Paper - Partial Discharge Monitoring On Metal-Enclosed Switchgear With Distributed Non-Contact Sensors

sensors
Article
Partial Discharge Monitoring on Metal-Enclosed
Switchgear with Distributed Non-Contact Sensors
Chongxing Zhang 1 ID , Ming Dong 1 , Ming Ren 1, *, Wenguang Huang 1 , Jierui Zhou 1 ID
,
Xuze Gao 1 and Ricardo Albarracín 2, * ID
1 State Key Laboratory of Electrical Insulation for Power Equipment, Xi’an Jiaotong University,
Xi’an 710049, China; zhangcx.123@stu.xjtu.edu.cn (C.Z.); dongming@mail.xjtu.edu.cn (M.D.);
wghuang@stu.xjtu.edu.cn (W.H.); ronaldo@stu.xjtu.edu.cn (J.Z.); slg1114@stu.xjtu.edu.cn (X.G.)
2 Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Automatic Control, and Applied Physics, Escuela Técnica Superior
de Ingeniería y Diseño Industrial, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Ronda de Valencia 3,
28012 Madrid, Spain
* Correspondence: renming@mail.xjtu.edu.cn (M.R.); ricardo.albarracin@upm.es (R.A.);
Tel.: +86-131-9330-5455 (M.R.)
Received: 20 December 2017; Accepted: 6 February 2018; Published: 11 February 2018
Abstract: Metal-enclosed switchgear, which are widely used in the distribution of electrical energy,
play an important role in power distribution networks. Their safe operation is directly related to
the reliability of power system as well as the power quality on the consumer side. Partial discharge
detection is an effective way to identify potential faults and can be utilized for insulation diagnosis of
metal-enclosed switchgear. The transient earth voltage method, an effective non-intrusive method,
has substantial engineering application value for estimating the insulation condition of switchgear.
However, the practical application effectiveness of TEV detection is not satisfactory because of the lack
of a TEV detection application method, i.e., a method with sufficient technical cognition and analysis.
This paper proposes an innovative online PD detection system and a corresponding application
strategy based on an intelligent feedback distributed TEV wireless sensor network, consisting of
sensing, communication, and diagnosis layers. In the proposed system, the TEV signal or status data
are wirelessly transmitted to the terminal following low-energy signal preprocessing and acquisition
by TEV sensors. Then, a central server analyzes the correlation of the uploaded data and gives a
fault warning level according to the quantity, trend, parallel analysis, and phase resolved partial
discharge pattern recognition. In this way, a TEV detection system and strategy with distributed
acquisition, unitized fault warning, and centralized diagnosis is realized. The proposed system has
positive significance for reducing the fault rate of medium voltage switchgear and improving its
operation and maintenance level.
Keywords: partial discharge (PD); transient earth voltage (TEV); wireless sensor network (WSN);
insulation diagnosis
1. Introduction
With 10 kV and 35 kV metal-enclosed switchgear being widely used in power distribution
networks, their safe operation is directly related to the reliability of the power system, as well as the
power quality on the consumer side [1–3]. According to statistics, nearly 40% of the faults in switchgear
are originated from insulation faults or potential defects such as cracks in the insulator [4], bad electrical
contacts, and pollution of the insulating bush. These insulation defects can excite partial discharge (PD)
under electric fields that are hazardous to insulation but can also be detected for insulation diagnosis.
To realize online detection, methods such as ultra-high-frequency (UHF) method [5–8], acoustical
emission (AE) method [9–11], and transient earth voltage (TEV) method [12–14] have been proposed
Sensors 2018, 18, 551; doi:10.3390/s18020551 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2018, 18, 551 2 of 18
to couple PD signals based on the phenomena of electromagnetic (EM) radiation, acoustic radiation,
and transient current flow that accompany PDs, respectively [15]. Among these methods for online
detection of discharge-type insulation failure, the TEV method is the most acceptable for PD detection
of metal-enclosed switchgear because of its high sensitivity, broad frequency band, easy installation,
and non-electrical contact detection [16–18]. However, over the years, PD monitoring and insulation
status evaluation have been implemented manually using professional PD instrumentation with
scheduled testing periods [19]. This application mode is not sufficient to meet the demands of real-time
monitoring, low labor cost, and the growing number of metal-enclosed switchgear in developing power
systems. Furthermore, the subjectivity of manual operation may result in increased errors (missing and
false judgment) in PD detection in the long term. Therefore, although there is a certain prevention and
assessment capability with current TEV technology for switchgear insulation failure, its application
effect is unsatisfactory. The various problems that currently exist are not due to limitations of the TEV
detection technology itself, but a lack of a suitable TEV detection application method with sufficient
technical cognition and analysis. Thus, to better apply TEV detection technology to the fault warning
of switchgear equipment, it is necessary to further innovate its application mode and exploit its
technical potential.
This paper proposes an innovative online PD detection system and corresponding application
strategy based on an intelligent feedback distributed TEV wireless sensor network (WSN), consisting of
a central server and TEV sensing nodes distributed on each switchgear. The principle of TEV generation
and detection are introduced in Section 2. In Section 3.1, the realization principle of wireless TEV
detection system, which mainly consists of sensing, communication, and diagnosis layers is established.
Then, the TEV coupling module and preprocessing circuit are designed and experimentally evaluated
in Sections 3.2 and 3.3, respectively. In Sections 3.4 and 3.5, the wireless TEV sensor is manufactured
and calibrated. In addition, some essential parameters or indices are also introduced and explained.
In Section 4, it is established the topological structure of WSN and the detailed application strategy
of the wireless TEV sensor. In Section 5, based on the designed WSN, the PD diagnostic methods of
switchgear, which include elementary status diagnosis and in-depth status diagnosis, are formed and
obtained. The conclusions are summarized in Section 6. Finally, a TEV detection system and strategy
with distributed acquisition, unitizing fault warning, and centralized diagnosis is carried out.
2. Principle of TEV Detection

The charges excited by discharges in high-voltage (HV) installations accumulate at the metal
linkage of ground point initially and quickly forms a current that flows to earth and spreads on the
surface of the apparatus. Several discontinuous shielding points exist in a switchgear, such as the
insulator, insulated pillar, and flange junction, where high-frequency PD signals can leak from the
shielding enclosure [20] and propagate onto the outer surface of the metal, as shown in Figure 1.
This series of transient impulse signals is called TEV [21]. The coupled voltage signal that passes on
the surface of the metal can be obtained by a capacitive sensor. The structures of actual switchgear
and the switchgear model with artificial defects used in tests are not the complete EM shielding type;
therefore, the high-frequency EM waves spread out from the metal chamber and form transient earth
voltage on the surface of the metal.
In order to simplify the analysis, a plane electromagnetic wave that propagates in the direction
of the x-axis in air and radiates out from the insulating gasket of metal-enclosed switchgear, can be
considered. For the wave, its electric field Ei and magnetic field Hi can be expressed by the following
equations [21]:
Ei = ez Ez = ez ε 0 e−jβx (1)
ε0
Hi = −ey Hy = −ey e−jβx (2)
η0
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Sensors 2018, 18,
18, 551
x FOR PEER REVIEW 33 of
of 18
18
s
√ µ00 11+j j 11
r
 =ω µ0 ε000, ,η00=ω
β= ,, γ =
 ,, δ =
 (3)
(3)
ε00 δ πfπ
f µσ
where
where ηη00 is is the
the characteristic
characteristic impedance
impedance of of air;
air; ββ is
is the
the phase
phase constant
constant of
of EM
EM wave;
wave; δδ is
is the
the skin
skin depth
depth
of the EM wave in the conductor (metal surface of switchgear); γ represents the propagation
of the EM wave in the conductor (metal surface of switchgear); γ represents the propagation constant; constant;
eeyy and
and eezzrepresent
represent the
the unit
unit vector
vector in the yy and
in the and zz directions,
directions, respectively;
respectively; ω is the
ω is the angular
angular frequency
frequency of
of
the electromagnetic wave; and f is the frequency of the electromagnetic
the electromagnetic wave; and f is the frequency of the electromagnetic wave. wave.
Figure 1. Principle of TEV signal coupling: (a) Propagation of PD EM waves; (b) generation of
Figure 1. Principle of TEV signal coupling: (a) Propagation of PD EM waves; (b) generation of
transient earth voltage (ε0: permittivity of air; μ0: magnetic conductivity of air; Hi: magnetic field
transient earth voltage (ε0 : permittivity of air; µ0 : magnetic conductivity of air; Hi : magnetic field
intensity of incident electromagnetic wave; Ei: electric field component of incident electromagnetic
intensity of incident electromagnetic wave; Ei : electric field component of incident electromagnetic
wave; ε: permittivity of metal plate; μ: magnetic conductivity of metal plate; σ: conductivity of metal
wave; ε: permittivity of metal plate; µ: magnetic conductivity of metal plate; σ: conductivity of metal
plate; k: direction of electromagnetic wave propagation; and Jz: induced current density in conductor).
plate; k: direction of electromagnetic wave propagation; and Jz : induced current density in conductor).
The wave equation satisfied by the electric field Ez is derived as follows [22]:
The wave equation satisfied by the electric field Ez is derived as follows [22]:
d 2 Ez
  2 Ez  0 (4)
d2dExz2 2
− γ Ez = 0 (4)
dx2
It is assumed that the electric field intensity on the plane x = 0 is expressed by the following
It is assumed that the electric field intensity on the plane x = 0 is expressed by the following equation.
equation.
EE== eezzEE00 (5)

