Journal of Psychology at Truett McConnell University

2020, Vol. 2, No 1, 1-10

The Impact of Music on Human Cognition on Mathematical Assessments

Dalton Gore and Phillip Haynes

School of Psychology, Truett McConnell University

Abstract
Music is a part of most human’s everyday lives, but in what specific ways does it affect humans? One study
showed that music has a direct effect on human behavior, emotion, and cognition (Schellenberg, 2005). This study
aimed to find out how music effects human cognition. The theory that this study was based on is Social Cognitive
Theory (SCT) from Dr. Albert Bandura, which follows the belief that a person’s ability to learn, and their cognitive
functioning, can be heavily influenced by their environment. This of course has an effect on said person’s behavior,
which is the outcome (Bandura, 1989, pg. 1175). Additionally, the study was founded on the biblical passage 1 Samuel
16:14-23 (English Standard Version) when God uses David’s playing of the Lyre to drive away a harmful spirit from
King Saul.
A mixed methods approach was used to examine how background music effected college students’ abilities on
a flash mathematics assessment. Forty Students from Truett McConnell University were administered a math
assessment without listening to music. The same students took a similar math assessment while listening to music. The
results of the study showed statistical significance between the control group (no music), and the group with background
music. The results showed that students who answered questions versus the same students answering the math questions
correctly was statistically significant. In addition, there was a statistically significance found where students who
listened to music performed better on the administered math assessment.

Keywords: music, social cognitive theory, mathematical assessment, academic achievement, mixed methods.

