INTRODUCTION OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

DEFINITION OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING :

The magnetic particle method of non-destructive testing is a method for locating

surface and subsurface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials. It depends for
its operation on the fact that when the material or part under test is magnetized,
discontinuities which lie perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field will
cause a leakage field to be formed at and above the surface of the part. The
presence of this leakage field, and therefore the presence of the discontinuity, is
detected by the use of finely divided ferromagnetic particles applied over the
surface. Some of these particles are gathered and held by the leakage field.
This magnetically held collection of particles, forms an outline of the discontinuity
and indicates its location, size, shape and extent of discontinuity.

BASIC CONCEPT OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING :

The method involves three essential steps:

a) magnetizing the material or part under test

b) applying the ferromagnetic particles over the surface
c) examining the surface for powder pattern or indication

Magnetization:

The magnetic field inside the part must run in a direction such that it is
intercepted by the discontinuity. A number of techniques are in use to accomplish
this result, and will be discussed in later chapters. When the field is intercepted
by the discontinuity, some of the field is forced out into air above the
discontinuity, to form a “leakage field”.

Applying the Ferromagnetic Particles:

After the part under test has been properly magnetized, the ferromagnetic
particles are applied. These may be dusted on as a dry powder, or flowed, on as
a suspension in some liquid. Those magnetic particles applied on the surface
will concentrate (be attracted) by those magnetic leakage field and they will form
an indication that is visible.
Examination of the Surface for Magnetic Particle Patterns:

Visual inspection of the surface of the part after it has been magnetized and
magnetic particles applied requires only good and appropriate light, good
eyesight, and close attention and alertness on the part of the inspector. The
inspector usually marks the location of the indications that he sees, and may or
may not, depending on his experience and the nature and importance of the
inspection, accept or reject the part at that time.

To conclude this, the basic fundamental of magnetic particle testing is as follows:

When FERROMAGNETIC MATERIAL is magnetized, SURFACE and SUB-

SURFACE DISCONTINUITIES that are MAINLY PERPENDICULAR to the
magnetic flux line will produce a MAGNETIC LEAKAGE FIELD that will attract
magnetic particles and form an INDICATION.

APPLICATIONS:

The method can be used on any ferromagnetic materials, though not in all cases
with equal effectiveness. It works best on steel and alloys that have a high
permeability. The method also works quite well on metallic nickel and cobalt. In
general, magnetic particle testing is normally used in several industries such as
air-craft, nuclear, oil refining, transportation, etc. The types of product or process
on which this method is normally applied are casting, forging, forming, welding
and brazing, heat treatment and machining.

Advantages:

a) It is the best method and most reliable method available for finding surface
and sub-surface cracks, especially very fine and shallow ones.
b) It is rapid and simple to operate.
c) The indications are produced directly on the surface of the part.
d) Operators can learn the method easily, without lengthy or highly technical
training.
e) There is little or no limitation due to size or shape of the part being tested.
f) It will detect cracks filled with foreign material.
g) Surface preparation is not as rigid as in the case penetrate testing.
h) It will work well through the coatings of part.
i) It is relatively low in operational costs.

Limitations:

a) It does not work on non-ferromagnetic materials.

5
b) As the magnetic flux lines should be almost perpendicular to the
discontinuities, many times more than one magnetic field has to be applied to
the part.
c) Sometimes, parts have to be demagnetized after testing.
d) Post-cleaning, to remove remnants of the magnetic particles clinging to the
surface, may sometimes be required after testing and demagnetization.
e) Sometimes, the geometry of the part is a limitation i.e. how to apply the
magnetizing force to produce a field in a proper direction in the matter of
speculation.
f) Normally, there is no permanent record of the test.

CRITERIA FOR SUCCESSFUL INSPECTION:

Due to many conditions, which can restrict the application of magnetic particle
inspection, the successful inspection cannot be expected unless there are:

i) Equipment or magnetic particle system that are suitable for specific application
ii) A clear definition of the test problems
iii) Realistic acceptance criteria

6
 PRINCIPLE OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

INTRODUCTION:

The magnetic particle method of inspection is a procedure used to determine the

present of defects at or near the surface (sub-surface) of ferro-magnetic objects.
It is based on the principle that, if an object is magnetized with difference in
permeability in the material, such as cracks or voids or non-metallic inclusions,
which are at angle to magnetic lines of force, cause an abrupt change in the of
magnetic flux flowing through the piece normal to the irregularity, resulting in the
local flux leakage field and interference with the magnetic lines of force. The
interference can be spotted using a fine powder of magnetic material; that tends
to pile up and bridge over such discontinuities.

Various magnetizing methods may be used for practically any steel part, some
more satisfactory than others. The magnetizing classifications are as follow:

i) residual and continuous

ii) induced magnetic fields
iii) direct or alternating electric current

The purpose of magnetizing is to obtain and from magnetic flux comprised of the
line of force, within a conductor or test piece.

MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY:

Magnetism and electricity cannot be seen; they make themselves known only
through the effects they produce such as the production of heat and light or by
the attraction or movement of materials.

MAGNETISM:

A body which posses the ability to attract the iron filing and some other magnetic
materials are called magnet. When any material is magnetized it has a magnetic
field that will attract certain metals and other magnetic fields.

Magnet may be permanent, retaining their magnetism more or less permanently

e.g. magnetized carbon steel, or temporary, retaining their magnetism only as
long as a magnetizing force is being applied e.g. silicon iron. The magnetism of
the magnet is not uniform over its surface, but is concentrated at local areas
called POLES.

7
Each magnet has at least two opposite poles, which are attracted by the earth’s
magnetic poles; the poles are called the north and south poles, respectively.

If two magnets are placed so that a south (S) pole of one is placed close to north
(N) pole of the other, the magnet will be attracted to each other. If the magnets
are placed so that the south poles are closed together they will repel each other.
Hence, the rule of magnetic attraction and repulsion for magnets is:

LIKE MAGNETIC POLES REPEL AND UNLIKE MAGNETIC POLES ATTRACT

ONE ANOTHER

Any object is magnetized when part or all of its molecules have their north and
south poles oriented.

Some materials are attracted naturally by a magnet, while others are repelled.
From the definition of magnetism, like magnetic poles repel each other and unlike
ones attract each other, it follows that magnetic materials are those which are
attracted by magnetism and they are know as PARAMAGNETIC materials,
whereas materials which repel are known as DIAMAGNETIC materials.

The magnetic permeability, is slightly more than 1 (henry -1m) for paramagnetic
materials, while is slightly less than 1 in diamagnetic materials.

In the realm of magnetic particles testing, the sub-division of paramagnetic, also

called FERROMANGETIC, is a main concern, as only ferromagnetic materials
can be strongly magnetized.

Characteristics of diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials are shown below:

Magnetic characteristic of materials

Paramagnetic Diamagnetic
It can be magnetized It cannot be magnetized
They are affected by magnetic field They are repelled by magnetism
Ferromagnetic (sub-class It can not be magnetic particle tested.
paramagnetic)
Can be strongly magnetized and they
are strongly attracted to magnetic fields
It can be magnetic particle tested
Relative permeability is more than I Relative permeability is less than I

8
Some examples of non/diamagnetic materials are aluminium, brass, copper,
magnesium bronze, lead, titanium, austenitic stainless steel etc.

