Jurnal Isu Pendidikan PDF

JURNAL ISU DALAM FAKULTI PENDIDIKAN
PENDIDIKAN
ISSUES IN EDUCATION
ISSN 0126-5024 Jilid 40, 2016
Cabaran Keberkesanan Sekolah: Perspektif Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama 1-30

Berprestasi Tinggi
Muhammad Faizal A. Ghani (PhD), Faisol Elham, Ainoor Mahfuzah Ahmad & Maszuria A. Ghani
Pembentukan Akhlak Awal Kanak-Kanak Menerusi Teladan Ibu Bapa 31-42

Noraziah Ahmad Nadzim, Mohd Nizam Sahad (PhD) & Mohd Nazri Abdul Rahman (PhD)
Keperluan Nilai Etika Dan Akhlak: Perspektif Pendidikan Kemahiran 43-60

Abdul Muqsith Ahmad, Zaharah Husin (PhD), Farazila Yusof, Saedah Siraj (PhD),
Siti Syahidah Mohd Rum, Mohd Ridhuan Mohd Jamil & Maisarah A Malik
Penerapan Nilai Moral Dan Akhlak Bagi Menjana Kelestarian Alam Sekitar
Dalam Pengajaran Dan Pembelajaran: Satu Perbincangan 61-70
Habib Mat Som (PhD) & Syed Kamaruzzaman Syed Ali (PhD)
Problem Solving In Culinary Arts: Pedagogical Issues Faced By Culinary Instructors 71-84
At Community Colleges
Umawathy Techanamurthy, Norlidah Alias (PhD) & Dorothy DeWitt (PhD)
Art Appreciation Teaching Model For Undergraduate Level 85-96

To Gain An Aesthetic Experience
Maithreyi Subramaniam, Jaffri Hanafi & Abu Talib Putih (PhD)
Assessment For Learning: Why Promoting Learner Autonomy Is Difficult 97-110

Renuka V. Sathasivam (PhD)
Demonstration And Mental Imagery On The Acquisition 111-118

Of Motor Skill In Primary Schools
Olubunmi O.Sodiya & Syed Kamaruzaman Syed Ali (PhD)
Framework Matrix: A Structured Thematic Analysis In Initial Stage Of Malay Textile

Design Ideation In Universiti Teknologi Mara, Malaysia 119-134
Rainal Hidayat Wardi, Ruzaika Omar Basaree, Maithreyi Subramaniam & Jaffri Hanafi
Integrating Early Algebraic Thinking In The Malaysian 135-150

Primary School Mathematics Curriculum
Piriya Somasundram, Sharifah Norul Akmar Syed Zamri (PhD) & Leong Kwan Eu (PhD)
ISSN 0126-5024 Jilid 40, 2016
FAKULTI PENDIDIKAN JURNAL ISU DALAM

UNIVERSITI
M A L AYA PENDIDIKAN
The Leader in Research & Innovation
ISSUES IN EDUCATION
JURNAL ISU DALAM PENDIDIKAN, 40, 2016
ISSUES IN EDUCATION, 40, 2016
DEKAN / DEAN
Profesor Madya Dr. Mariani Md Nor
TIM. DEKAN (PEMBANGUNAN & PENYELIDIKAN) /

DEPUTY DEAN (DEVELOPMENT & RESEARCH)
Dr. Ahmad Zabidi Abdul Razak
KETUA EDITOR / EDITOR IN CHIEF
Profesor Dr. Nik Azis Nik Pa
SIDANG EDITOR / ASSOCIATE EDITORS
Dr. Umi Kalsum Mohd Salleh

Dr. Leong Kwan Eu
En. Mohd Faisal Mohamed
EDITOR TEKNIKAL / TECHNICAL EDITORS
En. Mohd Norazlin Mansor

Pn. Alina Ranee
JURNAL ISU DALAM PENDIDIKAN, 40, 2016
ISSUES IN EDUCATION, 40, 2016
SENARAI PENILAI/LIST OF REVIEWERS
YBhg. Datuk Dr. Sufean Hussin

Profesor Dr. Esther Sarojini Daniel
Profesor Madya Dr. Muhammad Faizal A. Ghani
Profesor Madya Dr. Norlidah Alias
Dr. Ahmad Zabidi Abdul Razak
Dr. Wirdati Mohd Radzi (Pusat Sukan)
Dr. Muhammad Azhar Zailani
Dr. Zaharah Hussin
Dr. Umi Kalsum Mohd Salleh
Dr. Selva Ranee Subramaniam
Dr. Dorothy DeWitt
Dr. Siti Hajar Halili
Dr. Rose Amnah Abd Rauf
Dr. Zuwati Hasim
Dr. Hamidah Sulaiman
Dr. Hutkemri
Dr. Shanina Sharatol Ahmad Shah
Dr. Roselina Johari Mohd Khir
JURNAL ISU DALAM PENDIDIKAN
ISSUES IN EDUCATION
ISSN 0126-5024 Jilid 40, 2016
KANDUNGAN/CONTENTS
Cabaran Keberkesanan Sekolah: Perspektif Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama Berprestasi
Tinggi 1-30
Muhammad Faizal A. Ghani (PhD), Faisol Elham, Ainoor Mahfuzah Ahmad & Maszuria A. Ghani
Pembentukan Akhlak Awal Kanak-Kanak Menerusi Teladan Ibu Bapa 31-42

Noraziah Ahmad Nadzim, Mohd Nizam Sahad (PhD) & Mohd Nazri Abdul Rahman (PhD)
Keperluan Nilai Etika Dan Akhlak: Perspektif Pendidikan Kemahiran 43-60

Abdul Muqsith Ahmad, Zaharah Husin (PhD), Farazila Yusof, Saedah Siraj (PhD), Siti Syahidah
Mohd Rum, Mohd Ridhuan Mohd Jamil & Maisarah A Malik
Penerapan Nilai Moral Dan Akhlak Bagi Menjana Kelestarian Alam Sekitar Dalam Pengajaran
Dan Pembelajaran: Satu Perbincangan 61-70
Habib Mat Som (PhD) & Syed Kamaruzzaman Syed Ali (PhD)
Problem Solving In Culinary Arts: Pedagogical Issues Faced By Culinary Instructors At

Community Colleges 71-84
Umawathy Techanamurthy, Norlidah Alias (PhD) & Dorothy DeWitt (PhD)
Art Appreciation Teaching Model For Undergraduate Level To Gain An Aesthetic Experience
85-96
Maithreyi Subramaniam, Jaffri Hanafi & Abu Talib Putih (PhD)
Assessment For Learning: Why Promoting Learner Autonomy Is Difficult 97-110

Demonstration And Mental Imagery On The Acquisition Of Motor Skill In Primary Schools
111-118
Olubunmi O.Sodiya & Syed Kamaruzaman Syed Ali (PhD)
Framework Matrix: A Structured Thematic Analysis In Initial Stage Of Malay Textile Design
Ideation In Universiti Teknologi Mara, Malaysia 119-134
Rainal Hidayat Wardi, Ruzaika Omar Basaree, Maithreyi Subramaniam & Jaffri Hanafi
Integrating Early Algebraic Thinking In The Malaysian Primary School Mathematics