(5)
where E0 represents the parallel electric field at the surface of the metal plate. According to Equations
where E0 represents the parallel electric field at the surface of the metal plate. According to Equations (4)
(4) and (5), the electric field in the conductor can be obtained as follows:
and (5), the electric field in the conductor can be obtained as follows:
Ez  E0 e x / e jx / (6)
Ez = E0 e− x/δ e−jx/δ (6)
Then, the induced current density in the conductor can be obtained as follows:
Then, the induced current density in the conductor can be obtained as follows:
J z = Ez   E0 e x / e jx / (7)
− x/δ −jx/δ
Jz =per
The total current on the metal plate = σE
σEzunit 0 e can ebe expressed by the following equation:(7)
area
The total current on the metal plate per unit area can  Ebe
0 expressed by the following equation:
I z =  J z dS  (8)
x 1+ j
σδE0
Iz = Jz dS = (8)
When the metal shell of the switchgear induces the1charge
+j (Q) because of the surface current, a
capacitive sensor (C1) can couple the charge and output a transient earth voltage signal (U), thus:
When the metal shell of the switchgear induces the charge (Q) because of the surface current,
dU dQ 1
dt C1dt C1 S
a capacitive sensor (C1 ) can couple the charge  andoutput Iaz dtransient
S earth voltage signal (U), thus:
(9)
dU dQ 1 x
According to Equations (8) and (9), = = Iz dSTEV signal can be obtained as shown (9)
dt the Camplitude
1 dt C 1
of the
S
by the following equation:
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According to Equations (8) and (9), the amplitude of the TEV signal can be obtained as shown by
theSensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW
following equation: 4 of 18
Z x
σδ
U= ( E0 dS)dt (10)
C1 (1+ j)
C1 (1  j)  S
U= ( SE0 dS ) dt (10)
Therefore, the transient voltage signal on the surface of the switchgear can be coupled and
measured Therefore, the transient
by a capacitive sensor. voltage signal on the surface of the switchgear can be coupled and
measured by a capacitive sensor.
3. Hardware Design of Wireless TEV Sensors
3. Hardware Design of Wireless TEV Sensors
3.1. Design Principle of the Wireless TEV Detection System
3.1. Design Principle of the Wireless TEV Detection System
The wireless TEV detection system consists of respective sensing, communication, and diagnosis
layers, The wireless
as shown in TEV detection
Figure 2. The system
sensingconsists
layer isofcomposed
respective of sensing, communication,
the WSN. Every sensingandunit
diagnosis
consists
layers, as shown in Figure 2. The sensing layer is composed of the WSN.
of several basic modules—specifically, a TEV signal coupling module, signal preprocessing module,Every sensing unit consists
of acquisition
data several basicmodule,
modules—specifically, a TEV signal
wireless communication coupling
module, powermodule, signal preprocessing
management module, andmodule,
ARM core.
Thedata acquisition
selected ARMmodule, wireless
core module communication
in this study is themodule, power management
STM32f205_64pin module, and Geneva,
(STMicroelectronics, ARM
core. The selected ARM core module in this study is the STM32f205_64pin
Switzerland) with the basic frequency of 120 MHz and 64K RAM. The wireless TEV sensors are used (STMicroelectronics,
to Geneva,
detect the Switzerland)
PD signal and withoperation
the basic frequency
state of the of switchgear.
120MHz andThe 64Kcommunication
RAM. The wireless layerTEV sensors
is connected
are used to detect the PD signal and operation state of the switchgear.
to the sensing layer and the diagnosis layer. The distributed sensors upload the monitoring The communication layer data
is
connected to the sensing layer and the diagnosis layer. The distributed sensors upload the monitoring
to the diagnosis layer regularly; the diagnosis layer transmits the control command or monitoring
data to the diagnosis layer regularly; the diagnosis layer transmits the control command or
strategy to the distributed sensors. In addition, the sensing layer only uploads abnormal warning
monitoring strategy to the distributed sensors. In addition, the sensing layer only uploads abnormal
messages to the diagnosis layer after detecting abnormalities, which avoids reporting redundant data
warning messages to the diagnosis layer after detecting abnormalities, which avoids reporting
and consumes less power. There are two main functions regarding the diagnosis layer. First of all,
redundant data and consumes less power. There are two main functions regarding the diagnosis
thelayer.
uploaded
First ofabnormal data is analyzed
all, the uploaded abnormaland datadiagnosed.
is analyzedIn andaddition, thisIn
diagnosed. layer can also
addition, thisdetermine
layer can a
dynamic monitoring
also determine strategy
a dynamic to automatically
monitoring strategy adjust the time interval
to automatically oftime
adjust the monitoring
interval according
of monitoringto the
current operation and load status of switchgear.
according to the current operation and load status of switchgear.
Figure2.2.Overall
Figure Overalldesign
design structure
structure of
of the
the wireless
wirelessTEV
TEVdetection
detectionsystem.
system.
3.2.3.2.
TEVTEV Coupling Module
Coupling Module
A schematic circuit of the TEV coupling module is shown in Figure 3. In the schematic, C1 is the
A schematic circuit of the TEV coupling module is shown in Figure 3. In the schematic, C1 is the
equivalent capacitance between the metal shell of the switchgear and the TEV sensor, C2 is the filter
equivalent capacitance between the metal shell of the switchgear and the TEV sensor, C2 is the filter
capacitor, C3 is the coupling capacitance, R is the resistance, ui represents the induced transient
capacitor, C3 is the coupling capacitance, R is the resistance, ui represents the induced transient voltage
voltage on the switchgear surface and uo is the output voltage of TEV coupling module.
on the switchgear surface and uo is the output voltage of TEV coupling module.
Sensors 2018, 18, 551 5 of 18
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Figure 3. Circuit schematic of the TEV sensing unit.