with the invention of Smartphones, Google, and E-

Introduction
readers just to name a few (Hammond, 2020). So how
Music has been a major part of society since the
does music factor in? Insufficient evidence exists to
earliest stages of recorded history (Montagu, 2017).
explain the relationship between music and cognition.
Music is a universal language that is used for many
This study is an attempt to fill that gap and provide
purposes, such as religion, worship, entertainment,
better understanding of human cognition and
conveying feelings, sway emotions, make a statement,
productivity.
or even just to soothe the soul, but in what ways does
This study is an attempt to find the answer to
music effect the human psyche? The power of song has
the original question, “What effect does music have on
had an influence on many different cultures, religions,
cognition?” In other words, is music helpful in human
and generations, in many different languages, styles,
brain function and cognition, and to what extent is it
and sounds (Montagu, 2017). Music has an inexplicit
effective, whether positive or negative? This
quality that connects with human beings, which is what
information will help people know how music can help
has made it such a widespread phenomenon all
or hurt during work, providing workers better ways to
throughout history. Humans are often connected to song
increase productivity. In a society that is always moving
and endeared to it; whether they like the message, the
and working, productivity and efficiency enhancements
sound, or some other specific aspect, people tend to
are always welcome.
connect with music (Music and Soul, 2013). The
question is, what effect does this connection have on
Theoretical Framework
humans?
The world runs on people’s ability to be This study was based on the original findings
productive, and finding ways to enhance people’s of psychologist Dr. Albert Bandura. Bandura developed
ability to do more work in a more efficiently only helps Social Cognitive Theory, or SCT, which originally
the world we live in to advance further. All throughout stemmed from Social Learning Theory (SLT)
history, inventions were created to help people be more (LaMorte, 2019). SCT is summed up by LaMorte, who
productive. Even within the last twenty years, huge states that “learning occurs in a social context with a
advancements have been made to help humans reach dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person,
their full cognitive abilities and productivity levels, environment, and behavior.” (LaMorte, 2019). In broad
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terms, a person’s ability to learn, and their cognitive
functioning, can be heavily influenced by their
environment. This of course has an effect on said
person’s behavior, which is the outcome.
According to Bandura “social cognitive theory
accords a central role to cognitive, vicarious, self-
reflective, and self-regulatory processes…” (Bandura,
1989, pg. 1175). Bandura believed that a person’s
cognition was at the center of their entire life, and
subsequent behavior, which, his theory suggests is
influenced by many outside factors, including emotion.
Applied to this study, I aimed to see if music
can affect my participants in any of these ways to spark
change in results of their work. For example, if the
music inspires them emotionally, it could cause them to
think more clearly (cognition), or act more deliberately
(behave) which both relate to productivity. With this
background music, I observed alterations in cognitive
functioning by changing the environment around the
participants.
Biblical Foundation
The biblical framework behind this study lies in
1 Samuel 16:14-23 (English Standard Version), which
discusses David’s service to King Saul. At this moment
in history, Saul was struggling. Consumed by intense
spiritual warfare, he had been subject to a “harmful
spirit” (v. 15) and was being tormented. During this
time of mental instability, King Saul needed help, so
David was called upon. Verse 16 states “…Let our lord
now command your servants who are before you to seek
out a man who is skillful in playing the lyre, and when
the harmful spirit from God is upon you, he will play it,
and you will be well.” Upon David’s arrival, the Lord
used him and his talent for music to bring peace to the
troubled King Saul. In verse 23, it is stated
“And whenever the harmful spirit from God was upon
Saul, David took the lyre and played it with his hand.
So, Saul was refreshed and was well, and the harmful
spirit departed from him.”
We see in scripture that God used David, and
his talent of playing the lyre to bring refreshment to a
man who was battling a harmful spirit that had taken
hold in his mind. This is an explicit example of not only
God using song to do his will, but also the connection
that music can have with the human brain.
Literature Review
The existing research on learning, music, and
behavior is limited. Jäncke & Sandmanndiscuss
research that suggests there is no effect of background
music listening on verbal learning, positive or negative
(2010). Furthermore, multiple studies showed negative
effects on cognition and performance among students
when background music was involved, in studies with
very similar experimental designs to this one (Dobbs,
2
Furnham, Mcclelland, 2011; Miller and Schyb, 1989).
However, these studies focused on the effect of music
on verbal learning or reading comprehension but not its
effect on mathematics, leaving somewhat of a gap in the
existing research. The effects could differ in the area of
mathematics from what existing research says about the
effects on literary subjects. The following sections
examine the literature to ascertain the psychological,
emotional, and cognitive effects music has on people.
The Psychological Effects of Music
