a step-up transformer there are more turns on the secondary coil than the primary
coil. The induced voltage across the secondary coil is greater than the applied voltage across
the primary coil or in other words the voltage has been “stepped-up”.
A step-up transformer is the direct opposite of a step-down transformer. There are
many turns on the secondary winding than in the primary winding in the step-up
transformers. Thus, the voltage supplied in the secondary transformer is greater than the one
supplied across the primary winding. Because of the principle of conservation of energy, the
transformer converts low voltage, high-current to high voltage-low current. In other words,
the voltage has been stepped up.

Fig:a Step-up transformer.

You can find step-up transformers located near power plants that are designed to operate
megawatts of power. Apart from the power plants, step-up transformers can also be used for
local and smaller applications such as x-ray machine which requires about 50,000 volts to
work. Even a micro-wave oven requires a small step-up transformer to operate.
Basic Principle:
For simplification or approximation purposes, it is very common to analyze the
transformer as an ideal transformer model as presented in the two images. An ideal
transformer is a theoretical, linear transformer that is lossless and perfectly coupled; that is,
there are no energy losses and flux is completely confined within the magnetic core. Perfect
coupling implies infinitely high core magnetic permeability and winding inductances and
zero net magnetomotive force.
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Ideal transformer connected with source VPon primary and load impedance ZL on secondary,
where 0<ZL<∞.
A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the
core and a varying magnetic field impinging on the secondary winding. This varying
magnetic field at the secondary induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or voltage in the
secondary winding. The primary and secondary windings are wrapped around a core of
infinitely high magnetic permeability so that all of the magnetic flux passes through both the
primary and secondary windings. With a voltage source
connected to the primary winding and load impedance
connected to the secondary winding, the transformer
currents flow in the indicated directions. (See also
Polarity.)

Fig: an Ideal transformer and induction law.

According to Faraday's Law, since the same

magnetic flux passes through both the primary and
secondary windings in an ideal transformer, a voltage is
induced in each winding, according to eq. (1) in the
 P a g e | 33

secondary winding case, according to eq. (2) in the primary winding case. [8] The primary
EMF is sometimes termed counter EMF. This is in accordance with Lenz's law, which states
that induction of EMF always opposes development of any such change in magnetic field.
The transformer winding voltage ratio is thus shown to be directly proportional to the
winding turns ratio according to eq. (3). According to the law of conservation of energy, any
load impedance connected to the ideal transformer's secondary winding results in
conservation of apparent, real and reactive power consistent with eq. (4).
The ideal transformer identity shown in eq. (5) is a reasonable approximation for the
typical commercial transformer, with voltage ratio and winding turns ratio both being
inversely proportional to the corresponding current ratio.
By Ohm's law and the ideal transformer identity:
 The secondary circuit load impedance can be expressed as eq. (6)
 The apparent load impedance referred to the primary circuit is derived in eq. (7) to be
equal to the turns ratio squared times the secondary circuit load impedance.
Relationship between voltage and Current:
The relationship among voltages, currents and number of turns is shown in the
following figure for an ideal transformer with NP turns in the primary winding and NS turns
in the secondary winding. VP and VSare respectively the primary and secondary voltages.

NP/NSis the turns ratio or transformer ratio.

The voltage ratio is directly proportional to the turns ratio, but the current ratio is inversely
proportional to the turns ratio. The secondary voltage is given by:
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In a step-up transformer the secondary voltage VSis higher than the primary voltage
VP.This is achieved by using a secondary winding with more turns than the primary winding.
The voltage increase is determined by the turns ratio.
In a step-down transformer the secondary voltage VSis smaller than the primary voltage VP.
The secondary winding has fewer turns than the primary winding. The voltage decrease is
determined by the turns ratio.
In an ideal transformer the input and output powers are the same:
P=VPIP=VSIS