Curriculum 135-150
Piriya Somasundram, Sharifah Norul Akmar Syed Zamri (PhD) & Leong Kwan Eu (PhD)
Isu Dalam Pendidikan, 40, 2016
CABARAN KEBERKESANAN SEKOLAH: PERSPEKTIF

SEKOLAH MENENGAH KEBANGSAAN AGAMA
BERPRESTASI TINGGI
Muhammad Faizal A. Ghani* (PhD)

Fakutli Pendidikan
Universiti Malaya
mdfaizal@um.edu.my
Faisol Elham
Kolej Perniagaan
Universiti Utara Malaysia
Ainoor Mahfuzah Ahmad

Politeknik Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah, Selangor
Maszuria A. Ghani
Institut Pendidikan Guru
Kampus Temenggong Ibrahim, Johor
Abstrak
Kajian ini dijalankan untuk mengkaji cabaran untuk meningkatkan
keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Agama. Seramai 180 guru
dari enam buah Sekolah Menengah Agama yang cemerlang
mengambil bahagian melalui pengedaran borang soal selidik.
Data dianalisis menggunakan perisian SPSS versi 23.0 yang
melibatkan kaedah deskriptif statistik (iaitu, min dan sisihan
piawai). Kajian mendapati bahawa pelajar Seolah Menengah
Agama bersetuju dengan dimensi berikut sebagai faktor yang
menyumbang mencabar keberkesanan Menengah Public Schools
Agama: konteks, pelajar, guru dan sekolah. Perjanjian ini adalah
berdasarkan skor min 2.5 dan ke atas. Kajian ini menunjukkan
bahawa terdapat keperluan untuk membina budaya kerjasama di
kalangan pembuat dasar, pelajar, guru dan sekolah, khususnya,
pemimpin sekolah dan ibu bapa, dalam usaha untuk mewujudkan
berkesan Sekolah Menengah Agama.
1
PENGENALAN
Kajian sekolah berkesan di Amerika Syarikat dan Britain banyak dipengaruhi
oleh implikasi penemuan kajian awal keberkesanan sekolah oleh Coleman,
Campbell, Hobson, McPartland, Mood, Weinfield, dan York (1966)
serta Jencks, Smith, Acland, Bane Cohen, Gintis, Heyns dan Michelson
(1972). Mereka menemui faktor sekolah hanya lebih kurang 10 peratus
mempengaruhi pencapaian murid dan selebihnya adalah faktor sosio-ekonomi
keluarga. Selanjutnya, Firestone (2013) menyatakan implikasi daripada
kajian Coleman et al. (1966) dan Jencks et al. (1972), pengkaji sekolah
berkesan telah menambahbaik kualiti penyelidikan khususnya metodologi.
Implikasinya, mereka menemui faktor sekolah, guru dan murid mempunyai
perkaitan signifikan dengan pencapaian murid. Misalnya, pengkaji sekolah
berkesan di Amerika Syarikat, Edmonds (1979), meyakini murid miskin di
sekolah kawasan bandar berupaya dibantu oleh sekolah dan pihak sekolah
seharusnya membantu mereka untuk berjaya.
Di Malaysia, pengkaji tempatan (seperti Ghazali Othman, 2001)
meyakini pembangunan kurikulum sekolah berupaya meningkatkan
pencapaian murid dan keberkesanan sesebuah sekolah. Pandangan Abdul
Shukor Abdullah (2004) selari dengan kenyataan tersebut menerusi usaha
kerajaan menggubal Kurikulum Baru Sekolah Rendah (KBSR) pada tahun
1983 dan Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah (KBSM) pada tahun
1989. Tambah beliau, kedua-dua kurikulum tersebut digubal bagi memastikan
murid tidak keciciran dalam menikmati pendidikan negara. Misalnya, KBSR
berfokus kepada penguasaan murid terhadap kemahiran asas iaitu membaca,
menulis dan mengira. Manakala, KBSM bertujuan bagi memastikan
perkembangan potensi murid dapat dicapai untuk melahirkan murid yang
berilmu, berakhlak serta berupaya memberikan sumbangan kepada diri,
masyarakat dan negara.
Hakikatnya, perdebatan mengenai keberkesanan sekolah telah
dibincangkan di pelosok dunia. Leithwood dan Jantzi (2011) menyokong
kenyataan tersebut dengan memberikan gambaran bahawa perdebatan
mengenai keberkesanan sekolah telah menjadi agenda utama pendidikan
negara masing-masing. Hal tersebut disebabkan penanda aras keberkesanan
sekolah adalah berdasarkan kejayaan mata pelajaran tertentu yang
dipertandingkan di peringkat antarabangsa (Reynolds & Farrell, 1996)
dan pertumbuhan ekonomi sesebuah negara kesan daripada usaha kerajaan
melabur dalam pendidikan (Robinson, 1998).
Namun, perspektif keberkesanan sekolah tertakluk kepada pendefinisian
sesebuah negara. Dengan kata lain, pendefinisian keberkesanan sekolah adalah
ditentukan oleh pemerintah atau kerajaan semasa sesebuah negara (Barber,
2
2013). Justeru, peranan parti pemerintah atau kerajaan semasa amat penting
bagi memastikan keberkesanan sekolah tercapai. Kajian Department of
Education and Employment (2014) mendapati campur tangan kerajaan dalam
sistem pendidikan berupaya mempengaruhi kejayaan atau penambahbaikan
sesebuah sekolah. Menurut Barber (2013), campur tangan kerajaan Britain
dalam sistem pendidikan dilakukan untuk memastikan sekolah berjaya. Beliau
menambah bahawa sasaran kerajaan pada tahun 2002 mengenai pendidikan
adalah seperti berikut: 80 peratus murid berusia 11 tahun berupaya mencapai
piawaian kelulusan Bahasa Inggeris di peringkat kebangsaan, 75 peratus
murid berusia 11 tahun berupaya mencapai piawaian kelulusan Matematik
di peringkat kebangsaan, proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran di bilik darjah
bagi murid berusia 7 tahun adalah kurang daripada 30 orang dan 30 peratus
kanak-kanak berusia 4 tahun disediakan pendidikan nurseri.
Begitu juga dengan sistem pendidikan di Malaysia; kerajaan semasa
telah menetapkan bidang keberhasilan utama negara yang berfokus kepada 4
tumpuan berikut bagi menghasilkan pendidikan berkualiti tinggi: penyertaan
kanak-kanak berusia 4 dan 5 tahun dalam pendidikan prasekolah meningkat
kepada 72 peratus, 90 peratus kanak-kanak menguasai literasi dan numerasi,
2 peratus pemimpin sekolah menerima ganjaran berasaskan pencapaian dan
sasaran 20 buah sekolah berprestasi tinggi yang mempunyai etos, karakter
serta identiti tersendiri (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, 2012).
Namun, terdapat cabaran bagi mencapai hasrat yang telah ditetapkan
oleh kerajaan. Misalnya, kajian Slee, Weiner dan Tomlinson (2011) di
Britain mendapati campur tangan kerajaan yang keterlaluan menyebabkan
penggubalan dan pelaksanaan kurikulum mengikut arahan kerajaan.
Implikasinya, wujud penurunan terhadap kualiti pembelajaran murid.
Kenyataan tersebut digambarkan oleh Kemmis (2008) apabila kerajaan Britain
mengarahkan penggubalan sebahagian kurikulum dengan mengambil kira
aspek pendidikan ekonomi. Hal tersebut menyebabkan pelajar tertekan untuk
memahami pembelajaran (Barber, 2013). Manakala, cabaran yang dihadapi
oleh sekolah di Malaysia lebih berbentuk persekitaran dalaman. Antaranya
seperti mana diperkatakan oleh Ketua Sektor Pengurusan Sekolah, Jabatan
Pendidikan Negeri Terengganu, Tengku Anuar Tengku Dalam, bahawa sekolah
kerajaan khususnya sekolah berprestasi tinggi menghadapi empat cabaran
utama iaitu: pemimpin sekolah kurang merujuk sistem pendidikan negara bagi
mengharungi perubahan persekitaran, keberkesanan kepimpinan sekolah yang
kurang menyerlah, keberkesanan pengurusan sekolah yang kurang cekap dan
tindakan warga sekolah yang kurang profesional (Kamal Abdullah, 2010).
Persoalannya kini adakah setiap jenis sekolah mempunyai cabaran yang
sama bagi mencapai keberkesanan seperti Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan
3
Agama? Justeru, kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti cabaran yang
dihadapi oleh Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama berprestasi tinggi.
Selanjutnya, pihak sekolah berupaya menggunakan dapatan kajian ini bagi
mencapai keberkesanan sekolah.
Penyataan Masalah
Antara perubahan persekitaran yang mempengaruhi pembuatan keputusan
masa kini adalah perkembangan pesat menerusi pelbagai penemuan dalam
sains, perubatan, teknologi termasuk komunikasi teknologi maklumat dan
pertambahan saiz populasi dunia. Silins dan Mulford (2015) menyetujui
pandangan tersebut dengan menyatakan perubahan persekitaran tersebut
bukan hanya memberikan impak kepada seluruh negara di dunia tetapi dalam
negara itu sendiri. Tambah beliau lagi, antara impak perubahan tersebut adalah
wujudnya jurang antara manusia, kumpulan dan negara serta perubahan
pengetahuan dan kuasa tradisional khususnya dalam bidang pendidikan.
Selanjutnya, perubahan persekitaran tersebut membangkitkan beberapa
isu di peringkat negara dan antarabangsa. Antaranya, persaingan dalam
ekonomi dan pasaran saham, kelestarian amalan, mengenal pasti identiti
(melibatkan maklumat, perdagangan, manusia dan budaya), kesamarataan
dan peningkatan pengharapan masyarakat terhadap institusi awam termasuk
pendidikan (James & Whiting, 2016). Namun, pendidikan berupaya
menyelesaikan beberapa isu. Huber (2012) menyokong kenyataan ini
dengan menyatakan pendidikan berjaya menagih tumpuan masyarakat
daripada agenda politik menerusi penambahbaikan taraf hidup masyarakat
dan ekonomi negara.
Penyelesaian tersebut berupaya dilaksanakan di sekolah. Hal ini
disebabkan sekolah merupakan institusi yang berupaya melakukan perubahan
dan kelestarian amalan terhadap masyarakat melalui pembelajaran sepanjang
hayat (Department of Education and Employment, 2014). Akan tetapi,
cabaran terkini adalah mewujudkan keberkesanan sekolah sehingga cogan
kata berikut berupaya dicapai: schools make a difference.
Lacy (2016) menamakan pemimpin sekolah yang melibatkan pengetua
atau guru besar, merupakan faktor penyumbang utama kepada cabaran untuk
mencapai keberkesanan sekolah. Justeru, tidak menghairankan sejak 20
tahun lalu gerakan sekolah berkesan memberikan tumpuan utama kepada
peranan pemimpin sekolah (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development, 2010, 2013). Pandangan Fullan (2009) menepati kenyataan
bahawa pemimpin sekolah yang berkesan memberikan impak positif jangka
panjang sehingga berupaya melestarikan perubahan dalam pendidikan.
4
Begitu juga dalam konteks Malaysia untuk tumpuan subjek kajian