Figure 3. Circuit schematic of the TEV sensing unit.
On the basis of loop analysis, the circuit transfer function is expressed as follows:
On the basis of loop analysis,
Figure the circuit
3. Circuit transferoffunction
schematic is expressed
the TEV sensing unit. as follows:
uo ( s ) 1
T (s)  
ui ( s ) C 2 （ C1  C 2  C3） (11)
1
uo (s) transfer
On the basis of loop analysis, the circuit function
1 is expressed as follows:
T (s) = = C1 C1C3 R  s
(C1 +C2 +C3 )
(11)
uui ((ss)) 1+ C C2
+1
o
T ( s ) sensitivity,
 1 C C
1 3 R × s
In order to optimize the detection the denominator
C 2 （ C1  C 2  C3）
of the transfer function should be
ui ( s ) (11)
as large as possible. When C 1  
1 is much greater than C2 and C3 = kC1, the transfer function can be
In order to optimize the detection sensitivity,C1the denominator C1C3 R  s of the transfer function should
be assimplified
large as to the following equation:
possible. When C1 is much greater than C2 and C3 = kC1 , the transfer function can be
In order to optimize the detection sensitivity, the denominator of the transfer function should be
simplified to the following equation: uo ( s ) 1
as large as possible. When C1 is much T ( sgreater
)  C2 and C3 = kC1, the transfer function can be
than
ui ( s ) 1  1  k (12)
simplified to the following equation:
uo (s) kC1 R1  s
T (s) = = (12)
uu ((ss)) 1 1+ k
T ( s )  io
To satisfy the high sensitivity requirement:  1 + kC1 R×s
ui ( s ) 1  1  k (12)
To satisfy the high sensitivity requirement: （1  k） kC1 R  s
 1 (13)
To satisfy the high sensitivity requirement: wkC1 R
(1 + k )
<< 1 (13)
（w
here, w represents the angular frequency and 1 1=R
wkC k2πf.
）
Then, the value of R1 can be derived:
 1 (13)
wkC R 1
here, w represents the angular frequency and w = 2πf.
Then, w the value of theRangular
1 1
here, represents 1 can befrequency
derived: and R  （=1 2πf.）
w (14)
Then, the value of R1 can be derived: k wC1
1 1
R >> (1 +1 is) 1as follows. Firstly, the value of C2 and C3 are (14)
The specific process of parameter determination
set to 1 pF and 100 pF, respectively. Then, as R 
it（  k） wC1 mentioned, the value of capacitance
is1previously (14)C1,
k wC1
which is the equivalent
The specific process of geometric
parametercapacitance betweenisthe
determination asmetal surface
follows. of thethe
Firstly, switchgear
value ofand the C3
C2 and
TEVtoThe
are set 1 pF specific
coupling process
andmodule,
100 of parameter
pF,should determination
be as bigger
respectively. Then, as as
possible isthan
as follows.
C2. The
it is previously Firstly,
shell of the
mentioned, value
TEVthesensorof is
value C2ofand
made Cfrom
3 are
capacitance
set to 1whose
nylon,
C1 , which ispFthe
and 100 pF,dielectric
relative
equivalent respectively. Then,
constant
geometric isas
4.1it and
capacitance is previously mentioned,
the thickness
between the value
of the dielectric
the metal surface of
layer
of capacitance
the is 0.3 mm. CIn1,and
switchgear
which is the
addition, equivalent
considering thegeometric
volume capacitance
of the sensor, between
the the metal
diameter of thesurface
circularofmetal
the switchgear
surface is and
30 mm,the
the TEV coupling module, should be as bigger as possible than C2 . The shell of TEV sensor is made
TEV
as coupling
shown module,
in Figure 4. should be as bigger as possible than C2. The shell of TEV sensor is made from
from nylon, whose relative dielectric constant is 4.1 and the thickness of the dielectric layer is 0.3 mm.
nylon, whose relative dielectric constant is 4.1 and the thickness of the dielectric layer is 0.3 mm. In
In addition,
addition,considering
considering the volumeof
the volume ofthe
thesensor,
sensor,the thediameter
diameter of of
thethe circular
circular metal
metal surface
surface is 30ismm,
30 mm,
as shown in Figure
as shown in Figure 4.4.
Figure 4. Determination of capacitance C1.
The value of coupling capacitor C1 can be calculated according to the following equation:
Figure 4. Determination of capacitance C1.
2 12
S  0 r4. rDetermination
 Figure 4.1 8.85 10    0.0152C1 .
ofcapacitance
C1 =   4
 85 pF (15)
d
The value of coupling capacitor dC1 can be calculated
3 10according to the following equation:
The value of coupling capacitor C1 can be calculated according to the following equation:
 S  0 r r 2 4.1 8.85 1012    0.0152
C1 =   4
 85 pF (15)
εS dε 0 ε r πr2d 4.1 × 8.85 ×3 10 10−12 × π × 0.0152
C1 = = = ≈ 85 pF (15)
d d 3 × 10−4
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C3 100 pF
Coefficient
Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW k= = ≈ 1.18 6 of 18 (16)
C1 85 pF
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The main frequency-domain distribution of TEV C signals
100 pF are far less than 100 MHz (f max = 10 Hz),
Coefficient k = 3   1.18 (16)
so the value of resistance R could be determined: C1 85 pF
C 100 pF
Coefficient k = 3   1.18 (16)
1 1
The main frequency-domain 1 of TEV
distribution C signals
85 pF are 1far less than 100 MHz (fmax = 108 Hz),
R >> (1 + ) = (1 + )× 1 = 34.6 Ω (17)
k wC
so the value of resistance R could
1 be determined:
1.18 2 × 3.14 × 108 × 85 × 10−12
The main frequency-domain distribution of TEV signals are far less than 100 MHz (fmax = 108 Hz),
so thethe
value of resistance 1 1be determined:
1 1
Thus, value of RRis（R1 could
determined） =to(1+
be 5 kΩ)  and the determined 34.6 value
 of each component
(17) is as
k wC1 1.18 2  3.14  108  85  1012
shown in Table 1. 1 1 1 1
R （1  ） = (1+ )  34.6  (17)
k wC1 to be
Thus, the value of R is determined 1.18 2  3.14
5 kΩ and 108  85  10value
thedetermined 12
of each component is as
shown in Table 1. Table 1. Component values of TEV coupling module.
Thus, the value of R is determined to be 5 kΩ and the determined value of each component is as
shown in Table 1. Component C1
Table 1. Component valuesCof
2 TEV coupling C3module. R1
Value 85 pF 1 pF
Component
Table 1. ComponentCvalues
1 C C3 100 pFmodule.
of2 TEV coupling R1 5 kΩ
Value 85 pF 1 pF 100 pF 5 kΩ
According to the optimizedComponent C1
component parameters, C2 the C3TEV coupling
R1 module is designed and
According to the optimized Value
component 85parameters,
pF 1 pF the 100TEV
pF coupling
5 kΩ module is designed and
manufactured, as shown in Figure 5. The circular detection surface, which makes up the capacitor
manufactured, as shown in Figure 5. The circular detection surface, which makes up the capacitor C1
C1 with theAccording
dielectrictolayer
the
and switchgear
optimized component
surface (Figure 4),TEV
parameters,
is made from brassisand its diameter is
with the dielectric layer and switchgear surface (Figure 4), the coupling
is made from brassmodule designed
and its diameter and
is 30
30 mm.manufactured,
The extra sealing
mm. The extra as shown
sealing
flange
flange
isisused
in Figure for
5. The
used
the convenience
for circular detectionof
the convenience
of assembly.
surface, which
assembly.
The
Themakes
TEV
TEV up
coupling
the
couplingcapacitor
moduleC1
module
outputswith
the PD
the signal
dielectricby a
layer SMA
and coaxial
switchgear connector.
surface
outputs the PD signal by a SMA coaxial connector. (Figure 4), is made from brass and its diameter is 30
mm. The extra sealing flange is used for the convenience of assembly. The TEV coupling module
outputs the PD signal by a SMA coaxial connector.
Figure 5. TEV coupling module.

Figure 5. TEV coupling module.
In order to verify the performance Figureof5.the
TEVTEV coupling
coupling module, a PD detection experimental
module.
In order to verify the performance of the TEV coupling module,
switchgear system with metal protrusion defect was devised, as shown ainPD detection
Figure experimental
6. A stabilized
power
switchgear In frequency
system
order with HV supply
metal
to verify was
theprotrusion connected
performance defect to the
of thewas plate
TEVdevised,electrode via
couplingasmodule, a water
shownainPD resistor
Figure 6. (500
detection kΩ). The power
Aexperimental
stabilized
designed TEV module was attached
switchgear
frequency HV supplysystemwaswith metal
connected toonthethe
protrusion surface
defect
plate of discharge
was
electrode via achamber
devised, as shown
water to couple
in Figure
resistor the 6.
(500 PDAsignal.
kΩ). In
stabilized
The designed
addition, the
power frequency experimental
HV supply system also introduced a photomultiplier tube (PMT, HAMAMATSU,
TEV module was attached on thewas connected
surface to the plate
of discharge electrodetovia
chamber a water
couple resistor
the (500 kΩ).
PD signal. The
In addition,
R7600U-01,
designed Shizuoka,
TEV moduleJapan) for the photon
was attached radiation
on the surface of intensity
dischargedetection
chamberand Rogowski
to couple the PDcoilsignal.
for theIn
the experimental
pulse current system
signal also
in theintroduced
discharge a photomultiplier tubefrom
(PMT, HAMAMATSU, R7600U-01,
addition, the experimental system also process.
introduced Finally, signals
a photomultiplier voltage
tube (PMT,divider (2000:1),
HAMAMATSU, a
Shizuoka, Japan)
Rogowski for
coil the
and photon
PMT were radiation
fed to a intensity
digital detection
oscilloscope and
(LECROY, Rogowski
64MXs-B, coil
New
R7600U-01, Shizuoka, Japan) for the photon radiation intensity detection and Rogowski coil for the
for the
York, pulse
US) withcurrent
signal pulse
in
an the discharge
analogue
current process.
bandwidth
signal 600Finally,
in ofthe MHz and
discharge signals
10 Gs/sfrom
process. voltage
sampling
Finally, rate. divider
signals from (2000:1), a Rogowski
voltage divider (2000:1),coil
a and
PMT were fed tocoil
Rogowski a digital
and PMToscilloscope
were fed to a(LECROY, 64MXs-B,
digital oscilloscope New York,
(LECROY, NY, USA)
64MXs-B, withUS)
New York, an with
analogue
bandwidth of 600 bandwidth
an analogue MHz and 10 Gs/s
of 600 sampling
MHz rate.
and 10 Gs/s sampling rate.
Figure 6. Schematic diagram of the PD measurement system.