The magnetic powder, the base of which is generally iron or black magnetic iron
oxide, is ground to pass a 149 micrometer sieve. The individual particles are
elongated rather than globular to obtain a better polarization, and those of
metallic iron are coated to prevent oxidation, sticking and increase visibility.

Magnetic Flux, Poles and Flux Leakage:

The magnetic field is the force that attracts other magnetisable materials to the
magnetic poles. Another name for these lines of force is magnetic flux lines; it is
usually termed as magnetic flux to denote the entire closed paths of lines of force
so one may say that the magnetic flux is the force that attracts magnetisable
materials to the magnetic poles.

Let study the nature of the magnetic flux in magnets of different shapes. The
most common magnets are and horseshoe and a bar or rod magnets.

In a horseshoe or a bar or a rod magnet, for instance, the magnetic flux or lines
of force will enter or leave the magnet at the poles. The horseshoe magnet will
attract other magnetisable material only where the lines of force leave or enter
the magnet. The magnetic field around a bar magnet is shown below:

Magnetizing field around a Bar Magnet

If we dip the horseshoe magnet into a bucket of iron filings, the horseshoe
magnet would attract iron filings to both the north and south poles. Here, a
magnetisable steel bar has been placed across the poles of magnet. It is half in
place by attracting force of the magnetic flux. The magnetic flux lines flow from

9
the North Pole of the magnet, through the steel bar to the south pole of the
magnet.

Suppose, the horseshoe is bent so that the north and south poles are close
together. In this shape, the magnetisable materials (iron filing) would be
attracted at the pole. They are clinging to the poles and bridging the gap
between the poles.

Now let, make a complete circle out of the magnet and see what happens.

Here is a complete magnet without any poles. The fluxes are contained entirely
within the circle. If we dusts iron’s particles on this magnet, its would not be
attracted to the magnet at all. There is no place where the flux can enter or
leave; there are no poles – means no external force.

Flux Leakage:

Let consider a situation where the complete circle magnet has a crack or a
discontinuity the outer surface. A crack in the magnet will disrupt the even flow
of the lines at force. Some of the flux will be forced out of the magnet. This
creates a magnetic field with a north (N), leave, and south (S), enter, poles. The
flux that are forced out of the magnet as a result of the crack are known as flux
leakage. A crack in a bar or a hollow magnet will also cause flux leakage.

Flux leakage can also be created by a sub-surface discontinuity (cracks). With

this sub-surface crack, some of the lines of force pass above and below the
crack. Some of the lines of force pass through the crack and some are forced
out at surface forming flux leakage.

Note that the spot where lines of force leave the metal is not as clearly defined,
as it would be if there was a crack in the surface. SO, iron particles would be
attracted to the flux leakage caused by the subsurface crack or discontinuity. A
discontinuity that lies deep within the object, however, may not disturb the lines

10
of force sufficiently to cause them to emerge from the surface. Also, a
discontinuity oriented parallel to magnetic field in the object will have far less
effect on the field than a discontinuity perpendicular to the field.

11
Permeability (Magnetic field)

All matter is subjected to the influence of magnetic field to some degree. In other
word, they are permeable, able to spread through, to some small degree. A few
types of materials, such as bismuth, are repelled by magnetic field and known as
diamagnetic materials.

Soft iron and iron with a low carbon content is highly permeable that readily
conducts the lines of force or flux. These materials are said to be easy to
magnetize. The hard ferromagnetic steel with a high carbon content has low
permeability – hard to magnetize. Therefore, permeability is defined as the ease
with which materials can be magnetized. Permeability is numerically equal to
B/H or the ratio of flux density to magnetizing force.

Hysteresis Curve:

When a piece of no-magnetized ferromagnetic material is placed in a coil and

apply direct current through the coil – starting at zero amps and steadily
increasing the current (magnetizing force) – the relationship between
magnetizing force, H and the flux density, B as the current increase.

It should be noted that as H increases, B increases until it reaches the saturation

point. Since the material was not magnetized at the beginning, this curve is
called the virgin (first) for this material. Point ‘a’ is the saturation point. Let
slowly reduce the magnetizing current, the curve does not follow its original line.

Even though the H has reached zero point, some flux density is still retained in
the material. The ‘B’ remaining is residual magnetism. The residual B is shown
by distance ‘o-b’. This is what happens the first time when any article is
magnetized with direct current.

12
The ability of material to retain a certain amount of residual magnetism is called
retentivity – defined as the ability of a material to retain a portion of the magnetic
field set up in it, after the magnetizing force has been removed.

If the magnetizing force is now reversed, as is the case with alternating current,
and gradually increased in the reversed direction, the residual flux density is
reduced to zero at point ‘c’ by magnetizing force represented by ‘o – c’. With
flux density reduced to zero at point c, the material is demagnetized and the
coercive force (‘CF’) for the material can be determined (definition as the reverse
magnetizing force required to remove residual magnetism from the material). As
the reverse magnetizing force is increased beyond point c, flux density increases
to the saturation point in the reverse direction point ‘d’. When the magnetizing
force is reduced to zero from its maximum flux density in the reverse direction,
there will be residual magnetism point ‘e’.

Here, one can see the two areas representing residual magnetism. By
increasing the magnetizing force in the original direction, a loop is completed.
Notice, however, that the dashed line is no longer followed. It was the virgin
curve’ or first curve.

Having established a residual magnetic field in the reverse direction, it will be

necessary to remove it. The CF required is shown between point o and f. It is
equal to but in opposite direction to CF ‘o – c’.

The closed loop that has been from is called a ’hysteresis curve’. The hysteresis
curve gets its name from that the lag between the magnetizing force and the
increase of flux density throughout the cycle. This lag is called hysteresis. The
lag is shown between point ‘o’ and ‘f’.

The material that is hard to magnetize is said to have high reluctance (defined
as the resistance of a material to a magnetizing force)

13
 ELECTROMAGNETISM

When an electric current passes through a conductor, a magnetic field is formed

around the conductor. If the conductor has a uniform shape (eg. A copper rod),
the density of the number of lines of force per unit area is uniform at any point
along the conductor, and it uniformly decreases as the distance from electrical
conductor increases. Direction of the magnetic field (line of force) is at a 90
degree to that of the current in the conductor.

To determine the direction of electricity induced magnetic field, the right hand
rule can be applied.

Referring to above figure, it may be seen that if the thumb is pointing in the
direction of current flow, while the finger will then point in the direction of lines of
force.

If a current-carrying conductor is formed into a loop, to form a coil or solenoid,

the lines of force circling the conductor from a magnetic field inside and outside
the loop, a illustrated in figure.

Inside the loop the field is similar to that of a bar magnet and is said to be
longitudinal magnetic field. When a solenoid consist of several loops the
magnetic field within it is strengthened in proportion to the number of loop. The
field strength is usually indicated in units of ampere-turns (loops).

It the magnetic material is inserted inside the solenoid, it will be magnetized.

When the electric current is turned off, there is no magnetic field induced into the
material. The formation of magnetic field in a magnetic material placed inside the
solenoid, when a current passing through the solenoid, is known as
electromagnetism.
14
Magnetic Field Characteristics:

The unit, dimensions and terminology of magnetic testing need to be understood

so that inspection can be performed intelligently. Present day terminology is
outlined below, both in Standard of International (SI) units and also in American
Standard units.