Part of music’s connection to humans involves
a connection to the brain. The psychological connection
to music is particularly difficult to measure, due to its
intangible nature. Information proving how music
effects the brain is often provided using an experimental
design to back up a claim, which is one solution to
testing the psychological effects.
One particular study, conducted by Lee et al.
(2016) used an experiment to test the effects of music
therapy on stress, in order to discover more about the
relationship between the two. The study by Lee et al.
revealed through measuring blood pressure levels
during a trial period of music therapy that brought about
“significant” reduction in stress levels as compared to
the control group (Lee et al., 2016). This experiment
supports the idea of a strong psychological connection
between music and the human brain.
This can be further related to cognitive
behavioral theory (CBT), a theory originated from the
study of Dr. Aaron T. Beck, a psychiatrist in the 1960’s
(McLeod, 2019). This largely recognized theory is
based on the thought that cognition, emotion, and
behavior all interact with one another and are affected
by each other. If this theory is true, and music does have
a strong connection to the human psyche, then music
could have an impact in all of these areas as well.
Furthermore, Yehuda(2011) discusses a variety
of topics including the biological effects of music, stress
prevention, the psychology behind music, the bodily
effects of stress, and how music therapy can help people
cope with their stress. Music can cause emotional
responses that either reflect or direct sources including
psychophysical cues, expectancy mechanisms, or
indirect sources like personal memories or cultural
significances (Yehuda, 2011). He further explains that
sudden loud or soft sounds, which are referred to as
“psychophysical cues,” are many times perceived to be
“emotional” by humans because they often signal a
forthcoming event that could have biological
significance. These sounds trigger emotions and can be
powerful, immediate, and personal. The author stresses
that music does have an important relationship with
stress. He links music to being both a cause for the
reduction of stress, as well as a cause of stress.
Miller and Schyb (1989) conclude that music
can become a distraction or a hinderance for brain
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function for individuals working on several different
cognitive tasks. This would suggest music having a
negative effect on cognition by becoming a distraction.
In support of this claim for the negative side, Dobbs,
Furnham, & Mcclelland (2011) suggest that
background music has a negative effect on test
performance, based on their study. This study involved
participants taking tests to evaluate their cognitive
abilities, with both a control setting (no music), and a
background music setting.
Some research supports music as having a
positive connection to human emotions, as long as it is
played in the appropriate circumstances and at the
appropriate volume level. There are, however,
contradictory arguments proposing that music is a
hinderance or distraction for cognitive processing and
abilities, leaving conflicting reports of the
psychological effects of music.
The Effect of Music on Emotions
Another primary component to music’s
connection to humans is the emotional connection.
Ritter & Ferguson (2017) discuss how listening to
happier music creativity encourages. The authors bring
up a question, “What facilitates creative cognition?”
Ritter and Ferguson conducted an experiment that
tested whether listening to specific types of music could
facilitate creativity as compared to not listening to
anything. Their research tests were based on the theory
that positive mood helps facilitate creative cognition.
The study showed that participants who listened to the
positive, arousing music, which was described as the
‘happy’ excerpt, saw an increase in divergent thinking
as compared to those who were exposed to the silence
control condition. The dual pathway to creativity model
can explain the reason behind these results, according
to Ritter and Ferguson. This model makes the case that
creative ideation is a product of persistence and
flexibility. This creative ideation can be influenced by
variables dependent on the situation or environment.
The positive music helps to boost the persistence and
flexibility levels that leads to more creativity. Opposed
to divergent thinking, listening to the “happy” music did
not result in better performances on the convergent
creativity tasks in this study. The authors found this to
be an odd discovery because their background research
led them to believe that convergent thinking could be
facilitated.
In a study by Jasemi et al. (2016) to test music
therapy’s effect on depression and anxiety among
cancer patients, researchers found that there was a
significant decrease in the level of depression and
anxiety for those who participated in the intervention
group, compared to the control group. In addition,
researchers Trimmer et al. (2018) concluded that music
had an overall positive impact on their participants who
were chosen based on their history with depression and
3
anxiety. Trimmer et al. concluded that music therapy
had a positive effect on the emotion and mood of
participants, helping to supplement in the treatment of
their depression symptoms, and often showing
improved mood among participants. Koelsch (2010)
further explains the connection between music and
human emotion: “Music is capable of evoking
exceptionally strong emotions and of reliably affecting
the mood of individuals” (pg. 131). The research
suggests that music has an ability to affect the brain in
ways that evoke different emotions based on the sounds
and words involved in the song.