Applications of Transformer:
Transformers are used to increase (or step-up) voltage before transmitting electrical
energy over long distances through wires. Wires have resistance which loses energy through
joule heating at a rate corresponding to square of the current. By transforming power to a
higher voltage transformers enable economical transmission of power and distribution.
Consequently, transformers have shaped the electricity supply industry, permitting generation
to be located remotely from points of demand. All but a tiny fraction of the world's electrical
power has passed through a series of transformers by the time it reaches the consumer.
Since the high voltages carried in the wires are significantly greater than what is
needed in-home, transformers are also used extensively in electronic products to decrease (or
step-down) the supply voltage to a level suitable for the low voltage circuits they contain.The
transformer also electrically isolates the end user from contact with the supply voltage.Signal
and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers and to match devices such as
microphones and record players to the input of amplifiers. Audio transformers allowed
telephone circuits to carry on a two-way conversation over a single pair of wires.
A balun transformer converts a signal that is referenced to ground to a signal that has
balanced voltages to ground, such as between external cables and internal circuits.
Transformers made to medical grade standards isolate the users from the direct current. These
are found commonly used in conjunction with hospital beds, dentist chairs, and other medical
lab equipment.
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Fig: a Step-up transformer.

3.8 555 Timer
The 555 timer IC is an integral part of electronics projects. Be it a simple project involving a
single 8-bit micro-controller and some peripherals or a complex one involving system on
chips (SoCs), 555 timer working is involved. These provide time delays, as an oscillator and
as a flip-flop element among other applications.

Introduced in 1971 by the American company Signetics, the 555 is still in widespread use due
to its low price, ease of use and stability. It is made by many companies in the original
bipolar and low-power CMOS types. According to an estimate, a billion units were
manufactured back in the year 2003 alone.

Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 timer package includes 25 transistors, 2
diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line package (DIP-
8). Variants consist of combining multiple chips on one board. However, 555 is still the most
popular. Let us look at the pin diagram to have an idea about the timer IC before we talk
about 555 timer working.
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Pin diagram and description

Pi
Name Purpose
n
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1 GND Ground reference voltage, low level (0 V)

The OUT pin goes high and a timing interval starts when this input falls below 1/2
of CTRL voltage (which is typically 1/3 Vcc, CTRL being 2/3 Vcc by default if
2 TRIG CTRL is left open). In other words, OUT is high as long as the trigger low. Output
of the timer totally depends upon the amplitude of the external trigger voltage
applied to this pin.

3 OUT This output is driven to approximately 1.7 V below +Vcc, or to GND.

A timing interval may be reset by driving this input to GND, but the timing does
RESE not begin again until RESET rises above approximately 0.7 volts. Overrides TRIG
4
T
which overrides threshold.

5 CTRL Provides “control” access to the internal voltage divider (by default, 2/3 Vcc).

The timing (OUT high) interval ends when the voltage at threshold is greater than
6 THR
that at CTRL (2/3 Vcc if CTRL is open).

Open collector output which may discharge a capacitor between intervals. In phase

7 DIS
with output.

Positive supply voltage, which is usually between 3 and 15 V depending on the

8 Vcc
variation.

Some important features of the 555 timer:

555 timer is used in almost every electronic circuit today. For a 555 timer working as a flip
flop or as a multi-vibrator, it has a particular set of configurations. Some of the major features
of the 555 timer would be,
 P a g e | 38

 It operates from a wide range of power ranging from +5 Volts to +18 Volts supply
voltage.
 Sinking or sourcing 200 mA of load current.
 The external components should be selected properly so that the timing intervals
can be made into several minutes along with the frequencies exceeding several
hundred kilohertz.
 The output of a 555 timer can drive a transistor-transistor logic (TTL) due to its
high current output.
 It has a temperature stability of 50 parts per million (ppm) per degree Celsius
change in temperature which is equivalent to 0.005 %/ °C.
 The duty cycle of the timer is adjustable.
 Also, the maximum power dissipation per package is 600 mW and its trigger and
reset inputs has logic compatibility.

555 timer working

The 555 generally operates in 3 modes:

1. A-stable
2. Mono-stable
3. Bi-stable modes.

Astable mode

This means there will be no stable level at the output. So the output will be swinging between
high and low. This character of unstable output is used as a clock or square wave output for
many applications.

Mono-stable mode

This configuration consists of one stable and one unstable state. The stable state can be
chosen either high or low by the user. If the stable output is set at high (1), the output of the
timer is high (1). At the application of an interrupt, the timer output turns low (0). Since the
 P a g e | 39

low state is unstable it goes to high (1) automatically after the interrupt passes. Similar is the
case for a low stable monostable mode.

Bi-stable mode

In bistable mode, both the output states are stable. At each interrupt, the output changes from
low (0) to high (1) and vice versa, and stays there. For example, if we have a high (1) output,
it will go low(0) once it receives an interrupt and stays low (0) till the next interrupt changes
the status.