Magnetic units are best discussed using the magnetization curve of a ring
sample of ferromagnetic material.

The magnetizing force or magnetic field in the p circuit winding, and therefore in
the steel, is directly proportional to magnetizing current Ip in the primary coil, This
is given by:

H = Np I = Np Ip
L L
Where
H - the magnetizing force,
Np - the number of turns on the P-circuit; and
L - the average circumference of the ring sample

In SI units, H is in ampere per meter. In traditional units, H is in oersteds ( 1

oersted equal 1000/4 or 79.58 A/m).

15
The flux density B as detected by S-circuit, is proportional to the output of the
integrator, according to the relation below:

Ns (BA) = k Eout

Where,
Ns - the number of turns on the secondary coil,
A - cross-sectional area of the metal sample in square meter,
K - a constant for the integrator, and
Eout - the integrator output in volts.
B - in tesla (weber per square meter, SI units) or in gauss or
kilogauss (in traditional units)
1 G = 10-4 T, 1 T is 1 Wb-2m

When a magnetizing force H is created in a coil or in a yoke by passing current

through a part, or a conductor upon which the part is threaded, the value of the
magnetizing field from the system is always related to two factors; (1) the current,
I and (2) a geometric factor. The geometric factor depends on the relation
between the magnetizing circuit and the part being magnetized, Np/L. The
magnetizing force is also known as the magnetic field intensity.

The product of the flux density, B and the area perpendicular to it is the magnetic
flux. This is measured in weber (SI) or maxwells. The product NAB, which is the
number of weber multiplied by the number of turns which surround this flux, is
known as the flux linkage of the coil.

Form the magnetization (B-H) curve, the increasing of the magnetizing force H
from zero to A illustrates the non-linear rise of B with H. In this region, the
Rayleigh region, the magnetic domains which make up the material go from a
state where their net orientation gives zero flux density, to one where they are
more aligned toward the direction H, but where their shape has not changed. As
H is raised from A to c, the flux is occurring simultaneously. In this region,
domains aligned at large angles to H are reorientation closer to the direction of H,
and those domains close to the direction of H are growing at the expense of their
neighbors. From C to D, the members of domains continue to decrease as more
domains change orientation in H. The result is that B increases by smaller and
smaller amount. The second mechanism that of domain growth now donates the
magnetization process. In this region and up to E, all the domains are roughly
aligned and increased in magnetization occur only slowly with H. Point E is called
Saturation.

Turning off the field after saturation causes the magnetization to return to Br.
This is the remanance and is the flux density when H = dia. The reminisce is

16
very sensitive to crystal structure, material stresses and discontinuity
concentrations which help to ‘pin’ the flux into its saturation orientation. When H
is slowly reversed, their first exists a situation where H is negative while B is
positive. The material can sustain this attempted demagnetization until the point
is reached where it can sustain the flux no more, where upon there is sufficient
energy in the applied field to ‘unpin’ the forces sustaining the flux.

When this occurs, the flux can reverse its direction in a short increment of H to a
value, which is almost saturation in the opposite direction. The value of H that
needed to return to zero flux density is the coercive force Hc. The coercive
force commonly encountered in mild steels is about 30 –120 A/m (5-15
orested).

The permeability of a material has no meaning. Its value at specific values of H

or B does have meaning. It is therefore not correct to say that one material is
more permeable than another unless a qualifying clause is added. During NDT
by magnetic methods, the local value of both B and H can change in the
immediate vicinity of discontinuity. This can make the assessment of
discontinuity dimension by their leakage field a somewhat suspect procedure.

In magnetic particle inspection, there are two basic types of electric current
normally applied – direct (DC) and alternating (AC).

DC - a current which is usually in same direction but may vary or

pulsate in value.
AC - current which reverse in direction, being first positive and then
negative, but alternates, normally sinusoidally between constant
maximum positive and negative values ; the most convenient
source of electrical current since is provided by all utility services.

Direct Current:

A common source of DC is the ordinary battery. When single phase alternating

current is rectified, the resulting current is known a half –wave direct current
(HWDC). This means that the reverse polarity or negative portion of alternating
current curve is eliminated. The HWDC consists of individual pulses of DC with
time intervals in which no current is flowing.

When three-phase Ac is half-wave rectified, a pulsing DC is produced which

more resemblance to battery DC. If it is given full-wave rectification, the current
yielded is almost the same as battery DC, slightly ripple DC.

17
DC travels within the conductor as well as on the surface; it is much penetrating.
The magnetic field induced deeply in the magnetized article. With the same
current (amperage), HWDC provides the best penetration qualities.

Alternating Current:

The commonly used single-phase AC requires two conductors (wires) and

reverse direction a shown by this AC since curve at the rate of 50Hz. Ac at line
voltages can be stepped down with relative ease and economy by use of
transformers. Therefore, Ac can be readily converted to low voltages used in
magnetic particle inspection.

AC flow on the surface of the conductor, even at 50Hz line voltages. This
phenomenon is known as ‘skin effect’. The magnetic field induced is
concentrated near the surface of the article being magnetized. Since AC is
continuously reversing direction at the rate of 50 Hz, the constantly reversing
magnetic field has a tendency to agitate or make the iron fillers or particles
mobile easily; they are to be more responsible to flux leakage fields.

The magnetic field distribution in a solid and hollow conductor by AC to DC is

shown in figure. With DC, flux density increases evenly on a straight line from
zero at the center of the bar to the surface. The Ac line, however, been sharply
toward the outside before flux density increase appreciably.

18
 TEST METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

METHODS OF MAGNETIZATION:

Since sensitivity is greatest when the magnetic field in a part is perpendicular to

the major axis, the methods of magnetization must be chosen so as to produce
flux lines perpendicular to the major axis of discontinuity expected.

For most work, it is sufficient to magnetize twice, the second time using a field
perpendicular to the first, the idea being that a defect lying nearly parallel to the
first field would be nearly perpendicular to the second. In some cases, a defect at
approximately 450 to the lines of flux may not be seen. For critical inspection,
requiring highest sensitivity, it may be necessary to magnetize several times in
different directions, Basically, there are two methods of magnetization namely,
longitudinal and circular.

Longitudinal Magnetization:

Longitudinal magnetization of an article is accomplished by the use of

longitudinal fields set up by coil or yoke technique.

Coil (Solenoid) Technique:

When the length of a specimen is several times its diameter or cross- section, the
specimen may be successfully magnetized by placing it lengthwise in to field of
the coil or solenoid. This is referred to as “coil shot”. By this technique
transverse discontinuities can be detected. Shafts, drums, girders and the like
may be magnetized by means of a flexible electric cable coiled around the part.

19
Yoke Technique:

A yoke may be used to magnetize a specimen longitudinally. There are two

types of yoke. I.e. permanent magnetic yoke and electromagnetic yoke.

Permanent magnetic yoke is a yoke made of permanent bar magnet.

Electromagnetic yoke is a temporary horseshoe magnet made of soft, low
retentively iron, which is magnetized by a small coil wound around its horizontal
bar. When the energized yoke is placed on a specimen the flux flow from the
yoke’s south pole through the specimen to the north pole induces a local
longitudinal field in the specimen.