Sensors 2018, 18, 551 7 of 18

Figure 7 shows the measured TEV signal under the applied voltage of 11.5 kV in air, which has
Figure 7 shows the measured TEV signal under the applied voltage
the feature of oscillating attenuation. The duration of the TEV signal is approximately 0.6 µs of 11.5 kV in air, which hasand,
Figure of
the feature 7 shows the measured
oscillating TEV signal
attenuation. underof thethe
applied voltage of 11.5 kV in air,0.6
which has
according
the to Figure
feature of 8, its main
oscillating frequencyThe
attenuation. The
duration
spectrum
duration ranges
of the
TEV signal
from
TEV MHz is
1signal to approximately
is nearly 30 MHz,
approximately 0.6
µs and,
which
µs is also
and,
according to Figure 8, its main frequency spectrum ranges from 1 MHz to nearly 30 MHz, which is
set as the upper
according cut-off frequency of the filter circuit in the ensuing sections. Using a spectrum analyzer
also set as to
theFigure
upper8,cut-off
its main frequency
frequency spectrum
of the rangesinfrom
filter circuit 1 MHz to
the ensuing nearly Using
sections. 30 MHz, which is
a spectrum
(GWINSTEK,
also set as GSP-930,
the upper New Taipei
cut-off City,ofTaiwan)
frequency the filterwith
circuit9 kHz–3
in the GHz bandwidth
ensuing sections. and athe
Using frequency
spectrum
analyzer (GWINSTEK, GSP-930, Taiwan, China) with 9 kHz–3 GHz bandwidth and the frequency
resolution
analyzer of(GWINSTEK,
resolution 1ofHz, thethe
1 Hz, frequency
GSP-930,response
frequency Taiwan, of
of the
responseChina) TEV coupling
withcoupling
the TEV module
9 kHz–3 module
GHz was
bandwidth
was obtainedthe (see
and (see
obtained Figure
frequency
Figure 8). 8).
The The
spectrum
resolution distribution
of 1 Hz, the range
frequency is almost
response up
of to
the450
TEVMHz, which
coupling contains
module was the frequency
obtained
spectrum distribution range is almost up to 450 MHz, which contains the frequency components (see components
Figure 8).
The
of the
of PDspectrum
signal.
the PD distribution
signal. range is almost up to 450 MHz, which contains the frequency components
of the PD signal.
Figure 7. Time-resolved PD pulse waveform based on the designed TEV coupling module.
Figure 7. Time-resolved
Figure PD
7. Time-resolved PDpulse
pulsewaveform
waveform based onthe
based on thedesigned
designedTEV
TEV coupling
coupling module.
module.
Figure 8. Frequency response of the measured TEV signal and TEV coupling module.
3.3. Preprocessing Circuit Wireless TEV Sensor
3.3. Preprocessing Circuit Wireless TEV Sensor
3.3. Preprocessing Circuit
The frequency of Wireless TEV Sensor
the TEV intrinsic signal is as high as dozens of MHz (see Figure 8). Hence, the
The frequency of the TEV intrinsic
conventional TEV PD detector has an acquisition signal is as
unithigh as adozens
with of MHz
high-speed (see Figure
sampling rate. 8). Hence, the
However, the
The frequency
conventional TEV of
PDthe TEV intrinsic
detector has an signal isunit
acquisition as high
with aashigh-speed
dozens ofsampling MHz (see Figure
rate. 8). the
However, Hence,
online monitoring distributed TEV sensing unit needs to be low-cost, low-power, and compact; thus,
the conventional
online monitoring TEV PD detector
distributed has an acquisition unit with a high-speed sampling rate. However,
down-detected sampling has toTEV sensingout
be carried unit needsoftohigh-speed
instead be low-cost, low-power,
sampling. and compact;
Actually, thus,
the envelope
the online
of the TEV signal, which contains the fault characteristics and phase information (reference phase,thus,
monitoring
down-detected distributed
sampling has to TEV
be sensing
carried outunit needs
instead of to be low-cost,
high-speed low-power,
sampling. and
Actually, compact;
the envelope
down-detected sampling
of the TEVinsignal,
explained Sectionwhich hascontains
5.3.1) oftothe
bepartial
carried
the fault outcharacteristics
instead
discharge, can of
be high-speed
usedandforphase sampling.
information
insulation Actually,
(reference
diagnosis thephase,
envelope
of switchgear.
explained
of the TEV in
Thesignal,Section
TEV signalwhich5.3.1) of the partial
contains theprocedure
preprocessing discharge, can be
fault characteristics used
is shown in and for
Figure insulation
phase 9 and diagnosis
information of switchgear.
(reference
its corresponding phase,
circuit
explained The
consistsinofTEV
Sectionsignal
a bandpass preprocessing
5.3.1) of thelow-noise
filter, partial procedure
discharge, is shown
amplifier, can
and be in Figure
used
detector. for
The 9original
and its high-frequency
insulation corresponding circuit
diagnosis of switchgear.
signal
consists
The TEV
coupled of
by asignal
bandpass
TEV coupling filter,
preprocessing
modulelow-noise amplifier,
isprocedure
filtered and and detector.
is amplified,
shown inthen The
Figureit isoriginal
9converted
and its high-frequency
corresponding signal
into low-frequency circuit
coupled by TEV
double-exponential coupling
signal module
via the is filtered
designed and amplified,
detector, which then
includesit is
consists of a bandpass filter, low-noise amplifier, and detector. The original high-frequency signal converted
three main into low-frequency
components: diode
double-exponential
(D), capacitor (C), andsignal via the
resistor designed
(r).is
The detector,
technical whichofincludes threethatmain components: diode
coupled by TEV coupling module filtered andprinciple
amplified, detector
then it isis converted when the
intoamplitude of
low-frequency
(D), capacitor (C), and resistor (r). The technical principle of detector is that when the amplitude of
double-exponential signal via the designed detector, which includes three main components: diode
(D), capacitor (C), and resistor (r). The technical principle of detector is that when the amplitude of
Sensors 2018, 18, 551 8 of 18
signal is larger
Sensors 2018, 18,than the forward
x FOR voltage of diode D, the diode D is turned on and its on-resistance is
signal is larger thanPEER
the REVIEW 8 of 18
forward voltage of diode D, the diode D is turned on and its on-resistance is
recorded as r’. As long as the time constants of charging (τ 1 = r’C) is far less than that of discharging
recorded as r’. As long as the time constants of charging (τ1 = r’C) is far less than that of discharging
signal
(τ 2 =(τrC), is larger
the than the
capacitor forward
C can voltagefast
be charged of diode D, the diode
and discharge to D is turned
resistor on and its on-resistance is
r slowly.
2 = rC), the capacitor C can be charged fast and discharge to resistor r slowly.
recorded as r’. As long as the time constants of charging (τ1 = r’C) is far less than that of discharging
(τ2 = rC), the capacitor C can be charged fast and discharge to resistor r slowly.
Figure 9. TEV Signal preprocessing procedure.

Figure 9. TEV Signal preprocessing procedure.
The original and processed Figure
TEV 9. PD
TEVsignals
Signal preprocessing
for A/D dataprocedure.
collection are shown in Figure 10. The
The original
figure andthe
shows that processed TEVsignal
original TEV PD signals
(time offor A/D data
duration: collection
0.6 µs), are showntointheFigure
can be transferred low- 10.
The original and processed TEV PD signals for A/D data collection are shown in Figure 10. The
The frequency domain
figure shows thatsignal (time of duration:
the original TEV signalabout 50 µs),
(time ofbut with a higher
duration: signal-to-noise
0.6 µs), ratio (SNR),
can be transferred to the
figure shows that the original TEV signal (time of duration: 0.6 μs), can be transferred to the low-
which can be
low-frequency collected
domain by (time
signal the relatively low-speed
of duration: aboutacquisition
50 µs), butunit.
withIn our work,
a higher a low-powerratio
signal-to-noise
frequency domain signal (time of duration: about 50 μs), but with a higher signal-to-noise ratio (SNR),
acquisition
(SNR), which unitbe
with 1 MS/s sampling rate, andlow-speed
A/D precision of 12 bits unit.
was selected to builda the TEV
which cancan collected
be collected by by
thethe relatively
relatively acquisition
low-speed acquisition In our
unit. In our work,
work, low-power
a low-power
sensing
acquisition unit.
unit with 1 1MS/s
acquisition unit with MS/s sampling rate,and
sampling rate, and
A/DA/D precision
precision of 12of 12was
bits bitsselected
was selected
to buildtothebuild
TEV the
TEVsensing
sensingunit.
unit.
Figure 10. The original and processed TEV PD signals.
theFigure
3.4. Structural Design of Figure 10. TEV
Wireless The original
10. The
and processed TEV PD signals.
Sensorsand
original processed TEV PD signals.
Considering
3.4. Structural anti-interference,
Design the wireless
of the Wireless TEV Sensors TEV sensors were rigidly designed with conductive
3.4. material
Structural Designtheir
coating of the Wireless
outer TEV
surface. Sensors
Each wireless TEV sensor was designed and manufactured, as
Considering anti-interference, the wireless TEV sensors were rigidly designed with conductive
shown in Figure 11, with dimensions 108 mm × 80 mm × 37 mm and weight 420 g. The power supply
Considering
material coating anti-interference,
their outer surface. theEach
wireless TEV
wireless sensors
TEV sensorwere
was rigidly
designed designed with conductive
and manufactured, as
used with the signal acquisition and information transmission of the monitoring units were lithium
material coating their outer surface. Each wireless TEV sensor was
shown in Figure 11, with dimensions 108 mm × 80 mm × 37 mm and weight 420 g. The power designed and manufactured,
supply
batteries, thereby avoiding complex power line reconstruction. In order to improve the battery life, a
as shown in Figure
used with 11, acquisition
the signal with dimensionsand information × 80 mm × of
108 mm transmission 37the
mm and weight
monitoring 420
units g. The
were power
lithium
combination of the periodic start mode and servo start mode was adopted in the monitoring strategy.
supplybatteries,
used thereby
with theavoiding
signal complex power
acquisition and line reconstruction.
information In order toofimprove
transmission the the battery
monitoring life, were
units a
That is, after the completion of a measurement task, the sensor unit enters deep sleep mode. In
combination
lithium batteries, ofthereby
the periodic start mode
avoiding complexandpower
servo start
line mode was adopted
reconstruction. In in the monitoring
order to improve strategy.
the battery
addition, device selection, hardware design, and power management used low-power mode. The
That
life, output is, after theofcompletion
a combination of astart
measurement task, the sensor unit enters deep sleep
in themode. In
voltage andthe periodic
capacity mode and
of the lithium servo
battery arestart mode
3.7 V and was
4000adopted
mAh, according monitoring
to the
addition,
strategy. device
Thatcalculationselection,
is, after the hardware design, and power management used low-power mode. The
theoretical andcompletion of a measurement
evaluation, which guarantees normal task, thefor
work sensor
at leastunit
two enters deepthe
years when sleep
output voltage and capacity of the lithium battery are 3.7 V and 4000 mAh, according to the
mode. In addition,
self-starting perioddevice selection,
of the sensor is hardware
twice perdesign,
day. Inand powerthe
addition, management used low-power
sensor is equipped with a fault mode.
theoretical calculation and evaluation, which guarantees normal work for at least two years when the
The indicating lamp—a
output voltage tri-color
and LEDof
capacity with
thegreen, blue,
lithium and redare
battery lights
3.7representing
V and 4000the mAh,threeaccording
alarm levels,to the
self-starting period of the sensor is twice per day. In addition, the sensor is equipped with a fault
normal, calculation
theoretical abnormal, and anddangerous,
evaluation, respectively. A built-in normal
which guarantees permanentworkmagnet
for atonleast
the bottom
two years of the
when
indicating lamp—a tri-color LED with green, blue, and red lights representing the three alarm levels,
sensor enables
the self-starting it to
periodandbe attached
of the to
sensor ismetal surfaces in
twice per day. practical application.
In addition, the sensor
normal, abnormal, dangerous, respectively. A built-in permanent magnetisonequipped
the bottom with a fault
of the
indicating lamp—a tri-color LED with green, blue, and red lights
sensor enables it to be attached to metal surfaces in practical application. representing the three alarm levels,
normal, abnormal, and dangerous, respectively. A built-in permanent magnet on the bottom of the
sensor enables it to be attached to metal surfaces in practical application.
Sensors 2018, 18, 551 9 of 18