ini, kajian Ahmad Zabidi Abd Razak (2006) menemui persekitaran Sekolah
Menengah Kebangsaan Agama yang kurang kondusif adalah berpunca
daripada pemimpin sekolah. Kajian Mohd Saudi Abdullah dan Abu
Bakar Hashim (2006) menjelaskan penemuan bahawa pengetua Sekolah
Menengah Kebangsaan Agama telah mengamalkan gaya kepimpinan
pendayautamaan struktur dan bertimbang rasa pada tahap sederhana.
Persoalannya kini adakah faktor kepimpinan sekolah merupakan
faktor penyumbang utama kepada cabaran untuk mencapai keberkesanan
Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama? Untuk memberi penjelasan lanjut
kepada persoalan ini, kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti cabaran yang
dihadapi oleh Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama berprestasi tinggi.
Dapatan kajian ini berupaya menyedarkan semua pihak berkepentingan dalam
pendidikan bahawa cabaran untuk mencapai keberkesanan sekolah adalah
tanggungjawab semua pihak kerana faktor halangan tersebut adalah bukan
berfokus kepada satu individu atau kumpulan.
Objektif Kajian
Kajian ini dilaksanakan untuk menganalisis cabaran keberkesanan sekolah
menengah kebangsaan agama.
SOROTAN KAJIAN LAMPAU

Bahagian berikut membincangkan definisi konsep, perkembangan pendidikan
Islam di Malaysia dan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama.
Definisi Keberkesanan Sekolah

Pengertian mengenai keberkesanan sekolah masih belum disepakati dalam
kalangan pengkaji sekolah berkesan. Misalnya, Scheerens (2004) memberikan
pendefinisian keberkesanan sekolah dengan merujuk kepada keberkesanan
usaha meningkatkan pencapaian sekolah dalam aspek pengajaran dan
pembelajaran (P&P), pentadbiran, motivasi murid dan penglibatan aktif ibu
bapa di sekolah. Umumnya, kajian awal mengenai keberkesanan sekolah
lebih melihat faktor sekolah dalam aspek proses keberkesanan sekolah serta
outputnya iaitu pencapaian akademik murid. Kenyataan tersebut adalah
selari dengan pandangan Murphy, Hallinger, dan Mesa (2001) bahawa
keberkesanan sekolah adalah berfokus kepada keputusan peperiksaan yang
piawai khususnya untuk mata pelajaran Bacaan dan Matematik.
5
Namun, kebanyakan kajian mengenai sekolah berkesan telah menolak