Circular Magnetization:

A circular magnetic field is induced into a specimen by either direct

magnetization (i.e. passing the current directly through the article) or indirectly
(i.e. through a conductor surrounded by a hollow article).

Circular magnetization can be achieved by three techniques, i.e. head shot,

prods and central conductor.

20
Head Shot:

Head shot technique is a direct induction of a circular field into a specimen by

passing a current through it as shown in figure. This technique is used to detect
longitudinal discontinuities.

Prods:

Another direct method inducing and establishing a circular field into a specimen,
is by the use of prods. Prod magnetization is used where the size or location of
the article does not permit the use of a head shot or central conductor. Figure
illustrates current flow and field distribution for prod technique. The main
application of this technique is for weld inspection. One disadvantage of this
technique is that, there is high possibilities of producing burning points (which
may act as a stress concentration) on the test part. Burning points are caused
by too high current density. This possibility can be reduced by:

a) Avoiding use of a too sharp prod contact.

b) Removing corrosion, dirt, grease, paint, etc from the test surface and prod
contact.
c) Applying a good contact pressure on the prods.

21
Central Conductor (Indirect Induction):

In this technique, the specimen to be magnetized placed so that a current

carrying conductor induces magnetic field into the specimen. This technique is
normally used for hollow part (as open part, tubular part) and is illustrated in
figure. It can detail radial and longitudinal type discontinuities.

CURRENT RQUIREMENTS

The required amount of magnetizing current is affected by the permeability of the

metal, the shape and thickness of the article, and the type of discontinuity
sought. The length an article does not affect the current requirement, because
the current flow in a uniform cross section is uniform throughout the length of the
article. The electrical resistance of the article, however, will increase with length,
therefore requiring more energy to develop the same amperage or field through
the specimen. When the specimen is not uniform in section, it is necessary to
use on value of current for the thinner sections and a second, third or more
values of current for heavier sections. It is always proper to use the smaller
current value first to test thinner section and then successively higher for heavier
sections. It is always proper to use the smaller current value first to test thinner
section and then successively higher currents for the testing of increasingly
larger sections. This is to avoid over magnetization of the thinner sections to the
point where the residual field may be higher than the field required for that
section. Whenever a higher field has been imposed than the one for a
subsequent test, it is necessary to demagnetize the specimen before applying
the lower amperage.

Longitudinal Magnetization:

Coil Technique

In the coil technique, the effective field created by a coil is determined by the
product of the number of amperes and the number of turns in the coil. For

22
example a current of 600 Amperes through the five-turn coil creates a
magnetizing force of 3,000 Ampere-turns. From this it can be seen that it is
necessary to know how many turns there are in a coil to be able to calculate the
magnetizing force. On most stationary equipment, this information is usually
shown on the coil; if not it may be obtained from the equipment manufacturer.
Another type of coil used is the wrapped cable. This is frequently used when a
specimen is either odd shaped or too big to handle in the equipment.

L/D Ratio:

For reliable coil magnetization (longitudinal), the specimen to be magnetized

must have a length at least twice as great as its diameter. This relationship is
known as L/D ratio.

Calculation of magnetizing current:

Formula for determining coil magnetizing current are follows (ASME Section V,
Article 7, 1992):

45,000 1
Amperes = ---------- x ---- for L/D ratio not less than 2
L/D T and not more than 4.

35,000 1
Amperes = ----------- x ---- for L/D ratio equal or more
L/D + 2 T than 4

Where, L = Specimen length

D = Diameter or cross section of specimen
T = number of turns in coil.

Maximum Effective Length: For long parts, they shall be examined in section
not exceeding 457.2mm (18”).

Yoke:

In the case of yoke, there is no control of current (fixed). The field strength is
measured by lifting power. Alternating current electromagnetic yoke shall lift a
weight of at least 4.5 Kg (10Ib) at the maximum pole spacing to be used. Direct
current or permanent magnetic yoke shall have a lifting power of at least 16.1 Kg
(40 1b) at the maximum pole spacing that will be used (ASME Section V, Article
7, 1992).

23
Circular Magnetization:

Head Shot or Central Conductor:

The current values for head shot and central conductor vary with the diameter or
cross section of the parts. Table shows the current per unit diameter values for
different outer diameter of the parts.

Required current for head shot or central conductor * with Direct of Rectified
Current (ASME Section V, Article 7, 1992)

Part Outer Diameter or Cross Current per diameter

Section (Ampere/in)
Up to 5” 700 to 900
Over 5” to 10” 500 to 700
Over 10” to15” 300 to 500
Over 15” 100 to 230

* For current value given for single turn central conductor. The magnetic field will
increase in proportion to the number of times the central conductor cable passes
through a hollow part. For example, if 6000 Amp. Are required to examine a part
using a single central conductor, 3000 amp. Are required when two turns of the
through cable are used, and 1200 Amp. is required if 5 turns are used.

Prods:

The current values for prods technique vary with the thickness of specimen and
spacing between prods. Table give recommended current values in according to
ASME Section V, Article 7, 1992.

Magnetizing Current for prods

Specimen Thickness Current/Prod Spacing #

¾” thick or greater 100 – 125 Amp/in
Less than ¾” 90 – 110 amp/in
# Prod spacing shall not exceed 203.2 mm (8”)

SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS:

The sequence of operations of part magnetization and application of the

indicating medium has an improvement bearing upon the sensitivity of the

24
method. This can be classified into two methods, i.e., continuous and residual
methods.

Continuous Method:

The magnetic particles (medium) are applied simultaneously with magnetic fields.
i.e. the medium is in contact with the specimen while current is being applied.

When using dry powder, the power is applied to the surface of the work while the
magnetizing current is flowing. The magnetizing current continues to flow during
the entire time that the particles are being applied and the excess is being
removed. Should the current be turned off before the excess particles have been
removed, the only indications remaining will be those, held by the residual field.

When using the wet suspension, it is usual to flow the materiel over the area
being inspected and immediately apply the magnetizing current for approximately
one-half second. The inspection medium should not be reapplied after the
current has seized to flow, since this would tend to wash away lightly held
indications.

Residual Method:

In the residual method, the medium is applied after the specimen has been
magnetized and the magnetizing force removed. This method which relies
entirely on the amount of residual magnetism retained in the specimen, is not
used on specimens made from low alloy steel, which has low retentivity.
However, this residual methods is rarely used.

EXAMINATION MEDIUM:

The success of magnetic particle testing is dependent upon selection of the

material (medium) and the method used to conduct the test. The type of surface
and the type of discontinuities expected will help in choosing the material.

In the dry method, the powder is applied in its dry form, by sprinkling over the
specimen. When the wet method is used, the medium (in a paste form or
concentrated liquid) is first mixed with a liquid (water or light petroleum product)
to make a bath, which is then sprayed or brushed on to the surface of the
specimen.