3.9 Diode ’
A diode is defined as a two-terminal electronic component that only conducts current in one
direction (so long as it is operated within a specified voltage level). An ideal diode will have
zero resistance in one direction, and infinite resistance in the reverse direction.
Although in the real world, diode’s can not achieve zero or infinite resistance. Instead, a
diode will have negligible resistance in one direction (to allow current flow), and a very high
resistance in the reverse direction (to prevent current flow). A diode is effectively like a valve
for an electrical circuit.
Semiconductor diodes are the most common type of diode. These diodes begin conducting
electricity only if a certain threshold voltage is present in the forward direction (i.e. the “low
resistance” direction). The diode is said to be “forward biased” when conducting current in
this direction. When connected within a circuit in the reverse direction (i.e. the “high
resistance” direction), the diode is said to be “reverse biased”.
A diode only blocks current in the reverse direction (i.e. when it is reverse biased) while the
reverse voltage is within a specified range. Above this range, the reverse barrier breaks. The
voltage at which this breakdown occurs is called the “reverse breakdown voltage”. When the
voltage of the circuit is higher than the reverse breakdown voltage, the diode is able to
conduct electricity in the reverse direction (i.e. the “high resistance” direction). This is why in
practice we say diode’s have a high resistance in the reverse direction – not an infinite
resistance.

A PN junction is the simplest form of the semiconductor diode. In ideal conditions, this PN
junction behaves as a short circuit when it is forward biased, and as an open circuit when it is
 P a g e | 40

in the reverse biased. The name diode is derived from “di–ode” which means a device that
has two electrodes.
Diode Symbol
The symbol of a diode is shown below. The arrowhead points in the direction of conventional
current flow in the forward biased condition. That means the anode is connected to the p side
and cathode is connected to the n side.

We can create a simple PN junction diode by doping pentavalent or donor impurity in one
portion and trivalent or acceptor impurity in other portion of silicon or germanium crystal
block. These dopings make a PN junction at the middle part of the block. We can also form a
PN junction by joining a p-type and n-type semiconductor together with a special fabrication
technique. The terminal connected to the p-type is the anode. The terminal connected to the
n-type side is the cathode.
 P a g e | 41

Working Principle of Diode

A diode’s working principle depends on the interaction of n-type and p-type semiconductors.
An n-type semiconductor has plenty of free electrons and a very few numbers of holes. In
other words, we can say that the concentration of free electrons is high and that of holes is
very low in an n-type semiconductor. Free electrons in the n-type semiconductor are referred
as majority charge carriers, and holes in the n-type semiconductor are referred to as minority
charge carriers.

A p-type semiconductor has a high concentration of holes and low concentration of free
electrons. Holes in the p-type semiconductor are majority charge carriers, and free electrons
in the p-type semiconductor are minority charge carriers.

Unbiased Diode
Now let us see what happens when one n-type region and one p-type region come in contact.
Here due to concentration difference, majority carriers diffuse from one side to another. As
the concentration of holes is high in the p-type region and it is low in the n-type region, the
holes start diffusing from the p-type region to n-type region. Again the concentration of free
 P a g e | 42

electrons is high in the n-type region and it is low in the p-type region and due to this reason,
free electrons start diffusing from the n-type region to the p-type region.

The free electrons diffusing into the p-type region from the n-type region would recombine
with holes available there and create uncovered negative ions in the p-type region. In the
same way, the holes diffusing into the n-type region from the p-type region would recombine
with free electrons available there and create uncovered positive ions in the n-type region.

In this way, there would a layer of negative ions in the p-type side and a layer of positive ions
in the n-type region appear along the junction line of these two types of semiconductor. The
layers of uncovered positive ions and uncovered negative ions form a region at the middle of
the diode where no charge carrier exists since all the charge carriers get recombined here in
this region. Due to lack of charge carriers, this region is called depletion region.
 P a g e | 43

After the formation of the depletion region, there is no more diffusion of charge carriers from
one side to another in the diode. This is because due to the electric field appeared across the
depletion region will prevent further migration of charge carriers from one side to another.
The potential of the layer of uncovered positive ions in the n-type side would repeal the holes
in the p-type side and the potential of the layer of uncovered negative ions in the p-type side
would repeal the free electrons in the n-type side. That means a potential barrier is created
across the junction to prevent further diffusion of charge carriers.