penemuan tersebut kerana tumpuan output bagi menentukan keberkesanan
sesebuah sekolah bukan hanya kepada pencapaian akademik tetapi terdapat
faktor penyumbang lain seperti tingkah laku bilik darjah, penglibatan murid
dan sikap terhadap pembelajaran (Rutter, 1983; Sammons et al., 2011).
Evertson, Emmer, dan Worsham (2006) turut mempunyai pandangan yang
sama dengan merumuskan keberkesanan sekolah adalah institusi pendidikan
yang berupaya menyelesaikan permasalahan murid dalam aspek kemahiran
asas iaitu bahasa, Matematik, penyelesaian masalah dan bersosial serta
tingkah laku. Manakala Hartwell dan Vargas-Bargon (2015) menyatakan
keberkesanan sekolah bukan tertumpu kepada beberapa kejayaan murid
tetapi kejayaan keseluruhan diri murid yang melibatkan gaya pembelajaran
dan tingkah laku.
Selanjutnya, dalam konteks Malaysia, Muhammad Faizal (2012)
berpendapat bahawa keberkesanan sekolah lebih tertumpu kepada pemboleh
ubah outcome berbanding pemboleh ubah output sesebuah sekolah. Dalam
memahami kenyataan tersebut, Muhammad Faizal et al. (2016) menambah
bahawa outcome adalah hasilan jangka panjang yang melahirkan individu
seimbang dalam aspek fizikal, spiritual, emosi, intelek dan sosial. Tambah
mereka lagi, outcome sesebuah sekolah amat bergantung kepada pemboleh
ubah proses dan tahun pengambilan murid.
Ringkasnya, keberkesanan sekolah lebih tertumpu kepada pemboleh
ubah outcome yang melibatkan kejayaan jangka panjang murid dalam aspek
fizikal, spiritual, emosi, intelek dan sosial.
Perkembangan Pendidikan Islam di Malaysia

Perkembangan pendidikan Islam di Malaysia bermula sejak zaman
pemerintahan kerajaan awal Melaka. Hairunnizam, Jaffary, Rozmi,
Kamaruddin dan Mohamad Alinor (2011) menggambarkan kenyataan tersebut
menerusi persekitaran pembelajaran tidak formal pada zaman Parameswara
sekitar tahun 1414. Tambah mereka, masyarakat pada zaman tersebut
dibekalkan guru berbangsa Arab untuk mengajar pendidikan asas agama
iaitu menyempurnakan solat dan membaca Al-Quran.
Malah, salah seorang pemerintah Melaka iaitu Sultan Mansur Syah
telah mengiktiraf Kitab Darul Mazlum, sebuah kitab tasawuf, untuk dijadikan
rujukan utama masyarakat Melaka (Suzalie Mohamad, 2003). Baginda juga
mengirim kitab tersebut ke Parsi (Iran) untuk diterjemahkan ke dalam Bahasa
Melayu (Mohd Roslan Mohd Nor, 2011). Baginda turut menghantar Tun
Bija Wangsa ke Pasai bagi mendapatkan penjelasan daripada ulama Parsi
mengenai kedudukan ahli syurga dan neraka (Shafie Abu Bakar, 1984).
6
Namun, Mohd Roslan Mohd Nor (2011) menjelaskan ketika awal

pendidikan Islam diperkenalkan di Malaysia, tiada satu undang-undang
yang mewajibkan ibu bapa menghantar anak mereka ke sekolah. Setelah
negara mencapai kemerdekaan, pendidikan Islam kelihatan lebih terbela
dengan penggubalan undang-undang berkaitan pendidikan Islam. Misalnya,
penggubalan Laporan Rahman Talib pada tahun 1960 bertujuan untuk
memantapkan pendidikan Islam dengan mewajibkan pengajaran mata pelajaran
Pendidikan Islam sekurang-kurangnya 2 jam seminggu bagi sekolah yang
mempunyai jumlah murid beragama Islam melebihi 15 orang (Abdullah Ishak,
1995; Shafie Abu Bakar, 1984). Dalam aspek pembiayaan pendidikan pula,
peruntukan kewangan telah diberikan sejak tahun 1961. Misalnya, pada tahun
1961 peruntukan sebanyak RM2.39 juta telah disalurkan untuk pendidikan
Islam (Abdullah Ishak, 1995). Jumlah peruntukan tersebut meningkat
kepada RM10.21 juta pada tahun 1972 (Mohd Roslan Mohd Nor, 2011).
Rumusannya, pendidikan Islam di Malaysia berkembang pesat daripada
pendidikan tidak formal kepada formal. Bagi memantapkan pendidikan secara
formal, kerajaan telah melaksanakan beberapa usaha seperti penggubalan
undang-undang pendidikan dan membiayai institusi pendidikan Islam.
Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama

Berikut adalah maklumat ringkas mengenai Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan
Agama.
Sejarah
Idea awal penubuhan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama telah diilhamkan
oleh mantan Pengarah Bahagian Agama Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia,
Tuan Haji Nik Mohammed Mohyideen Haji Wan Musa. Suzalie Mohamad
(2003) memberikan alasan penubuhan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan
Agama berdasarkan keprihatinan negara khususnya kerajaan dan masyarakat
mengenai kepimpinan dan kemudahan sekolah tersebut yang agak lemah.
Di samping itu juga, pengaruh persekitaran mengenai kebangkitan Islam
yang menyedarkan ibu bapa tentang kepentingan pendidikan Islam (Roslan
Mohd Nor, 2011).
Justeru, pihak kerajaan melalui Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia telah
berunding dengan kerajaan negeri untuk mengambil alih pengurusan sekolah
agama negeri dan rakyat. Abdullah Ishak (1995) menggambarkan situasi
pengambilalihan pengurusan sekolah agama tersebut menerusi persetujuan
kedua-dua kerajaan persekutuan dan negeri untuk menyeragamkan sistem
pengurusan dan kurikulum sekolah agama seperti mana sekolah milik
7
kerajaan. Misalnya, dalam aspek kurikulum, penawaran mata pelajaran

mengambil kira kehendak pasaran dengan menawarkan mata pelajaran
akademik seperti Sains dan Matematik di samping mata pelajaran asal iaitu
Pengajian Islam dan Bahasa Arab (Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, 1999).
Justeru, proses pengambilalihan pengurusan 11 buah Sekolah Agama
Negeri dan Rakyat oleh Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia telah dilakukan
pada tahun 1977. Pertumbuhan sekolah tersebut adalah amat pesat dengan
penambahan bilangan daripada 11 buah pada awal penubuhan kepada 55
buah Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama pada masa kini (Mohd Roslan
Mohd Nor, 2011).
Objektif Penubuhan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama

Menurut Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (2016) berikut adalah objektif
penubuhan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama.
(a) Mencapai kecemerlangan kurikulum dan kokurikulum;
(b) Melahirkan murid yang mengamalkan akhlak mulia;
(c) Membentuk generasi murid sebagai pemimpin yang boleh diteladani;
(d) Melahirkan murid yang mempunyai ketahanan diri dalam menghadapi
cabaran budaya yang bercanggah dengan nilai-nilai Islam; dan
(e) Menyediakan murid yang berupaya untuk memberikan sumbangan
berkesan bagi memenuhi keperluan negara dan ummah.
Keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama

Terdapat dua sumber intelek yang mempengaruhi tingkah laku manusia.
Pertama, faktor sosiologi yang mempengaruhi tingkah laku manusia
seperti norma masyarakat, peraturan dan undang-undang. Faktor sosiologi
melibatkan tindakan membentuk tingkah laku manusia berdasarkan pengaruh
persekitaran yang dipanggil pembolehubah konteks. Sumber aliran intelek
kedua adalah faktor kendiri yang melibatkan individu bertingkah laku secara
berdikari hasil daripada visi diri yang dimiliki. Dengan kata lain, individu
tersebut bertingkah laku berdasarkan prinsip diri yang mereka miliki.
Nieto (2004) menyatakan manusia perlu kepada kedua-dua sumber intelek
kerana setiap satu saling mempengaruhi. Muhammad Faizal A. Ghani et al.
(2016) dan Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas (1999) memberikan misalan
suatu objek turut larut sekiranya berada di dalam sebuah balang yang
mengandungi cecair berwarna. Dengan kata lain, persekitaran luar murid
amat mempengaruhi dalam membentuk tingkah laku mereka.
Justeru, penubuhan sekolah menengah kebangsaan agama berpunca
daripada dua alasan utama iaitu (a) perubahan persekitaran yang menyebabkan
8
masyarakat perlu berhati-hati dengan unsur negatif seperti teknologi dan (b)
desakan masyarakat yang inginkan anak mereka terhindar daripada budaya
negatif misalnya penyalahgunaan dadah (Muhammad Faizal A. Ghani, 2012).
Manakala, keberkesanan SMKA dinilai berasaskan tiga aspek seperti mana
berikut.
(a) Penawaran dan pelaksanaan

Aspek di atas sering dikaitkan dengan permintaan masyarakat
khususnya ibu bapa untuk menyekolahkan anak mereka di SMKA.
Permintaan tersebut disebabkan masyarakat meyakini keberkesanan
ilmu melibatkan pengetahuan, kemahiran dan nilai yang ditawar
dan dilaksanakan oleh SMKA. Kajian Abdul Monir Yaacob (2013)
menggambarkan kenyataan tersebut menerusi peningkatan permohonan
masuk murid ke tingkatan satu sekolah aliran agama sama ada milik
kerajaan negeri mahupun kerajaan persekutuan. Data Kementerian
Pendidikan Malaysia mengenai kemasukan murid ke SMKA meningkat
sepanjang tahun 1990 an dan 2000 an. Misalnya, pada tahun 1997
seramai 27,658 orang murid, 1998 (29,898), 1999 (31,388), 2002
(23,988), 2003 (24, 064) dan 2004 (24,258).
Antara faktor penyebab ibu bapa menyekolahkan anak mereka di SMKA

kerana faktor berikut: (i) kesedaran mengenai kepentingan pendidikan
agama, (ii) kelebihan menguasai pendidikan akademik dan agama
secara serentak, (iii) berpeluang untuk memilih bidang yang lebih luas
iaitu akademik atau agama, (iv) sistem pendidikan di SMKA yang tidak
menyekat masa depan murid, (v) pengiktirafan kerajaan persekutuan
terhadap graduan lulusan agama dan (vi) sistem pendidikan SMKA
adalah lebih bersepadu (Muhammad Faizal A. Ghani, 2012; Nor Faizah
A. Rahman, 2006).
(b) Pencapaian dalam peperiksaan

Aspek di atas merujuk kepada kecemerlangan akademik murid.
Kajian Norhafizah Shoheme (2001) menyetujui kenyataan tersebut
bahawa kewujudan sekolah aliran agama seperti SMKA berupaya
meningkatkan pencapaian murid sama ada dalam aspek akademik
mahupun keperibadian diri. Misalnya, kajian tersebut yang dilaksanakan
di sebuah SMKA di Pulau Pinang mendapati peningkatan pencapaian
peperiksaan standard Negara seperti Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia: Pada
tahun 1993 seramai 43 orang murid memperolehi keputusan cemerlang
berbanding 59 orang pada tahun 1999.
9
(c) Penghayatan dan amalan

Penghayatan dan amalan merujuk kepada perubahan tingkah laku murid
setelah mengamali pendidikan untuk sesuatu tempoh. Penemuan kajian
Muhammad Yasir Abu Hassan (2005) mempunyai persamaan dengan
kenyataan ini. Kajian beliau dalam kalangan murid tingkatan enam
SMKA di Kedah mendapati wujudnya perkaitan antara penghayatan
pengetahuan dan kefahaman agama dengan pembentukan keperibadian
diri murid. Malah, dapatan kajian tersebut melaporkan pendidikan agama
berupaya menghalang sebahagian besar murid daripada melakukan
masalah sosial. Justeru, kekuatan pendidikan agama menyebabkan
ibu bapa menghantar anak mereka belajar di sekolah aliran agama
seperti SMKA bagi memastikan anak mereka menjadi individu yang
mempunyai keperibadian diri yang baik dan terhindar daripada gejala
sosial. Ringkasnya keberkesanan pendidikan agama di sekolah aliran
agama seperti SMKA dinilai berdasarkan pencapaian akademik dan
bukan akademik seperti mana digariskan dalam Falsafah Pendidikan
Kebangsaan, “Pendidikan di Malaysia adalah suatu usaha berterusan
ke arah memperkembangkan lagi potensi individu secara menyeluruh
dan bersepadu untuk mewujudkan insan yang seimbang dan harmonis
dari segi intelek, rohani, emosi dan jasmani berdasarkan kepercayaan
dan kepatuhan kepada Tuhan. Usaha ini adalah bagi melahirkan rakyat
Malaysia yang berilmu pengetahuan, berketerampilan, berakhlak
mulia, bertanggungjawab dan berkeupayaan mencapai kesejahteraan
diri, serta memberi sumbangan terhadap keharmonian dan kemakmuran
keluarga, masyarakat dan Negara”.
Kaedah Kajian
Bahagian ini membincangkan aspek seperti mana berikut.
Reka Bentuk Kajian

Pelaksanaan kajian ini mempunyai unsur falsafah konstruktivis iaitu pengkaji
berusaha untuk memahami permasalahan yang berlaku dalam sesebuah
persekitaran. Pemahaman fenomena tersebut dikenal pasti melalui kutipan
data menggunakan kaedah kuantitatif. Cohen (2015) menjelaskan kenyataan
tersebut menerusi pemahaman pengkaji mengenai permasalahan melalui
data yang dikumpul daripada kajian lapangan. Menerusi kaedah tinjauan,
pengkaji telah menerokai pandangan warga sekolah SMKA mengenai cabaran
keberkesanan sekolah mereka.
10
Sampel dan Lokasi Kajian

Pemilihan peserta kajian ini adalah secara rawak dan berbentuk persampelan
bertujuan (purposive sampling). Jadual 1 menggambarkan ciri-ciri peserta
kajian.
Jadual 1
Profil Peserta Kajian
Profil Peserta Kajian orang
Jantina
Lelaki 70
Perempuan 110
Jumlah 180
Bangsa
Melayu 171
Cina 7
India 2
Lain-lain -
Jumlah 180
Umur (tahun)
Kurang 25 3
26-35 51
36-45 95
Melebihi 46 31
Jumlah 180
Kelayakan Akademik
PhD -
Sarjana 37
Ijazah Dasar 143
Jumlah 180
Pengalaman Dalam Pendidikan tahun
Kurang 1 -
2- 5 16
6-10 45
11-15 66
16-20 26
Melebihi 20 27
Jumlah 180
11
Seramai 180 orang peserta kajian dalam kalangan guru di 6 buah

Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama cemerlang telah dipilih untuk tujuan
kutipan data. Pemilihan sekolah tersebut adalah berasaskan perbincangan
dengan pihak Bahagian Pendidikan Islam, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia,
dalam aspek pangkatan kecemerlangan. Manakala, asas penetapan jumlah
sampel kajian ini adalah berdasarkan pandangan Scheaffer, Mendenhall III,
Ott, dan Gerow (2013) yang mengatakan had saiz minimum peserta kajian
bagi kajian tinjauan adalah seramai 30 orang berdasarkan taburan normal.
Ciri-ciri pemilihan peserta kajian adalah seperti berikut: staf akademik gred
DG41 ke atas, pengalaman mengajar melebihi 2 tahun dan berkhidmat di
sekolah semasa sekurang-kurangnya setahun.
Instrumen Kajian
Kajian ini menggunakan instrumen soal selidik yang telah dibina oleh pengkaji
terdahulu iaitu Muhammad Faizal A. Ghani (2008). Instrumen tersebut dipilih
kerana pembinaan item adalah berdasarkan kesepakatan pandangan dalam
kalangan 15 orang pakar bidang Kepimpinan Sekolah. Instrumen tersebut
mengandungi dua bahagian utama iaitu Bahagian A melibatkan profil sekolah
dan guru sebanyak 7 item dan Bahagian B mengenai cabaran keberkesanan
Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama (21 item). Selanjutnya, pandangan
peserta kajian telah diuji menggunakan skala Likert 5 poin. Bagi Bahagian
B skala Likert 5 poin seperti mana berikut:
1 – Sangat Tidak Setuju

2 – Tidak Setuju
3 – Agak Setuju
4 – Setuju
5 – Sangat Setuju
Instrumen ini juga telah menjalani kajian rintis pada skor

kebolehpercayaan Alfa Cronbach adalah .895. Manakala, 2 orang pakar
dalam bidang berkaitan telah ditemui untuk tujuan kesahan instrumen.
Analisis Data
Data soal selidik dianalisis menggunakan Program Statistical Packages for
The Social Sciences (SPSS) versi 23.0. Kaedah statistik deskriptif yang
menggunakan skor min, sisihan piawai, peratus dan frekuensi telah digunakan
untuk menjawab soalan kajian. Bagi tujuan menganalisis tahap pandangan
guru terhadap faktor penyumbang kepada keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah
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Kebangsaan Agama, tahap pengukuran seperti mana Jadual 2 telah digunakan

hasil pengubahsuaian pandangan Pallant (2007).
Jadual 2
Interpretasi Skor Min Tahap Cabaran Keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan
Agama
Interpretasi Tahap Cabaran Keberkesanan Sekolah
Julat Min
Menengah Kebangsaan Agama
1.00-2.33 Tidak Setuju
2.34-3.66 Sederhana Setuju
3.67-5.00 Setuju
Dapatan Kajian
Bahagian ini memberi ulasan mengenai dapatan kajian bagi mencapai objektif
kajian.
Cabaran Keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama

Untuk mencapai objektif kajian ini, data yang dikutip dalam kalangan 180
orang guru Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama dianalisis menggunakan
kaedah statistik deskriptif. Keputusan analisis data dipersembahkan mengikut
dimensi utama cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama
seperti mana berikut.
Secara umum, Jadual 3 menunjukkan keputusan analisis data secara
keseluruhan mengikut dimensi dan pangkatan.
Jadual 3
Cabaran Keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama Mengikut Dimensi
Dimensi Min Sisihan Piawai Tahap Cabaran
Konteks 3.31 1.21 Sederhana Setuju
Murid 2.89 1.23 Sederhana Setuju
Guru 2.75 1.28 Sederhana Setuju
Sekolah 2.74 1.17 Sederhana Setuju
Keseluruhan 2.86 0.98 Sederhana Setuju
Jadual 3 menunjukkan dimensi konteks adalah disetujui oleh peserta

kajian sebagai faktor penyumbang utama cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah
Menengah Kebangsaan Agama apabila skor min 3.31 dan sisihan piawai
1.21. Dimensi murid turut dipersetujui sebagai faktor penyumbang kedua
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cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama apabila skor

min 2.89 dan sisihan piawai 1.23. Selanjutnya, dimensi guru dipersetujui
sebagai faktor penyumbang ketiga cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah
Kebangsaan Agama apabila skor min 2.75 dan sisihan piawai 1.28. Manakala,
dimensi sekolah dipersetujui sebagai faktor penyumbang keempat cabaran
keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama apabila skor min 2.74
dan sisihan piawai 1.17. Persetujuan terhadap dimensi di atas adalah pada
tahap sederhana.
Keseluruhannya, warga Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama
bersetuju pada tahap sederhana bahawa sekolah mereka menghadapi cabaran
bagi meningkatkan keberkesanan sekolah. Tahap tersebut dicapai apabila
skor min adalah 2.86 dan sisihan piawai 0.98.
Berikut merupakan perincian dapatan kajian berdasarkan dimensi
utama.
Dimensi Konteks
Jadual 4 merupakan perincian dapatan kajian berdasarkan dimensi konteks
yang menjadi cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama.
Jadual 4
Cabaran Keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama: Dimensi Konteks
Cabaran Dimensi Konteks N Min SP Tahap Cabaran
1.Program kementerian lain selain

KPM mengganggu proses P&P guru 180 3.34 1.17 Sederhana Setuju
2.Perubahan dasar pendidikan yang 180 3.32 1.19 Sederhana Setuju

mendadak
3.Peruntukan kewangan dari KPM 180 3.51 1.22 Sederhana Setuju

yang lewat dan kurang mencukupi
4.Kurang sokongan dari pihak 180 3.07 1.27 Sederhana Setuju

berkepentingan pendidikan terhadap
sekolah (seperti UA)
Berdasarkan Jadual 4, warga Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama

menyetujui peruntukan kewangan kerajaan persekutuan adalah lewat dan
kurang mencukupi sebagai cabaran utama keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah
Kebangsaan Agama dalam aspek konteks . Tahap persetujuan tersebut adalah
14
sederhana apabila skor min adalah 3.51 dan sisihan piawai 1.22. Selanjutnya,
program kementerian lain selain Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia
mengganggu proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran guru (min = 3.34; sisihan
piawai = 1.17), perubahan dasar pendidikan yang mendadak (min = 3.32;
sisihan piawai = 1.19) dan kurang sokongan daripada pihak berkepentingan
pendidikan lain seperti universiti awam (min = 3.07; sisihan piawai = 1.27).
Dimensi Murid
Jadual 5 merupakan perincian dapatan kajian berdasarkan dimensi murid
Jadual 5
Cabaran Keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama: Dimensi Murid
Cabaran Dimensi Murid N Min SP Tahap Cabaran
1.Sikap ketidakprihatinan
murid terhadap pembelajaran 180 3.53 1.26 Sederhana Setuju
menimbulkan masalah disiplin Sederhana Setuju
180 2.77 1.28 Sederhana Setuju
2.Murid kurang mendampingi guru
3.Murid tiada visi dan misi yang
jelas
180 2.38 1.12
4.Murid kurang dibimbingi guru ke
arah visi dam misi yang jelas
Jadual 5 menunjukkan sikap ketidakprihatinan murid Sekolah