(a) (b)
(a) (a) structural design diagram; and
Figure 11. Wireless TEV sensor: (b)(b) physical picture.
Figure 11. Wireless TEV sensor: (a) structural design diagram; and (b) physical picture.
(a) (a) structural design diagram; and(b)
Figure 11. Wireless TEV sensor: (b) physical picture.
3.5. Calibration of the Wireless TEV Sensors
3.5. Calibration of the11.
Figure Wireless
WirelessTEV
TEVSensors
sensor: (a) structural design diagram; and (b) physical picture.
3.5. Calibration of the
In this study, Wireless
a TEV PD TEV Sensorssystem, comprising a TEV signal source, signal transmission
calibration
In this
cable, study,
matched
3.5. Calibration a TEV PD
resistance, calibration
wireless
of thea Wireless TEVsystem,
sensor, comprising
and terminalacomputer,
TEV signalas source,
shown insignal
Figuretransmission
12, was
In this study, TEV PD TEV Sensors
calibration system, comprising a TEV signal source, signal transmission
cable, matched
designed basedresistance,
on the TEV wireless TEV sensor,
signal generation and PDanddetection
terminal computer, as shown in Figure 12,
principle.
cable,
In matched
this study,resistance,
aon
TEV PD wireless TEVsystem,
calibration sensor, comprising
and terminala computer,
TEV signal as shownsignal
source, in Figure 12, was
transmission
was designed
designed based
based on the
the TEV
TEV signal
signal generation
generation and and
PD PD detection
detection principle.
principle.
cable, matched resistance, wireless TEV sensor, and terminal computer, as shown in Figure 12, was
designed based on the TEV signal generation and PD detection principle.
Figure 12. The experimental TEV PD calibration system.
Figure 12. The experimental TEV PD calibration system.

The TEV signal sourceFigure is 12.
a pulse generator thatTEV
The experimental outputs a periodicsystem.
PD calibration Gaussian pulse with risetime
11.7 ns (approximately Figure30 MHz) 12. to imitate
The the TEV
experimental TEV signal
PD on the metal
calibration surface generated by EM
system.
The TEV signal source is a pulse generator that outputs a periodic Gaussian pulse with risetime
waves.
Thens The
TEV metal plate is connected
signal source30isMHz) a pulse to a pulser via a 50 Ω coaxial-cable and grounded through a 50
11.7 (approximately to generator
imitate thethat
TEVoutputs
signal on a periodic
the metalGaussian pulse
surface generated withbyrisetime
EM
Ω matched
The TEVresistor.
signal The
sourceTEVis sensor
a pulse measures
generator the signal
that on the
outputs a metal surface
periodic and sends
Gaussian pulse the testrisetime
with result
waves. The metal plate is connected to a pulser via a 50 Ω coaxial-cable
11.7 ns (approximately 30 MHz) to imitate the TEV signal on the metal surface generated by and grounded through a 50 EM
to the
11.7 ns terminal PC via Wi-Fi.
(approximately 30 The pulse
MHz) to generator
imitate the output
TEV amplitude
signal on the ranges
metal from 20 mV
surface to 80 mV;
generated by the
EM
Ω matched
waves. The metalresistor.
plateThe TEV sensortomeasures
is connected a pulserthe a 50 Ω
viasignal oncoaxial-cable
the metal surfaceandand sends the
grounded a 50 Ω
test result
through
corresponding
waves. The metalsensitivity
plateWi-Fi.and response
is connected acharacteristics
to generator
pulser via ofΩ
a 50 the sensor are shown
coaxial-cable and in Figure through
grounded 13. a 50
to the resistor.
matched terminal PC
TheviaTEV sensor The measures
pulse output
the signal onamplitude
the metal ranges from
surface and20 mV to 80
sends themV;testthe
result
Ωcorresponding
matched resistor. The TEV
sensitivity andsensor measures
response the signalofon
characteristics thethe metalare
sensor surface
shown and
in sends
Figure the
13.test result
to the terminal PC via Wi-Fi. The pulse generator output amplitude ranges from 20 mV to 80 mV;
to the terminal PC via Wi-Fi. The pulse generator output amplitude ranges from 20 mV to 80 mV; the
thecorresponding
correspondingsensitivity
sensitivity and
and response
response characteristics
characteristics of theof sensor
the sensor are shown
are shown in Figure
in Figure 13. 13.
Figure 13. Amplitude calibration curve of wireless TEV sensor.

As can be seen from Figure 13, the relationship between the TEV output and the original signal
can be fitted using the following linear equation:
As can be seen from Figure
Figure 13, the relationship
13. Amplitude between
calibration curve the TEV
of wireless output
TEV and the original signal
sensor.
Sensors 2018, 18, 551 10 of 18
ATEV = 24.04 + 5.08 × Aori (18)
where ATEV and Aori are the output amplitude (in mV) of the TEV sensor and the original
signal, respectively.
Traditional PD detection with pulse current method [23] can measure the PD apparent charge
of the HV electrical equipment and express discharge intensity in unit of pC, while TEV results
are customarily expressed in logarithmic unit of dBmV to indicate the intensity of the discharge.
The relation between the TEV signal (mV) and output result (dBmV) is as follows:
dBmV = 20 log10 (mV) (19)
According to Equations (18) and (19), the output result of a wireless TEV sensor satisfies the
following equation:
A − 24.04
D = 20 log10 ( TEV ) (20)
5.08
where D is the logarithmic value of the sensor output with units in dBmV.
On the basis of the above analysis and research, the technical parameters and values of the
wireless TEV sensor are shown in Table 2 and the relative error is estimated by the deviation between
the measured value (ATEV ) and the standard value (Aori ). These sensors, whose technical parameters
satisfy the requirement of detection application in the field, lay the foundation for establishing the
WSN for medium-voltage (MV) switchgear monitoring.
Table 2. Technical parameters of the wireless TEV sensor.
Index Minimum Detectable Apparent Discharge Quantity Bandwidth Relative Error

Value 5 pC 1–30 MHz ≤5%
4. WSN of TEV and Its Application Strategy

Based on the wireless distributed TEV sensor, an intelligent detection system and application
strategy in the field, which combine the advantages of live testing and online testing, was developed.
The construction of the TEV WSN and its corresponding topological graph is shown in Figures 14
and 15, respectively. In general, the entire monitoring system consists of TEV WSN, signal exchanger,
servers of the integration supervision system, and a handheld mobile terminal. In addition, the PD
detection strategy includes two parts: the PD monitoring system and inspection system. For the
PD monitoring system, when all of the MV/HV switchgear is operating normally, the sensing units
regularly upload the characteristic data according to the preset monitoring density, for example, twice
per day. When the test data are abnormal, the system increases the monitoring density, even changing
into the real-time monitoring mode automatically, and sends the status information to the terminal
server and operation and maintenance personnel. In terms of the inspection system, when it is time for
the regular inspection of the HV switchgear or a switchgear failure warning occurs, the operation and
maintenance personnel can carry the handheld mobile terminal to the switchgear room for further
diagnosis onsite. Considering the complex EM interference onsite, a direct transmission model is
adopted as the topological structure of the WSN to guarantee the stability and reliability of the
entire system.
Sensors 2018, 18, 551 11 of 18
Figure14.
Figure 14.Application
Application strategy
strategy of
of the
thewireless
wirelessTEV
TEVsensor.
sensor.
Figure 14. Application strategy of the wireless TEV sensor.
Figure 15. Topological graph of WSN: direct transmission model.