25
Dry Method:

The magnetic particles used in dry method are available in gray, red, black; and
are selected to provide the best contrast with the color of the part. Color contrast
can also be improved by spraying the surface with white contrast paint, then a
dark magnetic powder would be used for maximum contrast. The dry method is
easier to use on rough surfaces and has a maximum portability. The powder
should be applied in a low-velocity cloud with just enough force to direct the
particles to the direct location. This permits the particles to group in indicting
pattern as they approach the surface of the magnetized part. Excess powder
would be removed with a stream of air just strong enough to carry away the
excess powder without disturbing the lightly held powder patterns. Dry magnetic
particles are commonly applied from shaker cans or squeeze bulbs.

Dry method is normally used for testing of weldments where the prod method is
employed. It is good for detection of sub-surface discontinuity with direct current
magnetization equipment.

Wet Method:

The indicating particles for the wet method are smaller than those used in dry
method, and are suspended in a liquid bath (or liquid vehicle) of water or
petroleum distillate (e.g. kerosene). Because of the small particle size, the wet
method is more sensitive to fine surface discontinuities, but it is not as sensitive
as the dry method for the detection of subsurface discontinuities.

The bath must be continuously agitated to prevent the particle from setting out.
The material is either flowed on sprayed over the surface to be inspected, or the
part can be immersed in the bath.

The material is available in red, black or fluorescent. The red material provide
improved visibility on dark surface, when the particles are coated with a dye that
fluoresce brilliantly under black light, the sensitivity of the method will be
increased.

26
 THECHNIQUE FOR CHECKING SENSITIVITY OF THE
TEST SYSTEM

The use of Field Indicator:

To verify the adequacy or direction of the magnetizing field, the magnetic particle
field indicator can be used, by positioning the indicator on the surface to be
examined.

When using this indicator, a suitable flux or field strength is indicated when a
clearly defined line or magnetic particles form across the copper face of the
indicator when the magnetic particles are applied simultaneously with the
magnetizing force.

When a clearly defined line of particles is not formed, or is not formed in a

desired direction, the magnetizing technique shall be changed or adjusted.

Test Piece Used for Magnetic Yoke:

A type of standard which is used to indicate that the magnetic field strength,
sufficiently large to yield satisfactory magnetic particle indication of discontinuities
is shown in Fig. This particular block is used for calibrating a permanent
magnetic yoke. However, in the ASME Section V, for measuring the strength of
the magnetic field, the lifting powers are specified.

The use of Ring Specimen with Artificial sub-surface discontinuities:

27
The general performance of ac and dc wet magnetic particle inspection units are
checked at intervals by examining a steel ring with known discontinuities. The
machine is evaluated by using a circular magnetization applied by dc current
through a 1-3/16 inch. (30.2mm) diameter central conductor. The minimum
number of holes indicated on the outer surface of the ring is required by
specification. The higher the amperage, the greater the number of holes which
can be detected. If the prescribed number of holes cannot be detected, the
magnetizing machine and /or suspension bath must be corrected.

KETO’S RING:

The Ketos Ring is an example of a device which may be used as a system

control. A central conductor is inserted through the hole and energized following
which it is exposed to an indicating medium (e.g. a stationary unit wet bath). The
effectiveness of the system may be determined by using the small diameter blind
holes as indicators of flux leakage at the outer diameter of the ring. The Ketos
Ring method can be used to check the condition of a bath or for specifying the
output of a system.

Hole No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Diameter (mm) 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8
D (mm) 1.8 2.6 5.4 7.2 9.0 10.8 12.6 14.4 16.2 18.0 19.0 21.6

Checking the bath Contamination:

The particle concentration should be checked periodically since the vehicle

evaporates and particles are lost as they are removed from the bath on the test
specimen. The method of checking the bath concentration is explained in the
chapter equipments and accessories.

28
 DEMEGNETIZATION

Ferrous materials usually retain some residual magnetism after magnetizing

current is shut off. The strength of the residual field depends upon the
permeability of the material, the strength and direction of magnetizing force.
Complete demagnetization is different, thus the process is limited to reducing the
residual field in specimen that must be demagnetized to an acceptable level.
The basis for all demagnetization methods is the subjecting of the magnetized
article to the influence of continuously reversing magnetic article to the influence
of continuously reversing magnetic field which gradually reduces in strength.
This causes a corresponding reversal and reduction of the field in the article.
Although some residual magnetization will remain, this method quickly reduces
the field to insignificant proportions. Fig illustrates the demagnetization coil.

Demagnetization Coil

Demagnetization Technique:

There are two techniques of demagnetization:

Leave the part inside the coil and reduce the AC or reversed DC current to zero,

or

Place the part inside the coil (constant AC current) and move the part away from
the coil, or move the coil away from the part.

Reason for Demagnetization:

Demagnetization is usually required when:

29
i. A strong residual field may interfere with subsequent operations, such as
welding (Arc Blow) or machining (magnetic chips may cling to the cutting
tool).
ii. The specimen is a moving article of an assembly and deposit of
accumulated magnetized particle could cause wear; for example
crankshaft, piston rod, bearings, etc.
iii. Leakage field may interfere with nearby instruments that work on magnetic
principle; for example, compasses or indicators of various types.
iv. Residual fields may interfere with proper cleaning of the specimen.
v. The specimen is to be magnetized at a lower magnetizing force in a
different direction than the original or previous test.
vi. Specified by standard.

Demagnetization is usually NOT required:

i. On specimens of soft steel or iron where retentively is low.

ii. If, after the magnetic particle test, the specimen is to be heat-treated.
iii. On large castings, weldments, or vessels where residual fields will have
no material effect.
iv. If the specimen is to be magnetized again in another direction at same or
higher amperage.
v. If the specimen is likely to become demagnetized during handling being
placed on a magnetic chuck or lifted with an electromagnetic lifting fixture.

Checking Residual Magnetism:

For practical purposes, it is always correct to utilize a residue meter, after

performing demagnetization, to assure that residual field strength has been
reduced to desired level. The field indicator is a small pocket-sized device that
measures the strength of a field against a set of small-enclosed permanent
magnets, which restrict the needle movement against a relative scale.

30
 EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES

The selection of magnetic particle inspection equipment includes the type of

magnetizing current and the location and nature of inspection. Equipment for
magnetic particle inspection provide two basic purposes which dictate the
requirements for the size, shape and functions. The two purposes are:

a) to provide convenient means for accomplishing proper magnetization and,

b) to make possible, rapid inspection of parts

Differences in the performance of the equipment (e.g. a magnetic yoke versus a

HWDC unit) can affect the test capability significantly. It is therefore of practical
importance that the construction and operation of the equipment be known and
understood by the operator/inspector.

The equipment used to generate magnetic fields can be divided into two groups:

a) Equipment based on electrically generated fields

b) Equipment which utilizes permanent magnets

Practically, it is the former group that is most extensively used. However,

permanent magnets are legitimate testing, tools and even if their applications are
limited they must considered.

MAGNETIZING EQUIPMENT:

Portable and Mobile Units:

There are many instances that require the equipment to be moved to the material
for magnetic particle inspection. Units to meet this need range from equipment
capable of 1000A, that can be carried by hand, too much heavier equipment on
wheels with a maximum output of 6000 Ampere. Portable units operate on the
standard line voltages of 120, 240 and 550 V and deliver AC or DC magnetizing
current to Prods, Coil or Contact Heads for use with dry or wet inspection
particles. Step down demagnetizing capability is often a built in feature of this
type of equipment

31
Stationary Units:

Stationary units are most suitable in situations where it is more convenient,

practical or economic to deliver the material to be inspected to the test
equipment. Stationary equipment may be designed for specialized applications
involving high or low volume, large or small size of items for inspection.
Examples specialized applications are inspection of 5m diesel crankshafts and
large quantities of high-tensile bolts. Stationary units are available with ac and
/or dc current using various types of control. For the use of the wet fluorescent
method of inspection where the particles and the vehicle can be recovered and
reused, stationary units are ideal. These types of units lend themselves to
automated and semi-automated production inspection procedures.