Menengah Kebangsaan Agama terhadap pembelajaran akan menimbulkan
masalah disiplin merupakan cabaran utama keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah
Kebangsaan Agama dalam aspek murid. Tahap persetujuan tersebut adalah
sederhana apabila skor min adalah 3.53 dan sisihan piawai 1.26. Selanjutnya,
murid tiada visi dan misi yang jelas (min = 2.87; sisihan piawai = 1.27),
murid kurang mendampingi guru (min = 2.77; sisihan piawai = 1.28) dan
murid kurang dibimbingi guru ke arah visi dan misi yang jelas (min = 2.38;
sisihan piawai = 1.12).
Dimensi Guru
Jadual 6 merupakan perincian dapatan kajian berdasarkan dimensi guru yang
menjadi cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama.
15
Jadual 6
Cabaran Keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama: Dimensi Guru
Cabaran Dimensi Guru N Min SP Tahap Cabaran
1.Guru mengajar bukan berdasarkan

kepakaran mereka 180 2.19 1.28 Tidak Setuju
2.Sikap guru yang tidak menerima 180 2.27 1.19 Tidak Setuju
perubahan
180 4.07 1.36 Setuju
3.Beban tugas guru semakin bertambah
4.Kompetensi guru kurang selari 180 2.71 1.34 Sederhana

dengan keperluan semasa Setuju
5.Guru kurang memahami peranan 180 2.12 1.25

mereka sebagai pendidik Tidak Setuju
Jadual 6 menunjukkan warga Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama

menyetujui beban tugas guru semakin bertambah adalah cabaran utama
keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama dalam aspek guru.
Tahap persetujuan tersebut dicapai apabila skor min adalah 4.07 dan sisihan
piawai 1.36. Selanjutnya, kemampuan guru kurang selari dengan kehendak
semasa (min = 2.87; sisihan piawai = 1.27). Manakala, warga Sekolah
Menengah Kebangsaan Agama kurang menyetujui dengan pandangan berikut:
sikap guru yang tidak menerima perubahan apabila skor min adalah 2.27 dan
sisihan piawai 1.19, guru mengajar bukan berdasarkan kepakaran mereka
(min = 2.19; sisihan piawai = 1.28) dan guru kurang memahami peranan
mereka sebagai pendidik (min = 2.12; sisihan piawai = 1.25)
Dimensi Sekolah
Jadual 7 merupakan perincian dapatan kajian berdasarkan dimensi sekolah
16
Jadual 7
Cabaran Keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama: Dimensi Sekolah
Cabaran Dimensi Sekolah N Min SP Tahap Cabaran
1.Pengetua kurang mahir

mengamalkan kepimpinan dalam 180 2.87 1.47 Sederhana Setuju
suasana sebenar
Sederhana Setuju
2.Sikap ibu bapa kurang 180 2.64 1.36
prihatin dengan perkembangan Sederhana Setuju
pendidikan anak-anak
3.Hubungan dalam kalangan staf
kurang mesra Sederhana Setuju
4.Pengetua kurang
menyampaikan maklumat dengan Sederhana Setuju
telus 180 2.87 1.37
Sederhana Setuju
5.Kemudahan fizikal sekolah 180 2.73 1.33
yang kurang mencukupi dan
berfungsi
180 2.90 1.20
6. Staf kurang bekerja dalam satu
pasukan
180 2.57 1.24
7. Kadar pusing ganti adalah
tinggi dalam kalangan guru
8. Visi sekolah yang tinggi

berbanding kemampuan sekolah
Jadual 7 menunjukkan warga Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama

menyetujui kadar pusing ganti dalam kalangan guru adalah tinggi merupakan
cabaran utama keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama dalam
aspek sekolah. Tahap persetujuan tersebut adalah sederhana dicapai apabila
skor min adalah 2.90 dan sisihan piawai 1.20. Selanjutnya, kemudahan fizikal
sekolah yang kurang mencukupi dan berfungsi (min = 2.87; sisihan piawai
= 1.37), pengetua kurang mahir mengamalkan kepimpinan dalam suasana
17
sebenar (min = 2.87; sisihan piawai = 1.47), staf kurang bekerja dalam satu
pasukan (min = 2.73; sisihan piawai = 1.33), pengetua kurang menyampaikan
maklumat dengan telus (min = 2.73; sisihan piawai = 1.37), sikap ibu bapa
kurang prihatin dengan perkembangan pendidikan anak-anak (min = 2.64;
sisihan piawai = 1.36), hubungan dalam kalangan staf kurang mesra (min
= 2.60; sisihan piawai = 1.33) dan visi sekolah yang tinggi berbanding
kemampuan sekolah (min = 2.57; sisihan piawai = 1.24).
Rumusannya, berikut adalah cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah
Kebangsaan Agama berdasarkan dimensi.
(a) Dimensi Konteks
• Peruntukan kewangan kerajaan persekutuan adalah lewat dan
kurang mencukupi;
• Program kementerian lain selain Kementerian Pendidikan
Malaysia mengganggu proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran guru;
• Perubahan dasar pendidikan yang mendadak; dan
• Kurang sokongan daripada pihak berkepentingan pendidikan lain
seperti universiti awam.
(b) Dimensi Murid

• Sikap ketidakprihatinan murid Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan
Agama terhadap pembelajaran akan menimbulkan masalah
disiplin;
• Murid tiada visi dan misi yang jelas;
• Murid kurang mendampingi guru; dan
• Murid kurang dibimbingi guru ke arah visi dan misi yang jelas.
(c) Dimensi Guru

• Beban tugas guru semakin bertambah; dan
• Kompetensi guru kurang selari dengan keperluan semasa.
(d) Dimensi Sekolah

• Kadar pusing ganti dalam kalangan guru adalah tinggi;
• Kemudahan fizikal sekolah yang kurang mencukupi dan berfungsi;
• Pengetua kurang mahir mengamalkan gaya kepimpinan dalam
suasana sebenar;
• Staf kurang bekerja dalam satu pasukan;
• Pengetua kurang menyampaikan maklumat dengan telus;
• Sikap ibu bapa kurang prihatin dengan perkembangan pendidikan
anak-anak;
• Hubungan dalam kalangan staf kurang mesra; dan
• Visi sekolah yang tinggi berbanding kemampuan sekolah.
18
PERBINCANGAN
Masyarakat prihatin dengan pencapaian sesebuah sekolah. Keprihatinan
tersebut kerana mereka yakin masa depan sesebuah negara bergantung kepada
sekolah yang mempunyai pencapaian cemerlang (Hall, 2015). Namun, untuk
mencapai kecemerlangan bukan suatu usaha yang mudah. Justeru, pelbagai
cabaran yang dihadapi oleh pihak sekolah. Gambaran ini adalah selari dengan
pandangan Lezotte (1997, h. 2): “Pendidikan berkualiti untuk semua: Di mana
sahaja kita berada…tetapi pada hakikatnya situasi tersebut kurang berlaku
kerana cabaran yang dihadapi…”
Kajian Johnson dan Duffett (2015) mendapati sebahagian besar cabaran
yang dihadapi sesetengah sekolah adalah kurang berjaya untuk memenuhi
tuntutan perubahan dasar pendidikan yang mendadak. Antara lain adalah
keperluan sekolah tinggi untuk berubah (Northwest Regional Educational
Laboratory, 2004), masyarakat kurang berkeyakinan dengan usaha sekolah
kerajaan (Phi Delta Kappa, 2004) dan penambahan murid dalam aspek
budaya, etnik dan bahasa yang pelbagai (Nieto, 2004).
Namun, setiap sekolah mempunyai cabaran yang berlainan. Kenyataan
berikut digambarkan oleh Barth (1986).
“Seperti mana Ronald Edmonds sering berkata,…kita lebih