For the WSN, each sensing unit can operate independently according to the commands and the
For the WSN, each sensing unit can operate independently according to the commands and the
strategies set by the upper diagnostic layer and obtains the status of the switchgear with the warning
For the set
strategies WSN,by theeach sensing
upper unit can
diagnostic operate
layer independently
and obtains the status according to the commands
of the switchgear with the warningand the
level. To avoid uploading redundant data to the decision layer, onsite primary diagnosis results at a
strategies set by the upper diagnostic layer and obtains the status of the switchgear
level. To avoid uploading redundant data to the decision layer, onsite primary diagnosis results at a with the warning
low warning level are kept in the sensing unit. If an uptrend is confirmed with historical data, the
level.
low To avoid level
warning uploadingare kept redundant data to
in the sensing theIfdecision
unit. an uptrend layer, onsite primary
is confirmed diagnosisdata,
with historical results
the at
status data are uploaded to the diagnosis layer and the long-term real-time monitoring mode is
a low
statuswarning
data are level are kept
uploaded to in
thethe sensinglayer
diagnosis unit.andIf an
theuptrend
long-term is confirmed with historical
real-time monitoring mode data,
is
activated. Before uploading the data and starting the real-time monitoring mode, a correlation
activated.
theanalysis
status data Before
are uploadingtothe
uploaded thedata and starting
diagnosis layer the the
and real-time
long-term monitoring
real-time mode, a correlation
monitoring mode is
should be implemented on the short-term abnormal signal via Wi-Fi to estimate the
analysis
activated. should
Before be implemented
uploading the datathe on
and the short-term
starting abnormal
the real-time signal via Wi-Fi to estimate the
background noise and recognize real PD signals from themonitoring
stochastic mode, a correlation
disturbance. The TEV analysis
PD
background
should noise andon recognize the realabnormal
PD signals fromvia theWi-Fi
stochastic disturbance. The TEV PD
signal coupled by one sensor unit is compared with the signals coupled by the adjacent units noise
be implemented the short-term signal to estimate the background to
andsignal coupled
recognize thebyreal onePD sensor
signalsunitfrom
is compared
theFurther, with the
stochastic signals coupledTEV by the adjacent units toby
exclude the external common interference. the disturbance.
historical data,The includingPD PDsignal coupled
magnitude and
oneexclude the external common interference. Further, the by historical data, including to PD magnitude and
PDsensor unit
frequency, isare
compared with
used to determine the signals
whethercoupled
an insulation thefault
adjacent
statusunits exclude
is developing or the external
a sudden
PD
common frequency,
interference.are used to determine whether an insulation fault status is developing or a sudden
fault has occurred. Further, the historical data, including PD magnitude and PD frequency, are used
fault has
to determine occurred.
whether an insulation fault status is developing or a sudden fault has occurred.
5. Switchgear PD Diagnostic Method Based on a Wireless Distributed TEV Sensing Unit
5. Switchgear
5. Switchgear PD PDDiagnostic
DiagnosticMethodMethodBasedBased onon aa Wireless
Wireless Distributed
DistributedTEV TEVSensing
SensingUnit Unit
Most traditional PD detections rely on manual inspection and manual judgments. However, for
Most traditionalPD PD detections rely on
onmanual inspection and manual judgments. However, for
theMost traditional
substations or powerdetections
distributionsrelythat manual
have inspection
a large numberand manual
of switchgear, judgments.
PD detections However,
are
the substations or power distributions that have a large number of switchgear, PD detections are
fortime-consuming
the substationsand or power distributions
labor intensive that have
and, because of athe
large number
empirical of switchgear,
judgment required,PD detections are
misjudgment,
time-consuming and labor intensive and, because of the empirical judgment required, misjudgment,
which means that
time-consuming andthe normal
labor state isand,
intensive mistakenly
becausediagnosed as the failure
of the empirical state required,
judgment and missed judgment
misjudgment,
which means that the normal state is mistakenly diagnosed as the failure state and missed judgment
that means
which means thatthat thethe normal
failure state
state is mistakenly
diagnosed as the normal
diagnosed statefailure
as the are unavoidable.
state and missedBasedjudgment
on the
that means that the failure state is diagnosed as the normal state are unavoidable. Based on the
sensing network, the cumbersome manual maintenance can be avoided, and
that means that the failure state is diagnosed as the normal state are unavoidable. Based on the sensing the objectivity of data
sensing network, the cumbersome manual maintenance can be avoided, and the objectivity of data
records can be improved. In addition, WSN can also realize front-end
network, the cumbersome manual maintenance can be avoided, and the objectivity of data records processing on PD signals, and
records can be improved. In addition, WSN can also realize front-end processing on PD signals, and
canadjust
adjust
monitoring
be improved.
monitoring Inmode
mode
automatically
addition, WSN canaccording
automatically according
to the
also realize operation
front-end
to the operation
status of the
processing
status of the
power
on PD
power
grid. and
signals, In terms
adjust
grid. In terms
of the
monitoring PD diagnostic
mode method
automatically based on TEV
according WSN,
to the the noise
operation level of
statusthe entire
of the sensing
power network
grid. In is first of
terms
of the PD diagnostic method based on TEV WSN, the noise level of the entire sensing network is first
theevaluated.
PD diagnostic
evaluated.
Then, according to the uploaded data, the elementary status diagnosis, which includes
Then,method
according based
to theonuploaded
TEV WSN, thethe
data, noise level of the
elementary entire
status sensingwhich
diagnosis, network is first
includes
Sensors 2018, 18, 551 12 of 18

evaluated. Then, according to the uploaded data, the elementary status diagnosis, which includes
quantity analysis,
quantity analysis,trend
trend analysis,
analysis, and and parallel
parallel analysis,
analysis, is implemented
is implemented to sift thetoabnormal
sift the switchgear
abnormal
switchgear
and and the corresponding
the corresponding danger degreesdanger degrees are
are determined. determined.
Finally, an in-depthFinally,
status an in-depth
diagnosis status
is carried
diagnosis
out is carried
to realize out torecognition
PD pattern realize PD and
pattern recognition
the location and
of the the location of the switchgear.
switchgear.
5.1. In Situ Status Estimation

In order to reduce data transmission and data redundancy, and and increase
increase the
the adaptability
adaptability of the
sensing network,
sensing network, the sensor unit needs to have primary diagnosis ability,
have primary diagnosis ability, including background noise
estimation
estimation and
andhistorical
historicaltrend
trendanalysis.
analysis.Figure
Figure1616shows
showsananexample
example of of
thethe
three levels
three determined
levels determined by
the
by sensor unit in
the sensor primary
unit diagnosis—specifically,
in primary triggering
diagnosis—specifically, threshold,
triggering attentionattention
threshold, level, andlevel,
warning
and
level—which is decidedisby
warning level—which the decision
decided by thelayer according
decision to the empirical
layer according to thevalue, background
empirical noise level,
value, background
and
noisehistorical
level, and trend. The in
historical situ status
trend. The inissitu
recorded byrecorded
status is the sensorbyunit for historical
the sensor unit foranalysis. Only
historical if the
analysis.
PD
Onlylevel exceeds
if the PD leveltheexceeds
attention level
the are thelevel
attention full sampled data
are the full uploaded
sampled datatouploaded
the host PC.
to the host PC.
Figure 16.
Figure 16. The
The three levels determined
three levels determined by
by the
the sensor
sensor unit.
unit.
5.2. Elementary Status Diagnosis

5.2. Elementary Status Diagnosis
5.2.1. Quantity
5.2.1. Quantity Analysis
Analysis
The risk
The risk levels—normal, attention, and
levels—normal, attention, and warning—are
warning—are determined
determined comprehensively
comprehensively by by empirical
empirical
values, which derives from the statistical analysis of experimental data and failure cases. According
values, which derives from the statistical analysis of experimental data and failure cases. According
to the
to the TEV
TEV value
value in
in “dBmV”,
“dBmV”, the
the PD
PD severity
severity can
can be
be divided
divided into
into the
the four
four ranges
ranges shown
shown inin Table
Table 3.
3.
This offset analysis provides the basic information of a switchgear for in situ status estimation
This offset analysis provides the basic information of a switchgear for in situ status estimation and and
correlation analysis
correlation analysis without
without considering
considering thethe interference
interference and
and background
backgroundnoisenoiselevel.
level.
Table 3.
Table 3. Risk
Risk determination
determination via
via quantity
quantity analysis.
analysis.
Criterion, P (dB) Risk Level Description Treatment