Forward Biased Diode

Now let us see what happens if positive terminal of a source is connected to the p-type side
and the negative terminal of the source is connected to the n-type side of the diode and if we
increase the voltage of this source slowly from zero.

In the beginning, there is no current flowing through the diode. This is because although there
is an external electrical field applied across the diode but still the majority charge carriers do
not get sufficient influence of the external field to cross the depletion region. As we told that
the depletion region acts as a potential barrier against the majority charge carriers. This
potential barrier is called forward potential barrier. The majority charge carriers start crossing
the forward potential barrier only when the value of externally applied voltage across the
junction is more than the potential of the forward barrier. For silicon diodes, the forward
barrier potential is 0.7 volt and for germanium diodes, it is 0.3 volt. When the externally
applied forward voltage across the diode becomes more than the forward barrier potential, the
free majority charge carriers start crossing the barrier and contribute the forward diode
current. In that situation, the diode would behave as a short-circuited path and the forward
current gets limited by only externally connected resistors to the diode.

Reverse Biased Diode

 P a g e | 44

Now let us see what happens if we connect negative terminal of the voltage source to the p-
type side and positive terminal of the voltage source to the n-type side of the diode. At that
condition, due to electrostatic attraction of negative potential of the source, the holes in the p-
type region would be shifted more away from the junction leaving more uncovered negative
ions at the junction. In the same way, the free electrons in the n-type region would be shifted
more away from the junction towards the positive terminal of the voltage source leaving more
uncovered positive ions in the junction. As a result of this phenomenon, the depletion region
becomes wider. This condition of a diode is called the reverse biased condition. At that
condition, no majority carriers cross the junction as they go away from the junction. In this
way, a diode blocks the flow of current when it is reverse biased.

As we already told at the beginning of this article that there are always some free electrons in
the p-type semiconductor and some holes in the n-type semiconductor. These opposite charge
carriers in a semiconductor are called minority charge carriers. In the reverse biased
condition, the holes find themselves in the n-type side would easily cross the reverse biased
depletion region as the field across the depletion region does not present rather it helps
minority charge carriers to cross the depletion region. As a result, there is a tiny current
flowing through the diode from positive to the negative side. The amplitude of this current is
very small as the number of minority charge carriers in the diode is very small. This current is
called reverse saturation current.

If the reverse voltage across a diode gets increased beyond a safe value, due to higher
electrostatic force and due to a higher kinetic energy of minority charge carriers colliding
with atoms, a number of covalent bonds get broken to contribute a huge number of free
electron-hole pairs in the diode and the process is cumulative. The huge number of such
generated charge carriers would contribute a huge reverse current in the diode. If this current
is not limited by an external resistance connected to the diode circuit, the diode may
permanently be destroyed.
 P a g e | 45

Types of Diode
The types of diode include:
1. Zener diode
2. P-N junction diode
3. Tunnel diode
4. Varactor diode
5. Schottky diode
6. Photodiode
7. PIN diode
8. Laser diode
9. Avalanche diode
10. Light emitting diode

3.10 CFL BULB:

A compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), also called compact fluorescent light, energy-
saving light, and compact fluorescent tube, is a fluorescent lamp designed to replace an
incandescent lamp; some types fit into light fixtures normally used for incandescent lamps.
 P a g e | 46

The lamps use a tube which is curved or folded to fit into the space of an incandescent bulb,
and a compact electronic ballast in the base of the lamp.
Compared to general-service incandescent lamps giving the same amount of visible light,
CFLs use one-fifth to one-third the electric power, and last eight to fifteen times longer. A
CFL has a higher purchase price than an incandescent lamp, but can save over five times its
purchase price in electricity costs over the lamp's lifetime. [1] Like all fluorescent lamps, CFLs
contain toxic mercury[2] which complicates their disposal. In many countries, governments
have banned the disposal of CFLs together with regular garbage. These countries have
established special collection systems for CFLs and other hazardous waste.