Heavy Duty DC Units:

Units capable of 20,000 A currents or more may be used to magnetize very large
and complicated castings in one magnetizing operation; the result can be
excellent sensitivity and the work can be put through in a significantly shorter
period of time than with portable or mobile equipment. These large units
normally use three-phase ac rectified current. With coils and central conductors
placed in appropriate positions on the casting, these units will induce multiple
magnetic fields in rapid succession. Wen the currents are properly balanced the
changing resultant magnetizing forces swing through and angle within the part of
more then 900. It is recommended that expendable wet fluorescent particles be
used with this type of equipment.

The simplest electromagnetic field generator is the magnetic yoke, which

basically consists of a soft iron bar or a core in a U-Shape, and a wire conductor
wound around the middle portion of the core. Because of the high permeability
of the soft iron (and therefore its very low retentively) a strong lo9ngitudinal field
will be induced in the core when the coil is energized.

The tips of the yoke become strongly polarized and the magnetic circuit is closed
through air or any Ferro-magnetic material put in contact with the yoke legs. The
number of coil windings and the intensity of energizing source are responsible for
the strength of the field.

The yoke requires an ac power source of 230 V while some are battery powered
(Battery powered units have obvious advantages infield testing). The simpler
models produce either ac or dc fields depending on their source of power. More
complex yokes include an AC/DC selector switch and a control for increasing or
decreasing current. Systems are also available with separate power units

32
consisting of a high amperage transformer and an ammeter for current
measurement. Yokes are available in various sizes with an average spacing
between the legs of from 150 to 200 mm. Models with flexible legs permit
adjustment to varying surface contours.

Attributes of yokes in magnetic particle inspection are:

a) small and portable,

b) may be powered from a battery in areas remote from power lines
c) may be used in restricted areas,
d) do not tend to produce hard spots, as may occur in prod magnetization

Some limitations in the use of yokes in testing are :-

a) yokes tend to overheat, particularly when used continuously; thus their use
should be limited to a duty cycle,
b) Since they are not normally equipped with ammeters, the field strength
cannot be readily related to current flow and must be measured by other
means.

Some of the more prominent applications of yoke magnetization are:

a) in-service maintenance inspection

b) spot checks of welds, especially between passes
c) investigation of suspect areas (trouble-shooting)

Permanent Magnets:

Magnetic fields will be similar whether generated by permanent magnets or by

the flow of dc electrical current. These magnetic fields are closed circuits of flux
or force lines and their shape and direction will depend on the permeability of the
surrounding media. In the case of permanent magnets two media are involved –
iron and air. The field and its lines of force originate in the magnet. Since the
reactance of a ferromagnetic material is much lower than that of air, the lines of
force will be more concentrated in the magnet than in the surrounding air,.
Permanent magnet fields can be described in longitudinal lines of force extending
between the poles in a semi-circular pattern. Permanent magnets have limited
uses for inspection purposes. They should be used with reservation and even
then only after their ability to produce the desired defect indications have been
proven. Some of the advantages are their small size, portability, no electrical
power requirements, no burning of parts due to arcing and their potential use in
explosive atmospheres. They have disadvantages in that their force fields are
significantly weaker than the electrically generated types with poor surface

33
penetration. The force field is necessarily static, and the strong fields at the
poles can obscure indications.

Equipment Maintenance:

Magnetic particle units may be expected to function for years on a regular

maintenance cycle. If a major breakdown does occur the reason will most likely
be internal or external overheating.

a) External Overheating

External overheating usually occurs in the contact are between prods or clamps
and the test piece, or in loose cable connections. The actual area of contact
between a prod and the test price is, in most instances much smaller than the
face diameter of the prod and it can be further reduced by the accumulation of
scale on the tip, by rough test surfaces or by the presence of non-conducting
materials.

These conditions may also be the cause of overheating, when clamps are used
with either flat copper plates or braids. (Braided copper is by far the best contact
material, although it may require frequent replacement). The result of the
reduced contact area is a higher resistance in the circuit. Much of the electrical
energy involved is converted into heat, which can damage the cable connections
and eventually the components of the unit, itself.

b) Internal Overheating

Internal overheating occurs in the transformer and rectifier. Both the primary and
secondary circuits generate large amounts of heat and a recommended duty
cycle must be followed to avoid damage. Most units are equipped with a thermal
overload circuit breaker.

Because of the aging of transformers and rectifiers, the maximum output of most
units will decrease with time. This performance characteristic indicates the need
for periodic calibration of the equipment output.

It should be also noted here that some of the more sophisticated units have a
self-regulating current control, which delivers the selected amperage regardless
of the load impedance or part resistance.

34
 ACCESSORIES

There are numbers of accessories used as supportive tools in magnetic particle

testing, Some are available from the manufacturers of magnetic particle
equipment, other are made up for specific purposes, Accessories usually depend
on the types and method or application of the test selected. Hence, the
accessory is chosen primarily to facilitate and enhance the quality and
performance of the test for which it is designed. Due to equipment and materials
can and do change with use, therefore periodic checks must be made to assess
their performance.

Graduated Tube:

Graduated tube is used for measuring concentration and strength of the liquid
testing medium (bath). The method of test is described below at the necessary
time intervals for proper control.

a) Agitate the bath for 30 min. or more.

b) The spray nozzle should be run at the same time the bath is being agitated.
c) Charge a 100 ml centrifuge tube, to the 100 ml mark from the spray nozzle.
d) Demagnetize if necessary
e) Let it stand for 30 min. in a vibration-free area
f) Read the volume of the precipitate. The volume shall be in accordance with
the required specification.*
g) Check for contamination by examining the liquid above the precipitate. The
liquid shall not fluoresce.
h) Examine the precipitate. If to distinct layers can be seen, reed the volume of
each layer. The top layer is considered to be contamination; it shall not
fluoresce. The acceptable limit of contamination will be governed by
applicable specification.
* ASTM E –138: (With red or black indicating material, the recommended
concentration from a 100 ml sample is 1.2 to 2.4 ml. For fluorescent paste, the
recommended concentration is 01. to 0.7 ml).

BLACK LIGHT:

Black light is electromagnetic radiation located in the 320 – 400 nano-meter

region of the electromagnetic spectrum, just below the visible light range, and is
part of the lower frequency (longer wavelength) ultraviolet range. The figure
shows its relative position. The eye is relatively responsive to black light,
particularly when visible light is present. The functional aspect is that the
fluorescent coatings on the ferromagnetic particles absorb the black light and re-

35
emit the absorbed energy as visible light in the yellow-green region of visible light
spectrum.