Additionally, this was supported by a study
done by Cambridge University, the CBT-music study,
proved a link between music therapy and cognitive
behavioral theory (Trimmer et al., 2018). The CBT-
music study expressed “promising” results in proving
that music can be used to help brain functioning. Some
of the participants reported that the music helped them
in their dealings with depression, which further
suggests a link between music, and human emotion.
In summary, the research supports that music
has an overall positive effect on human emotion. The
research also suggests that music can evoke emotions
through different brain functions, which can affect
people’s feelings based on the sound and words of the
music.
The Effect of Music on Productivity Related to
Cognition
Productivity and human cognition work hand in
hand together (Best in Corporate Health, n.d.). The
question remains, how does music effect these two
kindred variables in order to positively or negatively
affect a person’s performance in everyday life?
Lesiuk (2010) discusses a variety of different
topics that have to do with the effect music has on
cognition, critical thinking, and mood. In the study,
results showed that during weeks when participants
were allowed to play their music, there was a
statistically significant improvement on their
evaluations. These findings support the idea that music
acts as a supplement for cognitive processes. Likewise,
Schellenberg (2005) in another study on music and
cognitive abilities states, “The available evidence
indicates that music listening leads to enhanced
performance on a variety of cognitive tests” (p. 317).
Comparatively, Febriandirza et al. (2017)
discuss the effects of natural sounds and music on
driving performance and physiology. The authors
concluded that there was a negative correlation between
the sound of music compared to a natural sound
environment, especially at a high volume, and driver
performance. The results showed that participant scored
lower on the driving simulation test when background
music was present, rather than a control background.
The music served as a hindrance to concentration and
 GORE
got in the way of good driving habits being practiced by
participants. This showed negative effects of music on
cognition by creating a lack of focus.
This was corroborated by Shambo et al. (2015),
in their assertion that music can actually be a cause of
stress in situations that require elevated levels of focus,
and that it can ultimately be dangerous due to the effects
it can have on medical personnel’s cognition. They even
go as far as calling music and other noises a “health
hazard” that can impair concentration and
communication. According to their research, music and
other noises can interrupt a person’s abilities in a more
“intense” situation and cause the cognitive functions
taking place in the brain of the operator to be corrupted
or thrown off, becoming a stressor or a distraction.
Contrastingly, Jäncke and Sandmann (2010),
who conducted a study examining background music on
verbal learning, concluded that there is no effect of
background music listening on verbal learning, positive
or negative. Furthermore, according to the background
research done for this study, the authors concluded that
listening to music has a negative impact on cognition
and performance on students when background music
is played.
The study called “The Effect of Background
Music and Noise on The Cognitive Test Performance of
Introverts and Extraverts” tested participants to see the
effects that background music had on students who
were asked to take what were referred to as “cognitive
tasks” (Dobbs et al., 2011, p. 307). These results
showed that participants did worse on the tasks when
background music was playing than they did when it
was not. The Article, “Facilitation and Interference by
Background Music,” showed through a very similar
study design that background music can serve as a
hinderance, based on the results of their study, which
asked undergraduate students to perform a “variety of
standard cognitive tests” (Miller & Schyb, 1989, p. 42).
One noteworthy aspect of the two studies showing
negative effects is that both emphasized activities
requiring reading comprehension and information
absorption, whereas the current study focuses on a
mathematical assessment. Neither of the studies
explicitly disprove the ability to enhance in this area.
There is conflicting information and evidence
on the effects of music on human cognition, and thus,
on productivity. Based on circumstances and different
variables, the literature I have reviewed in this section
argues both for and against music as a means to enhance
cognition and productivity. These affects are largely
based on the circumstance and environment in which
the music is listened.
Methods
A mixed methods approach was used to help
answer the research question, does music listening to
4
music help students perform better on mathematics.
Using a mixed methods approach allowed the data to be
analyzed both quantitatively, and qualitatively
according to Creswell et al. (2003). Qualitative
components of open-ended questions were posed to
research participants. In addition, an experimental
design was utilized to help ascertain the quantitative
components within the study. Through this
experimental study design, the study aimed to find out
how music (specifically the song “How Far I’ll Go”
from Disney’s Moana soundtrack) effects human
cognition. The effects on cognition were tested through
a flash mathematical assessment, which represented the
topic of study “The Effects of Music on Cognition.”
However, the more specific question answered through
this research was “Does listening to Disney soundtracks
have an effect on students’ mathematics scores?” The
answer to this question will provide further