Fig: a CFL bulb

The principle of operation in a CFL bulb remains the same as in other fluorescent
lighting: electrons that are bound to mercury atoms are excited to states where they will
radiate ultraviolet light as they return to a lower energy level; this emitted ultraviolet light is
converted into visible light as it strikes the fluorescent coating on the bulb (as well as into
heat when absorbed by other materials such as glass).
CFLs radiate a spectral power distribution that is different from that of incandescent lamps.
Improved phosphor formulations have improved the perceived color of the light emitted by
CFLs, such that some sources rate the best "soft white" CFLs as subjectively similar in color
to standard incandescent lamps. White LED lamps now compete with CFLs for high-
efficiency house lighting.
Energy Efficiency:
Because the eye's sensitivity changes with the wavelength, the output of lamps is
commonly measured in lumens, a measure of the power of light as perceived by the human
eye. The luminous efficacy of lamps is the number of lumens produced for each watt of
 P a g e | 47

electrical power used. The luminous efficacy of a typical CFL is 50–70 lumens per watt
(lm/W) and that of a typical incandescent lamp is 10–17 lm/W. Compared to a theoretical
100%-efficient lamp (680 lm/W), CFL lamps have lighting efficiency ranges of 7–10%,
versus 1.5–2.5% for incandescents.
Because of their higher efficacy, CFLs use between one-seventh and one-third of the power
of equivalent incandescent lamps. Fifty to seventy percent of the world's total lighting market
sales were incandescent in 2010. Replacing all inefficient lighting with CFLs would save 409
terawatt-hours (1.47 exajoules) per year, 2.5% of the world's electricity consumption. In the
US, it is estimated that replacing all the incandescent would save 80 TWh yearly. Since CFLs
use much less energy than incandescent lamps (ILs), a phase-out of ILs would result in less
carbon dioxide (CO2) being emitted into the atmosphere. Exchanging ILs for efficient CFLs
on a global scale would achieve annual CO 2 reductions of 230 Mt (million tons), more than
the combined yearly CO2 emissions of the Netherlands and Portugal.

3.11 Relay Module

 
.Overview

We can control high voltage electronic devices using relays. A Relay is actually a switch
which is electrically operated by an electromagnet. The electromagnet is activated with a low
 P a g e | 48

voltage, for example 5 volts from a microcontroller and it pulls a contact to make or break a
high voltage circuit.

HL-52S Relay Module

As an example for this Arduino Relay Tutorial we will use the HL-52S 2 channel relay
module, which has 2 relays with rating of 10A @ 250 and 125 V AC and 10A @ 30 and 28 V
DC. The high voltage output connector has 3 pins, the middle one is the common pin and as
we can see from the markings one of the two other pins is for normally open connection and
the other one for normally closed connection.

On the other side of the module we have these 2 sets of pins. The first one has 4 pins, a
Ground and a VCC pin for powering the module and 2 input pins In1 and In2. The second set
of pins has 3 pins with a jumper between the JDVcc and the Vcc pin.  With a configuration
like this the electromagnet of the relay is directly powered from the Arduino Board and if
something goes wrong with the relay the microcontroller could get damaged.
 P a g e | 49

You can get the components from any of the sites below:

 5V Relay Module
 Arduino Board
 Breadboard and Jump Wires
 Cable, Plug, Socket
Circuit Schematic

For better understanding let’s see the circuit schematics of the relay module in this
configuration. So we can see that the 5 volts from our microcontroller connected to the Vcc
pin for activating the relay through the Optocoupler IC are also connected to the JDVcc pin
which powers the electromagnet of the relay. So in this case we got no isolation between the
relay and the microcontroller.
 P a g e | 50

In order to isolate the microcontroller from the relay, we need to remove the jumper and
connect separate power supply for the electromagnet to the JDVcc and the Ground pin. Now
with this configuration the microcontroller doesn’t have any physical connection with the
relay, it just uses the LED light of the Optocoupler IC to activate the relay.

There is one more thing to be noticed from this circuit schematics. The input pins of the
module work inversely. As we can see the relay will be activated when the input pin will be
LOW because in that way the current will be able to flow from the VCC to the input pin
which is low or ground, and the LED will light up and active the relay. When the input pin
will be HIGH there will be no current flow, so the LED will not light up and the relay will
not be activated.
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Chapter 04
Circuit Implementation
P a g e | 52
P a g e | 53
 P a g e | 54

OVERRALL WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT

Looking at the figure we can simply witness and figure out the whole idea. Here the battery
voltage is first converted to high frequency PWM pulses.

These pulses are dumped into a step up ferrite transformer having the required appropriate
rating. The pulses are applied using a mosfet so that the battery current can be utilized
optimally.
 P a g e | 55

The ferrite transformer steps up the voltage to 220V at it output. However since this voltage
has a frequency of around 60 to 100kHz, cannot be directly used for operating the domestic
appliances and therefore needs further processing.