Portion of electromagnetic spectrum

Source of Black light:

The source most used for black light production is the high pressure mercury
vapor lamp. The arc from this lamp is rich is ultra violet radiation. The direct light
from these lamps must be filtered to remove all harmful ultraviolet radiation below
the 300mm range and the majority of the white light.

Filters are re-purple in color and are placed directly in front of the mercury lamp.
More advanced lamps now contain a filter integrated into the bulb thus
eliminating the need for a separate glass. Incandescent and tubular black lights
are sources which are not satisfactory for fluorescent inspection because they do
not give sufficient energy at the 365mm level to meet the minimum intensity
requirements.

Black Light Filters:

The most used filter is a dens re-purple colored glass. It effectively removes
almost all-visible light and also removes the radiation with wave lengths below
300nm. Which is the harmful ultra violet part of the spectrum.

Black Light Intensity variation:

The black light intensity should be checked periodically because:

a) New lamps can very as much as 50% in output

b) The black light intensity varies almost directly with the applied voltage.
c) The efficiency of black light bulbs decreases with age
d) Dust and dirt will reduce intensity

36
Black Light Intensity Measurement:

The purpose of the black light calibration is to determine the intensity of this light
at the test surface. Until recently this was done with foot-candle meter such as
Weston 703. Since originally there was no other meter available, the Weston
type was recommended in codes. With it the intensity of the light measurements
is proportional to the total intensity of the light and the measurement is
reproducible. The new meters measure black light only in specific units (mW/m 2).
The procedure for calibration is to place the black light source over the meter at a
distance of 380 mm and center the meter so that a highest reading is obtained.
When a Weston type meter is used, the surrounding visible light of ambient light
should b measured first and this value subtracted from the final black-light
reading. Most specifications require that the intensity should be at least 900 lux
at the hot spot or the central axis of the beam. Care should be taken that the
lamp is properly warmed up and the filter clean. Some specifications insist that
the ambient light be no more than 10 or 20 lux.

The Weston meter can be used with a filter, which will cut out the reading of
black light completely. By using both the filtered Weston meter and a black light
meter it is possible to make precise measurements of both visible and black
intensity.

The Practical operation of a Black Light:

Black lights require from 3 to 5 minutes to reach full intensity from start up. This
is the time needed by the mercury to vaporize and build up to maximum
pressure. If, for some reason the light is extinguished the re-strike time is also
from 3 to 5 min. (Cooling the lamp with a stream of air will shorten this time).
Black lights are sensitive to voltage levels. When the potential drops to
approximately 90 V the light will go out. High voltages, around 130 V as well as
frequent on – off switching will reduce bulb life. Black lights also age with a
considerable reduction in intensity. The average lifetime of a bulb is around 1000
to 1500 hrs. Black lights must be calibrated periodically to avoid misleading test
results. The advertised wattage of a light, normally 100 to 500W, is no guarantee
of its actual intensity.

Two types of lights, as far as the shape of their beam is concerned, are generally
available spotlight and flood light. A spotlight will concentrate most of its energy
in a circle around the axis of the beam. For a 100 W lamp the circle is normally
150mm diameter at a 380mm distance from the light source. The intensity at the
periphery of that circle should be at least 900 Lux.

37
This value is not absolute but a result of practical experience. Spotlights
enhance critical testing and evaluation of indications. Floodlights are used where
a large area are involved and on overall view is needed. Some floodlights are
equipped with an intensifying hood and can then match the intensity of spot
lamps over a larger area.

Important values of Illuminance is given in the tables below:

Method of illumination Lumens/m2 (Lux)

Star Light 3 x 10-4
Full Moon Light 0.2
Tube Light 100
Day Light (inside near windows) 104
Overcast Day 104
Sun Light (Maximum) 104

Important Values of Luminance

(Illuminating Power)

Light Source Candles/m2

White paper in moon light 0.08
Moon’s surface 2.9 x 104
Clear sky 3.2 x 104
Candle Flame 5.0 x 104
Tube Light 6.0 x 104
White paper in sun light 2.5 x 104
Standard Source 6.0 x 104
Tungsten Filament (2700K) 104
Sun’s Surface 2.0 x 104
I FC = 1 LUMEN/SFT = 10 LUMEN/M2 = 10 LUX

MAGNETIC PARTICLES:

Color:

The visibility of the particles on a work piece depends upon the contrast between
the color of the particles and the color of the surface under test. Available colors
are white, black, red, yellow or fluorescent particles. These coloring agents have
been added to enhance particle visibility and do not alter the magnetic particles.

38
PERMEABILITY:

The permeability and retentively of ferromagnetic particles used in testing is

critical. If the particles have light retentively they will become permanently
magnetized and will be attracted to each other and to all the surfaces of the part
under inspection other than to only leakage fields. A high permeability value
does not ensure good results because other factors could outweigh any
advantage this might have. Therefore it is advantageous to have a small amount
of retained magnetism for both dry and wet suspensions. Particles with some
retained magnetism assist dry powers to align themselves into strings,
particularly in a weak leakage field, and in wet suspensions will from larger
agglomerates as they move toward leakage field in a reasonable time period.

Size and Mobility:

Magnetic particles must be able to move about to congregate in a leakage field.

Dry powders should be applied in a uniform cloud and come under the influence
of the leakage field while still above the surface of the part. Liquid suspension
allows mobility in two directions while flowing over the surface of the part and in
three directions if immersed in the suspension. Good mobility is obtained by
balancing the size of the particle against the viscosity of the liquid carrier, and to
a smaller extent from the reduction of the density of the particle because of the
presence of the various pigment coatings.

The important characteristics of magnetic particles are : Size, shape, density,

visibility, magnetic properties and mobility. The magnetic particle size is dictated
by a number of considerations, such as inspection requirements, the choice of
the wet or dry methods, the surface condition of the part and the strength of the
magnetic field.

Large particles are not as easily attracted to leakage fields. Because of their size
large particles may bridge across a discontinuity thus improving visibility, but they
decrease the mechanical attachment of smaller particles to the surface of a part
by “sweeping’ them away thereby decreasing background indications. They also
can from drainage lines that can be mistaken for defects. The properties of the
liquid carriers limit the size of the particles to approximately 70 um because
larger ones would lack mobility; there is no functional minimum size for the
particles.

Smaller particles are attracted to smaller leakage fields, and are therefore more
sensitive. On the other hand, they can create high backgrounds that obscure
defects. They also tend to clump together and from individual clumps that act as
a unit and are easily attracted to leakage fields.

39
General purpose powders contain a mixture of particles sizes to fit most needs.

The shape of the particles can also be important. Long, slim particles align
themselves better in a magnetic field and therefore show discontinuities better,
however globular shaped particles have better flow characteristics. In practice,
preparations containing mixed shapes provide sufficient sensitivity so the added
cost of producing particles of a specific shape is not warranted. Ferromagnetic
particles settle quite rapidly whether in air or in a liquid, therefore it is desirable to
keep them as small as possible.

As noted above, when coatings for color and fluorescence are added, then the
density is also somewhat reduced.