understanding of the research question “What effects
does music have on human cognition?”
This study utilized an experimental approach to
test the effects of music on cognition. The experiment
utilized an 80-question mathematical assessment to
determine the differences between cognition with and
without music (Appendix 1). This yielded quantitative
data that revealed the extent of effects (if any) music has
on the human brain while working on an activity which
requires cognitive processing. The independent
variables included in this study is the students as well
as the music, while the dependent variable is the flash
math assessment.
Population
This study administered a math assessment to
40 students from Truett McConnell University. Truett
McConnell University is a private Baptist school
established in 1946 and is located in Cleveland Georgia.
The student population at TMU is 2,604. The
participants for this research study were selected
voluntarily from a research methods class. The students
signed a consent form before participating in the
experiment anonymously. The math assessment
contained no personal identifying information.
The gender frequency distribution of this
experiment was made up of 24 males and 16 females.
The males made up 60 percent of the population while
the females made up 40 percent, respectively. This is
represented in Table 1. The class frequency distribution,
which is represented by Table 2, showed that three
different classes of students were represented in this
study. There were eight sophomore which comprised of
20% of the study population, 16 Juniors which
comprised of 40% of the study population, and another
16 Seniors the represented 40% of the study population.
No freshmen were involved in this experiment, making
up 0 percent of the population.
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Table 1: Gender Frequency Distribution
Gender Number Percentage
Male 24 students 60%
Female 16 students 40%
Table 2: Class Frequency Distribution
Class Number Percentage
Sophomore 8 students 20%
Junior 16 students 40%
Senior 16 students 40%
Data Collection, Analysis, and Instrumentation
This study involved an experiment, using a
two-part assessment tool that I developed. This
assessment included an 80-question flash math
worksheet that I created, consisting of addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division problems with
differing degrees of difficulty for part one, which were
completed over a span of two minutes without music in
a standard setting. Participants answered as many
questions as they could within the allotted time period.
Round two followed the same setup, same questions,
but the assessment problems were scrambled in order to
prevent skewed scores, and the participants were asked
to listen to an instrumental version of the song “How
Far I’ll Go” From Disney’s Moana soundtrack while
completing the task. The song choice was made based
on its soothing nature, which presented a positive
sounding, soft, melodic background for the participants
to work with. Each round was two minutes long and the
results were judged based on number of problems
completed, and the percentage of problems answered
accurately within the allotted time. The students were
also given a feedback space to offer insight into how
they felt during each portion of the experiment and
internal (emotional, psychological) differences that
they perceived between rounds in order to help me gain
perspective on the experiences of participants. I
personally graded and assessed the results and gathered
my conclusion based on these findings, comparing the
two rounds to one another.
The two groups were compared using a t-test
based on the results, in addition to other data tables
which helped to provide more descriptive statistics. A
5
t-test is beneficial to my research because it helps to
determine the significance of the difference between the
results of the two groups (Statistics How To, n.d). These
differences are expressed numerically, by attaching a
number score (p-value, and t-score) to the data, it is
easier to compare the data in the explanation of the
results (Statistics How To, n.d). From this t-test I was
able to arrive at my conclusion of which is better for
human productivity—music or silence.
Results
Qualitative Findings
After completing both rounds of the
assessment, the participants were given some free space
to give their thoughts on the study in their own words.
They were told to “note the differences in the two
rounds, such as differences in difficulty, mood/emotion,
comfortability level, etc.” Out of the participants, 100
percent of them verbally stated that they preferred the
background music. One participant stated that they
were “…soothed by the rhythm of the song” and that
the time allotment “lasted longer” despite being the
exact same amount in both rounds. Two participants
echoed the same sentiment that they “felt better” during
the second round. Interestingly enough, and connecting
back to my research on music’s effects on stress, one
participant wrote they “felt relaxed, less stressed”
during round 2 compared to round 1, in which they “felt
more rushed, racing against myself rather than being
calm and focusing.”
Quantitative Findings
According to the numerical data associated
with the results—the average number of problems
completed in round one was 17.8 problems, compared
to an average of 24 in round two, showing positive
results for the effect of background music in the area of
completion. The average number that were answered
correctly in round 1 was 14.6 (giving an average test
score of 82 percent. In the second round, participants
got an average of 21.8 correct answers, giving them an
average score of 91 percent, which also reflects positive
results of listening to background music on cognition.
These findings are represented in Table 3.

