INTRODUCTION

- X-rays: discovered by The German Scientist Willhelm Roentgen in 1895

- Radioactive radium: discovered by French scientists, Marie and Pierre Curies a few years later.
- The different forms of radiation around us are seen in the electromagnetic spectrum below,
ranging from radio waves (low energy) to gamma radiation (high energy).
- Radiation divided into two types:
i) wavelength shorter than 100nm (ionizing radiation)
(eg: x-rays and gamma rays)
ii) wavelength longer than 100nm (non-ionizing radiation)
(eg: microwaves, radio waves)

4.1 PROPERTIES OF IONIZING RADIATION

Ionizing radiation

- ionization occurs when an electron in the inner orbit of an atom receives enough energy to
escape from the influence of the nucleus
- causing the formation of a positive ion and a negative ion to happen
- resulting in x- radiation is emitted when an electron from an outer shell falls in to take place of
the electron that was ejected.

Ionizing radiation 2

- alpha and beta particles, gamma rays and x-rays cause ionization when they pass through
matter.
- They are emitted spontaneously from the nuclei of unstable atoms during radioactive decay.

Ionizing radiation 3

X-rays

- produced by the sudden deceleration of the electron in the strong field of the target nucleus.
- Only when the machine is energized x-rays machines emit radiation
- Do not emit when high voltage is disconnected

Properties of alpha, beta and gamma radiation

Alpha particles

- Strongly ionizing
- Have a strong positive charge (+2) and a mass of 4
- Same as a helium nucleus having two protons and 2 neutrons
Beta particles

- It is an electron but called beta particles to identify that they came from the nucleus of the atom
- Strongly ionizing which 2 one beta particle will cause 100 ionizations.
- More penetration than alpha particle.

Gamma rays

- Very poor at ionizing but very penetrating

- Not good ionizers so it is less dangerous to life.

4.2 RADIATION DETECTION

- human senses cannot detect the ionizing radiations and an appropriate instrument are needed.

- the ability of such radiation to cause ionization determine the methods of detection

Methods of Detection

a) Portable radiation monitors

- A battery-operated handheld meter (eg: Geiger counters and scintillation counters)
- Used at radiation facilities and work sites to ensure that the radiation level is within its limit
- Consists of probe containing the detector (GM tube, ionization chamber) or detecting head and
the associated electronic circuitry.
- Must be calibrated at periodic intervals in a radiation calibration facility
b) Area radiation monitors
- To give an indication of the external radiation levels present in an area where there are ionizing
radiations
- If the level exceeds a predetermined value, it sounds an alarm
- Usually are designed to respond to gamma radiation
c) Personal dosimeters
- To determine how much radiation is receive by a radiation worker in the course of his work
- Can be in the form of :

1. Thermoluminescent Dosimeter (TLD) badge

- Consists of two Lithium Fluoride (LiF) chips mounted on a card and encased in a special

holder

- Worn like a badge on the body for one or two months depending on the nature of work

(The used card is changed after that)

- The amount of radiation which the worker received is recorded on the TLD chips

- The used card is heated up in the TLD Reader and the amount of light emitted is proportional
 to the amount of radiation absorbed by the card

- Considered to be the amount of radiation to which the wearer has been exposed

2. The QFE Dosimeter (Pen dosimeter)

- For workers involved in Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) work

- Contains a quartz electroscope in a small ionization chamber that provided with an optical

system

- Advantages (gives an immediate reading of the dose received by the wearer, very useful for

individuals who need to enter a radiation area to do a particular job, convenient

direct readings of exposure)

- Disadvantages (less accurate than other dosimeters and easily affected by shock)

3. The Beeper

- Miniature GM tubes in small instruments which are carried in the pocket.

- Produce an audible “beep” warning sound, at a rate dependent on the radiation level.

- When a predetermined dose rate is exceeded, it will give a warning note which increases in

frequency with dose rate.

d) Monitors for internal radiation contamination

- Measurements for internal contamination can be done on body excretions

1. Urine and faeces are collected to measure excreted radioactivity

2. Excretion rates are calculated to determine the total intake

- Can also be made directly on the body using a whole body counter or thyroid monitor,
 depending on what is being tested for

4.3 RADIATION SAFETY

Occupational Exposure Limits

- Specified in the Radiation Protection (Ionising Radiation) Regulations 2000

- Follow the recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP).

- Two categories of persons:

a) adults who are exposed in the course of their work

b) members of the public

Dose limit for radiation worker

- Designed to prevent the incidence of deterministic effects by keeping the dose limit below the
threshold values

- Aim : not to just keep within the dose limit, but to ensure that protection is optimised and the

exposures are all kept as low as reasonably achievable, economic and social factors being taken

into account (ALARA principle).

 RADIATION WORKER PUBLIC

20 mSv per year DOSE LIMIT 1 mSv per year

5 years PERIOD 5 years

shall not exceed 50 mSv in any EFFECTIVE DOSE does not exceed 1
single year
mSv per year

Applies ALARA PRINCIPLE Applies

PREGNANCY - women who are not pregnant

shall be the same as that of men

- women who are pregnant the

equivalent dose limit to the
surface of the woman’s abdomen
shall be 2 mSv for the remainder
of the pregnancy

RADIATION ACCIDENTS

a) an unexpected, uncontrolled high level of ionising radiation occurs as in the case of loss, by
damage,

of the radiation shielding of a sealed radioactive source or of irradiating apparatus

b) an individual enters a high radiation field by accident

c) there is a loss of control of unsealed radioactive material causing a spillage or leakage of the
 radioactive material

d) the skin or clothing of an individual becomes contaminated

e) radioactive material is accidentally released into the environment in excess of the discharge level

permitted by the regulations

EMERGENCY PROCEDURES

1. evacuate all individuals from the affected area

2. block off the affected area (including all locations where the radiation level exceeds 25 Sv/hr), and

post warning signs at all its entrances

3. take immediate action to reduce the hazards caused by the radiation accident

4. make arrangements to provide temporary shielding, monitor and decontaminate any affected
individual and the area and take all other actions necessary, to return the situation to normal

5. ensure that any contamination in excess of the permitted limit for skin and clothing of any
individual is removed before the individual leaves the premises

6. ensure that any personal clothing or other private property which is contaminated by radioactive
materials is not taken from the premises or released to a public laundry until it can be shown that
the contamination does not exceed the permitted contamination limit

7. refer affected individuals for medical observation and treatment