Vehicle:

The liquid employed as a vehicle for carrying the magnetic substance in the wet
process should be a light, well refined petroleum distillate of low sulfur content, or
an equivalent * acceptable to the procuring agency. Petroleum distillate vehicles
should have the following characteristics:

Viscosity, Kinematic, at 400C Maximum - 3 mm2/s

Flash point, Tag Closed Cup, Minimum - 570C**
Initial Boiling point, Minimum - 1990C
End Point, - 2600C
Color, Saybolt - Plus 250C

When used with fluorescent particles in the fluorescent wet method, the vehicle
should be essentially non fluorescent.

*Note: Suitably inhibited water suspensions are acceptable subject to approval

by the procuring agency.

** Note: When a higher flash point vehicle is desired by the purchaser, this
minimum should be raised to 700

40
INTERPRETATION AND EVALUATION OF TEST RESULT

INTERPRETING THE INDICATION:

After the indication is produced, it is necessary to interpret it. Interpretation is the

deciding of the cause of the indication, and what magnetic disturbance has
attracted the particles in the particular pattern found on the part. It is often
possible to determine the cause of the indication from its appearance and
location.

If the indication is caused by a discontinuity at the surface of the part, the

particles are usually tightly held to the surface by a relatively strong magnetic
leakage field. The line of particles is sharp and well defined and there is a
noticeable “build-up” of the particles. This build-up consists of a slight mound or
pile of particles, which on deep surface cracks is sometime high enough above
the surface of the part to cast a shadow. If such an indication is wiped off, the
discontinuity can usually be seen.

If the indication is caused by a discontinuity below the surface, it will be a broad

fuzzy accumulation of particles rather than being sharp and well defined. The
particles in such an indication are less tightly held to the surface because the
leakage field is weaker.

However, there are circumstances where magnetic leakage fields are created
even though there is no discontinuity in the metal. Such indications are
sometimes called false indications. They are indications caused by magnetic
leakage fields, which are not related to the presence of a defect. These non-
relevant indications must be recognized, otherwise, wrong interpretations may
lead to scrapping of perfectly sound articles.

DESCRIPTION OF FALSE INDICATIONS:

The causes of false indications are numerous, they may result from distortions of
fields caused of abrupt variation in the specimen shape, rough surfaces, which
cause a mechanical rather than a magnetic hold on the testing medium or a
variety of other reasons. These types of indications are similar to those of a
crack, but closer examination will reveal that they are false indications.

False indications are divided into six classes depending upon their cause: -

41
42
43
a) Magnetic Writing:

This is a condition caused by a piece of steel touching another piece of steel

which has been magnetized. The touching distorts or produces a magnetic
leakage field at the points of contact thereby creating local magnetic poles which
are usually in the form of a line or scrawl and for this reason, and effect is
referred to as “magnetic writing”. The part of the top view is magnetized with a
circular field. If another part made of magnetic material is rubbed against or
comes into contact with the magnetized part, as in the second vie, a weak field
will be induced in the smaller part. After the smaller part has been removed, the
circular field in the original part will be induced in the smaller part. After the
smaller part has been removed, the circular field in the original apart will be
altered or distorted to some extent as shown in the lowest view. Since there is
not force to change the direction of the altered field, there will be some leakage
at the point of distortion which will attract magnetic particles.

b) Longitudinal Magnetization:

When a part is longitudinally magnetized there are always magnetic poles at the
end s of the piece. Magnetic materials such as chips or magnetic powder will be
attracted to these poles.

c) Cold working:

Cold working consists of changing the size or shape of a metal part without
raising its temperature above the permeability to yield a powder pattern. The
indication obtained is at times similar in appearance to magnetic writing. On
demagnetizing however the indication from cold working re-appears whereas
magnetic writing does not.

d) Hard or Soft Spots:

If there are areas of a part which have different hardness to the remainder of the
part, these areas usually have different permeability. When a part with such
areas of different permeability is inspected by magnetic particle inspection the
boundaries of the areas may create local leakage fields and form indications.

e) Boundaries of Heat Treated Sections:

Heat treating a part consists of heating it to a high temperature and then cooling
it under controlled conditions. The wooing may be relatively rapid or it may be
done quite slowly, depending upon the characteristics of the metal. It is possible
to increase or decrease the hardness of the metal by varying the temperature

44
and the rate of cooling. The point of a cold chisel is hardened to cut better and to
“hold and edge”. The head of the chisel, the end struck by the hammer, is kept
softer than the cutting edge so that it will not shatter. The boundary of the
hardened zone frequently creates a leakage field when the chisel is inspected by
the magnetic particle method.

f) Abrupt changes of Section:

Where there are abrupt changes in section thickness of a magnetized part, the
magnetic field may beside to expand from the smaller section to the larger.
Frequently this creates local poles due to the larger. Frequently this creates local
poles due to magnetic field leakage of distortion. If a part is magnetized in a coil,
poles are set up to each end and some leakage also occurs at A and B. The
change of section at C is quite abrupt and there may be flux leakage across this
angle. The indications formed at A and B are usually very easily interpreted;
that at C any be more difficult to recognise as being non-relevant. If the
indication is continuous around the shaft is should be suspected as being caused
by the shape of the part rather than by a discontinuity. The non-relevant
indication at C will usually be “fuzzy”, like an indication which is produced by a
defect beneath the surface. If there is a crack or discontinuity in that area it will
usually produce an indication which is sharper and I probably will not run
completely around the part.

On parts with a circular magnetic field, key ways can also setup non-relevant
indications. Particle accumulations may occur at A where there are leakage
fields. A key way on the inside of a hollow shaft may also create indications on
the outside as indicated at area B in figure .

Care must be taken to guard against too casual an assessment of the irrelevancy
of indications. For example, the appearance of regular, ill-defined helical
indication on the shank of a bolt may be interpreted as irrelevant, owing to their
appearance being inconsistent with that of the more common types of
metallurgical discontinuities experienced. Such indications may result from
grinding burns which may adversely affect the fatigue properties of the material.
In such cases metalographic examinations may be necessary to identify the
cause of the indication.

INTERPRETATIONOF NON-RELEVANT INDICATIONS:

It may at first appear that some types of non-relevant indications discussed and
illustrated in the proceeding section would be difficult to recognize and interpret.
For example, the non-relevant indications may look like indication of subsurface

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discontinuities. There are several characteristics of non-relevant indications,
which will enable them to be recognized. These characteristics are:

a) On all similar parts, given the some magnetizing technique, the indications
will occur in the same location and will have identical patterns. This
condition is not usually encountered when dealing with real subsurface
defects.
b) The indications are usually uniform in direction and size.
c) The indications are usually “fuzzy” rather than sharp and well defined.
d) Non-relevant indications can always be related to some feature of
construction or cross section, which accounts for the leakage field creating
the indication.

Note:

The use of fluorescent magnetic particles on parts with non-relevant indications

is recommended since they emphasize the difference between the particle build-
up at a relevant discontinuity and that due to the non-relevant field.

INTERPRETATION OF THE FINDINGS IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE

MANUFACTURING PROCESS:

Discontinuities can be classified by the process which produce them such as

forging defects, welding defects, heat-treating cracks, grinding cracks, etc.
practically, every process, from the original production of metal formats are,
down to the last finishing operation, can and does introduce discontinuities which
magnetic particle testing can find.

In the production of metals, its fabrication ad its use, discontinuities are referred
to:

a) Inherent - produced during solidification from the liquid state.

b) Processing - primary

c) Processing - secondary or finishing

d) Service

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