Table 3: Descriptive Statistics

No Music With Music
Answered Correct Answered Correct
Mean 17.8 Mean 14.6 Mean 24 Mean 21.8
SD 5.77 SD 4.813 SD 8.053 SD 7.507
Range 15 Range 13 Range 20 Range 20
Minimum 12 Minimum 9 Minimum 15 Minimum 11
Maximum 27 Maximum 22 Maximum 35 Maximum 31
Count 40 Count 40 Count 40 Count 40
 GORE 6
T-Test: Comparing Math Questions Answered answered the math questions (M = 14.6, SD = 4.813)
versus Correct Without Music without music demonstrated significantly lower
number of questions answered correctly, t(33) = 16.270,
Table 4 compares the correct answers from
p = 2.515E-17. This score represents statistical
round one (no music) to the number of questions
significance between answered and correct. Meaning,
answered using a t-test. The t-test is used to determine
there was a significant difference in the number of
the significance between the questions answered and
questions answered on the math assessment versus the
the correct answers in the round. The 40 participants
number of questions answered correctly without
that took the test without music (M=17.8, SD = 5.77)
listening to music.
compared to the same 40 participants that correctly

Table 4: T-Test: Paired Two Sample for Means (No Music)

Answered Correct
Mean 17.794 14.588
Variance 31.259 21.885
Observations 34 34
df 33
t Stat 16.270
P(T<=t) two-tail 2.515E-17
t Critical two-tail 2.034

T-Test: Comparing Math Questions Answered questions (M = 22.205, SD = 7.507) with music
versus Correct with Music demonstrated significantly lower number of questions
answered correctly, t(33) = 6.741, p = 1.106E-07. The
Table 5 compares the correct answers from
results showed that there was a significant difference in
round two (with music) to the number of questions
the number of questions answered on the math
answered with a t-test. The 40 participants that took the
assessment versus the number of questions answered
test with music (M=24, SD = 8.053) compared to the
correctly while listening to music.
same 40 participants that correctly answered the math

Table 5: T-Test: Compares Questions Answer/Correct with Music)

Answered Correct
Mean 24.382 22.205
Variance 66.606 55.986
Observations 34 34
df 33
t Stat 6.741
P(T<=t) two-tail 1.106E-07
t Critical two-tail 2.034

T-Test: Comparing Math Questions Answered number of questions on the math assessment without
without and with Music music (M=17.794, SD = 5.77) compared to the same 40
participants that answered the math questions (M =
Table 6 compared the amount of questions that
24.382, SD = 8.053) with music demonstrated
the participants were able to answer within the time
significantly higher number of questions answered,
allotted between rounds 1 and 2. The average amount
t(33) = -8.962, p = 2.332E-10. This means that there
of problems answered in round two was roughly 6.5
was a significant difference in the number of questions
more than in round one, meaning that students were
answered on the math assessment with music compared
getting through more questions on the second round
to the one without. Music was found to improve the
than the first. The 40 participants that answered a
number of questions answered on the math assessment.
 GORE 7

Table 6: T-Test: Compares Answers without and with Music

Answered Answered
Mean 17.794 24.382
Variance 31.259 66.606
Observations 34 34
df 33
t Stat -8.962
P(T<=t) two-tail 2.332E-10
t Critical two-tail 2.034

T-Test: Comparing Math Questions Answered without music (M=14.588, SD = 4.813) compared to
Correctly Without and With Music the same 40 participants that answered the math
questions correctly (M = 22.205, SD = 7.507) with
Table 7 compared the amount of questions that
music demonstrated significantly higher number of
the participants were able to answer correctly within the
questions answered, t(33) = -10.347, p = 6.827E-12.
time allotted between rounds 1 and 2. The average
Meaning that there was a significant difference in the
amount of problems answered correctly in round two
number of questions answered correctly on the math
was roughly 7.5 more than in round one, meaning that
assessment with music, compared to the one without
students were answering more questions correctly on
music. Music was found to improve the results on the
the second round than the first, as well. The 40
math assessment.
participants that answered the questions correctly

Table 7: T-Test: Compares Correct Answers without and with Music

Correct Correct
Mean 14.588 22.20588
Variance 21.885 55.98663
Observations 34 34
df 33
t Stat -10.347
P(T<=t) two-tail 6.827E-12
t Critical two-tail 2.034