In the next step this voltage is rectified, filtered and converted to 220V DC. This high voltage
DC is finally switched to 50 Hz frequency so that it may be used for operating the household
appliances.

Kindly note that though the circuit has been exclusively designed by me, it hasn't been tested
practically, make it at your own risk and only if you have sufficient confidence over the given
explanations.
 P a g e | 56

Chapter 05
Applications
 P a g e | 57

APPLICATIONS OF MINI INVERTER

5.0 APPLICATIONS:
 Inverter designed to provide 230V AC from the 12V DC source provided in an
automobile. The unit shown provides up to 3 amperes of alternating current, or just
enough to power Eighteen (18) watt light bulbs.
 This circuit can be used in cars and other vehicles to charge small batteries.
 This circuit can be used to drive low power AC motors
 It can be used in solar power system.
 An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries, solar panels, or
fuel cells to AC electricity. The electricity can be at any required voltage in particular
it can operate AC equipment designed for mains operation, or rectified to produce DC
at any desired voltage.
 Micro-inverters convert direct current from individual solar panels into alternating
current for the electric grid.

5.0.1 UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLIES (UPS):

 An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) uses batteries and an inverter to supply AC
power when main power is not available. When main power is restored, a rectifier is
used to supply DC power to recharge the batteries.
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5.0.2 INDUCTION HEATING:

 Inverters convert low frequency main AC power to a higher frequency for used in
induction heating. To do this, AC power is first rectified to provide DC power. The
inverter then changes. The DC power to high frequency AC power.

5.0.3 HVDC POWER TRANSMISSION:

 With HVDC power transmission, AC power is rectified and high voltage DC power is
transmitted to another location. At the receiving location, an inverter in a static
inverter plant converts the power back to AC.
5.0.4 VARIABLE-FREQUENCY DRIVES:
 A variable-frequency drive controls the operating speed of an AC motor by
controlling the frequency and voltage of the power supplied to the motor. An inverter
provides the controlled power.
 In most cases, the variable-frequency drive includes a rectifier so that DC power for
the inverter can be provided from main AC power. Since an inverter is the key
component, variable-frequency drives are sometimes called inverter drives or just
inverters.

5.0.5 ELECTRIC VEHICLE DRIVES:

 Adjustable speed motor control inverters are currently used to power the traction
motors in some electric and diesel-electric rail vehicles as well as some battery
electric vehicles and hybrid electric highway vehicles such as the Toyota Prius.
Various improvements in inverter technology are being developed specifically for
electric vehicle applications.[2] In vehicles with regenerative braking, the inverter also
takes power from the motor (now acting as a generator) and stores it in the batteries.

5.1 LIMITATIONS:
 If there is no power supply at all in an area, if the power in the battery is drained, then
the Inverterwill be of no use. Invertercan be used only for a few hours as otherwise
the batterywill be drained out.
 Battery maintenance is required. Some electronic goods like computerwill get reset
even if on an inverter, because there is a small disruption in power supply.
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 Not applicable for above 20 Watt load

 It is damage if given above the 12Volt input power supply

Chapter 06
Conclusion
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CHPATER - VI
CONCLUSION

6.0 CONCLUSION:
I think we’re uncomfortable when problems don’t have neat solutions. When the real
world frustrates us, we make assumptions and propose simple models that may or may not
capture the true behavior With all the work done so far, I believe some progress has been
made in settling the problem with systems addressed in the introduction.
The simple circuit topology supports a low cost and high efficiency power converter.
The proposed inverter circuitry has a low component count with only two transistors,
resistors, inductors, capacitors and step-up transformer.
An inverter is used to produce an un-interrupted 220V AC (depending on the line
voltage of the particular country) supply to the device connected as the load at the output
socket. The inverter gives constant AC voltage at its output socket when the AC mains power
supply is not available. The 18 Watt inverter applicable for MOBILE CHARGING and
LIGHT LOAD.
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6.1 REFERENCES
[1] http://www.electronicsforu.com/electronicsforu/circuitarchives/view_article.asp?sno=600
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_component
[3] http://octopart.com/tda2005m-stmicroelectronics-407800
[4] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/555Timer
[5]www.wikipedia.com
[6]www.scribd.com
[7] www.google.com