Criterion, P (dB) Risk Level Description Treatment
P ≤ 25 Normal / Routinization
25 < P P≤ ≤4025 Normal
Attention / Routinization
Shorten monitoring interval
Abnormal
P ≤< P55≤ 40
40 < 25 Abnormal WarningAttention Shorten monitoring Shorten
interval monitoring
and uploadinterval
results to host PD
40 < P ≤ 55 Warning Shorten monitoring interval and upload results to host PD
P > 55 Dangerous Urgent Upload results to host PD and turn on real-time monitoring mode
P > 55 Dangerous Urgent Upload results to host PD and turn on real-time monitoring mode
5.2.2. Trend Analysis

5.2.2. Trend Analysis
Trend analysis is also applied in diagnosis based on the variation of the quantity with time. This
occursTrend
whenanalysis
the PD is also applied
activity reaches in
andiagnosis
abnormal based
level; iton
is the
onlyvariation
applied toofthe
theintensive
quantitymonitoring
with time.
This occurs when the PD activity reaches an abnormal level; it is only applied to the
mode and is, therefore, not applicable during normal status. The time trend analysis is performed intensive
as
monitoring
follows. mode and is, therefore, not applicable during normal status. The time trend analysis is
performed as follows.
The relative variation of quantity with time can be calculated using Equation (21):
At 2  At1
q%   100% (21)
At1  t
Sensors 2018, 18, 551 13 of 18
The relative variation of quantity with time can be calculated using Equation (21):
At2 − At1
∆q% = × 100% (21)
At1 × ∆t
where At1 and At2 are the test quantity results before and after a time interval ∆t. ∆t is determined by
the risk level obtained via quantity analysis, it can be 10 min, 1 h, 1 day, etc. According to the calculated
variation, the insulation status is divided into two modes: developing insulation deterioration and
sudden fault. If the variation exceeds 50%, the status is rated as an urgent risk level.
5.2.3. Parallel Analysis

For the same type of switchgear operating under the same working condition, parallel analysis
can be used to determine PD location and severity. The parallel analysis is performed as follows:
Calculate the average PD magnitude Aav of both switchgear, including the target switchgear,
at the same test time. Set the reference deviation value ∆mr %. Calculate the deviation of the
target switchgear ∆m% using Equation (22):
k
1
A av = k ∑ A
n =1 (22)
A− A av
∆m% = A av × 100%
If the ∆m% of the target switchgear is less than ∆mr %, the insulation status of the target switchgear
is determined as “Normal”.
If the ∆m% exceeds ∆mr %, the insulation status of the target switchgear is determined as
“Abnormal” and its risk level is estimated according to the criteria list in Table 4.
Table 4. Risk determination via parallel analysis.
Criteria Risk Level Description Treatment

∆m% ≤ ∆mr % Normal / Routinization
∆mr % < ∆m% ≤ 1.5∆mr % Attention Shorten monitoring interval
1.5∆mr % < ∆m% ≤ 2∆mr % Abnormal Warning Shorten monitoring interval and upload results to host PD
∆m% > 2∆mr % Dangerous Urgent Upload results to host PD and turn on real-time monitoring mode
5.3. In-Depth Status Diagnosis—PD Pattern Recognition
5.3.1. Acquisition of PRPD Diagram Based on Wireless TEV Sensor

As mentioned above, 1 MS/s sampling rate and A/D precision of 12 bits was adopted by the
designed TEV sensing unit. Due to the internal storage limitation of the ARM chip, the sensor collects
PD signals of only 20 ms each time, which is equal to one period of power frequency voltage (50 Hz)
and there are 20,000 data points. To obtain the PRPD diagram, the terminal sends commands to the
sensor and switches it into the PRPD collection mode, firstly. Then, the sensor collects the PD signal for
the first time and extracts the peak value (q) and its corresponding coordinate (k, the sequence number
among 20,000 points) of every PD pulse to build the array (ki , qi ). After this array (ki , qi ) has been
updated from last collection, the internal clock of the ARM chip controls the triggering time of the
next collection, which ensures that the time interval between the two collections is an integral multiple
of 20 ms to strictly guarantee the phase consistency. When the collected PD number is sufficient or
the collection time is long enough (these two parameters can be set by the terminal), the collection
process is ended. The coordinate parameters (ki ) can be converted to reference phase (ϕi ) by the
following equation:
2π × k i
ϕi = (23)
20, 000
Sensors 2018, 18, 551 14 of 18
Eventually, the final data array (ϕi , qi ) is uploaded to the terminal for the display of PRPD diagram
and further analysis.
Measured by wireless TEV sensor, the PRPD diagrams of switchgear typical insulation defects are
Sensors
shown 2018, 18, x FOR
in Figure 17.PEER REVIEW
Each PRPD diagram presents a distinct phase distribution feature. 14 of 18
(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 17. PRPD diagram of switchgear typical insulation defects: (a) needle-plate discharge caused
Figure 17. PRPD diagram of switchgear typical insulation defects: (a) needle-plate discharge caused
Figure
by PRPD diagram
17.protrusion;
metal of switchgear
(b) floating potentialtypical insulation
discharge causeddefects: (a) needle-plate
by bad electrical discharge
contacts; caused
and (c) surface
by metal protrusion; (b) floating potential discharge caused by bad electrical contacts; and (c) surface
by metal protrusion; (b) floating potential discharge caused by bad electrical contacts;
discharge due to pollution of the insulator or metal particle on the insulator surface. and (c) surface
discharge due to pollution of the insulator or metal particle on the insulator surface.
discharge due to pollution of the insulator or metal particle on the insulator surface.
5.3.2. Feature Extraction of PD Image
Instead of the traditional PRPD features extraction, a grayscale image method is adopted to
Instead of the traditional PRPD features extraction, a grayscale image method is adopted to
Instead
enhance of the traditional
the identification rate ofPRPD features
the PD pattern extraction, a grayscale
in this diagnosis image
system. methodimages,
Grayscale is adopted
which to
enhance the identification rate of the PD pattern in this diagnosis system. Grayscale images, which
enhance
have thethecharacteristics
identification rate of the PD pattern
of discharge phase indistribution,
this diagnosisdischarge
system. Grayscale images,
amplitude, and which have
discharge
have the characteristics of discharge phase distribution, discharge amplitude, and discharge
the characteristics
repetition rate, areof discharge
one of thephase distribution,
important dischargecharacterization
and common amplitude, and discharge
methods repetition rate,
for PD fault
repetition rate, are one of the important and common characterization methods for PD fault
are one of the important
identification. Typically, and common characterization
PD grayscale images can be obtained methodsby forcalculating
PD fault identification.
the grayscaleTypically,
value in
identification. Typically, PD grayscale images can be obtained by calculating the grayscale value in
PD local
the grayscale
area of images
PRPDcan be obtained
diagram by calculating
according to the following the grayscale
equation:value in the local area of PRPD
the local area of PRPD diagram according to the following equation:
diagram according to the following equation:
ni , j
hi , j  255  ni , j (24)
h j  255  nmax ni,j (24)
hi,j i ,= 255 × nmax (24)
nmax
where hi,j is the grayscale value of each pixel point; ni,j is the number of discharge; nmax is the maximum
where hi,j is the grayscale value of each pixel point; ni,j is the number of discharge; nmax is the maximum
where hi,jofis discharge
number the grayscale
andvalue
the of each pixel
grayscale point;
value ni,j is the
ranges from number of discharge;
0 to 255. nmax is the maximum
The corresponding grayscale
number of discharge and the grayscale value ranges from 0 to 255. The corresponding grayscale
images of PRPD diagrams (Figure 17) for typical insulation defects of switchgear are shown in images
number of discharge and the grayscale value ranges from 0 to 255. The corresponding grayscale Figure
images of PRPD diagrams (Figure 17) for typical insulation defects of switchgear are shown in Figure
of PRPD diagrams (Figure 17) for typical insulation defects of switchgear are shown in Figure 18.
18.
18.
(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 18. Corresponding
Corresponding grayscale
grayscale images of PRPD diagram: (a)
(a) needle-plate
needle-plate discharge;
discharge; (b) floating
Figure
Figure 18.
18. Corresponding grayscale images
images of
of PRPD
PRPD diagram:
diagram: (a) needle-plate discharge; (b)
(b) floating
floating
potential
potential discharge; and (c) surface discharge.
potential discharge;
discharge; and
and (c)
(c) surface
surface discharge.
discharge.
Then, two-dimensional maximum margin criterion (2DMMC) [24] is used to reduce the
Then, two-dimensional
two-dimensional maximum
maximum margin
margin criterion
criterion (2DMMC)
(2DMMC) [24] [24] is used to reduce the
dimensionality of the PD grayscale images by horizontal and vertical compression. A series of feature
dimensionality of
dimensionality of the PD grayscale images by horizontal and vertical compression.
compression. A series of feature
vectors are extracted from the converted matrix to construct the partial discharge image feature sets.
vectors are extracted
extracted from
from the
the converted
converted matrix
matrix to
to construct
construct the
the partial
partial discharge
dischargeimage
imagefeature
featuresets.
sets.
5.3.3. PD Pattern Recognition Based on a Support Vector Machine
As a classification method based on structural risk minimization principle, a support vector
machine (SVM) [25,26] is adopted to conduct PD pattern recognition of abnormal switchgear in this
paper. Using non-linear mapping, the SVM maps input vectors to a high-dimensional feature space
paper. Using non-linear mapping, the SVM maps input vectors to a high-dimensional feature space
and approximates the objective function with optimal hyperplane. In addition, it has good
and approximates the objective function with optimal hyperplane. In addition, it has good
generalization ability and can be used to solve the calculation of high-dimensional space well. For
Sensors 2018, 18, 551 15 of 18