Conclusion environment as opposed to the control background,

which was an overwhelming 100 percent of the
This experiment was designed to measure how
population.
music can affect a person’s cognitive functioning by
This research also corroborates the original
measuring performance on a mathematical assessment.
theoretical framework, based on Dr. Albert Bandura’s
The findings of this experiment suggest positive effects
Social Cognitive Theory, or SCT, which suggests that a
of background music on Truett McConnell Students’
person’s ability to learn, think, and their environment
cognition through the results of these participants
(Bandura, 1989, pg. 1175) can influence their cognitive
mathematics scores compared to those scores from a
functioning. The results reflect this theory because they
control group with a silent background. Not only did
show that by changing just one aspect of an
participants answer more questions on average, they
environment (the presence of background music), and
also had a nine percent jump on average test score based
everything else remaining the same, students were
on correctness of the answers. The data also suggests
affected significantly, which lead to them scoring better
significant differences in performance between the two
grades on the assessment.
rounds, based on the t-test comparisons, which trend
Overall, the research showed that background
positively for the second round (with music).
music could be beneficial to human cognitive function,
Additionally, in the verbal portion of the
based on participants’ scores on a mathematical
evaluation, each participant cited the background music
as helpful and stated that they preferred that
 GORE
assessment, and linking music to having a direct
positive effect on human cognition.
Limitations
Limitations for this experiment include test
memorization, because the participants could memorize
Questions from the first test and easily solve them on
the second despite the test order being different. This is
called question order bias. Similarly, to this,
participants could also experience an adaptation to the
test, becoming more comfortable in the environment on
the second round after having completed the first,
leading to further biases. Another limitation could be
the type of music that is being listened to, and
rhythmically how does it affect cognition. This leaves
the question, “Does all music have the same benefits in
cognition or do different types effect it in different
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8
ways?” Additionally, one factor could be the person’s
ability to do math, and the level at which they can
execute solving math problems.
Another possible limitation could be that the
effects differ based on the subject (arithmetic, reading
comprehension, etc.). This could be true, especially
based on what was previously referred to in the articles
“The Effect of Background Music and Noise on The
Cognitive Test Performance of Introverts and
Extraverts”, and “Facilitation and Interference by
Background Music”, which seemed limited by the
subject areas that were tested in their respective studies.
The current study focused solely on mathematics rather
than other areas of study which took a broader
approach, in their “cognitive tests” which featured
reading comprehension, and language and verbal
testing among other subjects (Dobbs et al., 2011; Miller
and Schyb, 1989).
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 GORE
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Music) for the treatment of symptoms of
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 GORE 10

Appendix A - Flash Math Cognition Assessment

Round 1- Set a timer for 2 minutes. Take the flash math assessment, without any music. Finish as many problems as
possible in the two minutes, and stop when the timer ends.

Round 2- Go to the second assessment worksheet, and reset the timer for two minutes. Put in headphones and play the
assigned song at a comfortable volume level.
Start the timer and repeat the same process that you completed in Round 1.

Be sure to note the differences in the two rounds, such as differences in difficulty, mood/emotion, comfortability
level, etc.…. Focus on how you felt.

Round 1 (Without Music) Round 2 (With Music)

12 45 130 24 17 17 24 45 130 12
+ X - / + + / X - +
34 2 755 6 38 38 6 2 755 34
46 90 -625 4 55 ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

12 4 13 24 13 13 24 4 13 12
+ X - / - - / X - +
73 9 160 4 56 56 4 9 160 73
85 36 -147 6 -43 ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

73 17 155 28 41 41 28 17 155 73
+ X - / X X / X - +
34 3 70 4 3 3 4 3 70 34
107 51 85 7 123 ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

7 22 1000 44 24 24 44 22 1000 7
+ X - / / / / X - +
37 6 75 11 2 2 11 6 75 37
44 132 925 4 12 ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

7 4 1365 32 125 125 32 4 1365 7

+ X - / + + / X - +
9 21 764 8 34 34 8 21 764 9
16 84 601 4 159 ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

9 41 166 32 134 134 32 41 166 9

+ X - / - - / X - +
37 4 71 4 72 72 6 4 71 37
46 164 95 8 62 ___ ___ ___ ___ ___