paper. Using non-linear mapping, the SVM maps input vectors to a high-dimensional feature space and
approximates the objective function with optimal hyperplane. In addition, it has good generalization
ability and can be used to solve the calculation of high-dimensional space well. For PD pattern
recognition,
Sensors 2018, 18,the SVM
x FOR PEERneeds
REVIEW to be extended to a multi-classifier [27]. Therefore, the construction 15 of of
18
the SVM with
construction ofathe
binary
SVMtree
withisadesigned to is
binary tree recognize
designedfour kinds of four
to recognize discharge
kinds patterns, as shown
of discharge in
patterns,
Figure
as shown 19. in
construction TheofSVM
Figure classifier
the SVM
19. with
The SVMoutput values
a binary isare
treeoutput
classifier designed ‘−are
‘1’values
and to 1’, ‘1’
respectively.
recognize
and four kinds of discharge patterns,
‘−1’, respectively.
as shown in Figure 19. The SVM classifier output values are ‘1’ and ‘−1’, respectively.
Figure
Figure 19.
19. SVM
SVM classification
classification model
model based
based on binary tree.
on binary tree. Class 1: floating
Class 1: floating discharge; Class 2:
discharge; Class 2: surface
surface
Figure 19. SVM
discharge; Classclassification
3: air-gap model based
discharge; and on binary
Class 4: tree. Classdischarge.
needle-plate 1: floating discharge; Class 2: surface
discharge; Class 3: air-gap discharge; and Class 4: needle-plate discharge.
discharge; Class 3: air-gap discharge; and Class 4: needle-plate discharge.
The whole PD pattern recognition process is shown in the Figure 20. In general, its recognition
The whole
The whole PD
PD pattern
pattern recognition
recognition process is
is shown
shown in
in the
the Figure
Figure 20. In general,
general, its
its recognition
recognition
rate is around 90% for four kinds of PD process
pattern, which satisfies 20.needs
the basic In of onsite diagnosis.
rate is
rate is around
around 90%
90% for
for four
four kinds
kinds of
of PD
PD pattern,
pattern, which
which satisfies
satisfies the
the basic
basic needs
needs of
of onsite
onsite diagnosis.
diagnosis.
Figure 20. PD pattern recognition process based on an SVM.

Figure
Figure 20.
20. PD
PD pattern
pattern recognition
recognition process
process based
based on
on an
an SVM.
SVM.
5.4. Diagnosis Procedure
On completion of the in situ status diagnosis in the sensing layer, the PD activity and the status
On completion
information of theinto
are uploaded in situ
thestatus diagnosis
diagnosis layer. in the sensing
Quantity layer,
analysis, the PD
trend activity
analysis, and the
parallel status
analysis,
information are uploaded
and PD pattern into are
recognition the diagnosis layer.
utilized in this Quantity
process analysis, trend analysis,
and a deterministic parallel analysis,
diagnosis result is
and PD pattern
provided for risk recognition are utilized
assessment. The detailed in this process
diagnosis and is
procedure a shown
deterministic diagnosis
in the Figure 21. result is
Sensors 2018, 18, 551 16 of 18

On completion of the in situ status diagnosis in the sensing layer, the PD activity and the status
information are uploaded into the diagnosis layer. Quantity analysis, trend analysis, parallel analysis,
and PD pattern recognition are utilized in this process and a deterministic diagnosis result is provided
forSensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER
risk assessment. REVIEW diagnosis procedure is shown in the Figure 21.
The detailed 16 of 18
Figure 21. Diagnosis procedure in the decision layer.

Figure 21. Diagnosis procedure in the decision layer.
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
This paper proposed an innovative online PD detection system and corresponding application
This paper proposed an innovative online PD detection system and corresponding application
strategy based on a designed distributed TEV wireless sensor network, which can effectively promote
strategy based on
the in-depth a designed application
engineering distributed TEV wireless
of TEV sensortechnology.
detection network, which
The can effectively
summary and promote
main
theconclusions
in-depth engineering application
are as follows. of TEV detection technology. The summary and main conclusions
are as follows.
(1) The designed wireless TEV sensor can effectively couple PD signals with high response
(1) The designed wireless
characteristics, TEV sensorratios,
high signal-to-noise can effectively
low power couple PD signals
consumption, with high
good linearity, andresponse
anti-
characteristics, high signal-to-noise ratios, low power consumption, good linearity, and
interference performance.
(2) anti-interference performance.
With the advantages of online monitoring and inspection testing, the innovative self-adapting
(2) With TEVtheWSN system has
advantages significant
of online engineering
monitoring and application value forthe
inspection testing, estimating
innovativetheself-adapting
insulation
condition
TEV of metal-enclosed
WSN system switchgear.
has significant engineering application value for estimating the insulation
(3) condition
A two-step approach, consisting
of metal-enclosed of elementary status diagnosis and in-depth status diagnosis,
switchgear.
was developed to efficiently determine
(3) A two-step approach, consisting of elementary switchgear abnormality
status and
diagnosis andits in-depth
danger level.
status diagnosis,
was developed to efficiently determine switchgear abnormality and its danger level.
Acknowledgments: This project was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of
China (Grant No. 2017YFB0902705) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 51507130
Acknowledgments:
and 51777157). This project was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of
China (Grant No. 2017YFB0902705) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 51507130
andAuthor Contributions: Ming Dong and Ming Ren conceived and designed the experiments; Wenguang Huang,
51777157).
Jierui Zhou and Xuze Gao performed the experiments; Chongxing Zhang analyzed the data and wrote the paper;
Author Contributions: Ming Dong and Ming Ren conceived and designed the experiments; Wenguang Huang,
and Ricardo Albarracín gave some substantive suggestions and guidance for the research.
Jierui Zhou and Xuze Gao performed the experiments; Chongxing Zhang analyzed the data and wrote the paper;
and Ricardoof
Conflicts Albarracín gave
Interest: The some substantive
authors suggestions
declare no conflict and guidance for the research.
of interest.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
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© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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sensors

Received: 20 December 2017; Accepted: 6 February 2018; Published: 11 February 2018

Sensors 2018, 18, 551; doi:10.3390/s18020551 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

2. Principle of TEV Detection

EE== eezzEE00 (5)

Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 18

Figure 3. Circuit schematic of the TEV sensing unit.

Figure 4. Determination of capacitance C1.

Figure 5. TEV coupling module.

Figure 6. Schematic diagram of the PD measurement system.

Figure 6. Schematic diagram of the PD measurement system.

Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 18

Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 18

Figure 9. TEV Signal preprocessing procedure.

Figure 10. The original and processed TEV PD signals.

Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 18

Figure 12. The experimental TEV PD calibration system.

Figure 12. The experimental TEV PD calibration system.

Figure 13. Amplitude calibration curve of wireless TEV sensor.

Figure 13. Amplitude calibration curve of wireless TEV sensor.

ATEV = 24.04 + 5.08 × Aori (18)

dBmV = 20 log10 (mV) (19)

Table 2. Technical parameters of the wireless TEV sensor.

Index Minimum Detectable Apparent Discharge Quantity Bandwidth Relative Error

4. WSN of TEV and Its Application Strategy

Figure 15. Topological graph of WSN: direct transmission model.

Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 18

5.1. In Situ Status Estimation

5.2. Elementary Status Diagnosis

Criterion, P (dB) Risk Level Description Treatment

5.2.2. Trend Analysis

5.2.3. Parallel Analysis

Table 4. Risk determination via parallel analysis.

Criteria Risk Level Description Treatment

5.3. In-Depth Status Diagnosis—PD Pattern Recognition

5.3.1. Acquisition of PRPD Diagram Based on Wireless TEV Sensor

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)

5.3.3. PD Pattern Recognition Based on a Support Vector Machine

Figure 20. PD pattern recognition process based on an SVM.

5.4. Diagnosis Procedure

Figure 21. Diagnosis procedure in the decision layer.

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