mengetahui mengenai ciri-ciri sebuah sekolah berkesan
berbanding bagaimana (usaha) sesebuah sekolah itu menjadi
berkesan… Kenapa? Hal tersebut kerana kita memaksa sekolah
yang kurang berjaya menjadi berkesan seperti mana sekolah
yang telah berjaya menerusi kurang menganalisis kekuatan dan
kemampuan sekolah kurang berjaya…”
(Barth, 1986, h. 294)
Berpandukan pandangan tersebut, Barth (1986) menyatakan proses

mewujudkan sekolah berkesan bukan semudah yang difikirkan. Tambah
beliau lagi, kesilapan besar yang wujud dalam kalangan pihak berkepentingan
khususnya penggubal dasar, adalah mengguna pakai amalan terbaik
keberkesanan sesebuah sekolah dan dilaksanakan di tempat yang lain pula.
Alasan tersebut kerana setiap lokasi dan persekitaran mempunyai kekuatan
dan kekurangan yang berlainan (Evertson, Emmer, & Worsham, 2006).
Begitu juga dengan penemuan kajian ini yang mendapati aspek konteks,
murid, guru dan sekolah merupakan faktor penyumbang kepada cabaran
keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama berprestasi tinggi.
Dalam aspek konteks, dua pihak berkepentingan utama iaitu penggubal dasar
dan institusi pendidikan selain sekolah merupakan penyumbang kepada
19
cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama berprestasi

tinggi. Dalam konteks penggubal dasar, kajian ini mendapati perubahan dasar
yang mendadak berupaya mengganggu keberkesanan pengurusan sekolah
jenis ini. Situasi tersebut disebabkan setiap perubahan pemerintahan berlaku,
kumpulan baru akan membincangkan tujuan dan jangkaan baru kerajaan
terhadap sekolah menerusi pelbagai dialog, persetujuan dan keputusan (Tyack
& Cuban, 2015) yang bergantung kepada perspektif mereka (Wagner, 2002).
Implikasinya, pelbagai perubahan perlu dilaksanakan oleh pihak sekolah
yang melibatkan murid, guru, ibu bapa, pemimpin sekolah dan staf sokongan.
Schlechty (2014) menggambarkan situasi tersebut menerusi usaha pihak
sekolah menambahbaik data sekolah bagi mengenal pasti keperluan staf
terhadap pengetahuan dan kemahiran baru serta menambah erat jalinan ibu
bapa agar mereka dapat membantu pihak sekolah, khususnya dalam aspek
kewangan sekolah. Usaha tersebut sehingga meminggirkan matlamat asal
penubuhan sekolah iaitu meningkatkan pembelajaran murid. Untuk mengatasi
permasalahan ini, sekolah perlu berkolaborasi dengan pihak berkepentingan
dalam pendidikan seperti universiti awam bagi tujuan bimbingan. Namun,
kajian ini mendapati kurangnya sokongan pihak berkepentingan selain
institusi sekolah, khususnya universiti awam, terhadap Sekolah Menengah
Kebangsaan Agama. Hal tersebut bertentangan dengan cadangan Togneri dan
Anderson (2013) yang berpendapat bahawa peningkatan pencapaian murid
berupaya dilaksanakan melalui perubahan dua aspek berikut iaitu amalan
pengajaran dan sistem sokongan sekolah. Tambah mereka lagi, kedua-
duanya berupaya diubah dengan membangunkan strategi berkesan melalui
budaya kolaboratif sama ada dengan pihak dalam mahupun luar sekolah.
Guru berupaya menambahbaik amalan pengajaran dengan meningkatkan
pengetahuan, kemahiran dan nilai yang diperolehi daripada pakar (Wagner,
2002). Implikasinya, budaya untuk berubah khususnya diri sendiri akan
membentuk sebuah sistem sokongan baharu yang berfokus kepada pencapaian
murid (Evertson et al., 2006).
Dalam aspek murid pula, komponen sikap murid yang negatif turut
menghalang Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama mencapai keberkesanan
pencapaian. Kajian ini menemui murid SMKA yang kurang prihatin dengan
proses pembelajaran menyebabkan timbulnya masalah disiplin dalam
kalangan mereka. Alasan yang diberikan oleh Goldhaber dan Brewer (2007)
serta Hanushek (2012) adalah berkaitan latar belakang keluarga murid. Kajian
mereka mendapati wujudnya perkaitan antara pencapaian murid berasrama
dengan pendidikan ibu bapa, saiz keluarga dan pendapatan mereka. Mereka
menyatakan ibu bapa berpendidikan tinggi lebih meluangkan masa dan
mendidik anak mereka apabila waktu cuti sekolah. Manakala, ibu bapa
20
berpendidikan rendah mengandaikan murid berupaya berdikari dalam

menguruskan kehidupan mereka. Dalam aspek saiz keluarga, jumlah yang
ramai menyebabkan ibu bapa kurang memberikan tumpuan kepada anak
mereka kerana beranggapan murid berupaya menguruskan diri sendiri.
Begitu juga dengan ibu bapa yang berpendapatan tinggi atau sederhana
berupaya memenuhi keperluan anak khususnya berkaitan pendidikan. Bagi
ibu bapa yang berpendapatan rendah, mereka lebih memberikan tumpuan
kepada pemakanan murid kerana beranggapan murid berasrama merindui
masakan ibu.
Kajian ini juga menemui sikap murid yang kurang memiliki visi yang
jelas berupaya menyebabkan mereka kurang berdisiplin. Littky (2016)
meyokong kenyataan tersebut dengan menggambarkan harapan sekolah abad
ke-21 terhadap murid. Beliau menyatakan kejayaan pembelajaran abad ke-21
bukan hanya tertumpu kepada pencapaian akademik murid tetapi kehidupan
mereka yang berkualiti. Pada pandangan beliau, kehidupan berkualiti
berupaya dicapai sekiranya murid dilatih untuk berfikir bagi kehidupan masa
depan. Dengan kata lain, sekiranya murid berpandangan jauh, mereka akan
bertingkah laku positif untuk mencapai kejayaan, misalnya beranggapan
perbincangan dengan guru berupaya menyelesaikan masalah. Kepentingan
murid berbincang dengan guru bagi mendapatkan bimbingan diberikan
penekanan oleh Shepard (2014). Beliau menyatakan guru telah menyusun
proses atau aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran maka mereka arif dalam
menentukan proses tersebut. Justeru, murid seharusnya mendampingi guru
bagi tujuan bimbingan. Malah, Wheatley (2012) menyatakan sekiranya
hubungan antara murid dan guru erat, pencapaian akademik dan pembangunan
sosial murid akan meningkat. Bowsher (2011) menggambarkan situasi
tersebut dengan menyatakan jika murid mempunyai hubungan erat dengan
guru, murid kurang menerima kritikan daripada guru kerana mempunyai
hubungan peribadi positif yang erat, kerap berbincang dengan guru dan sering
menerima bimbingan dan pujian guru. Implikasinya, murid mempercayai
guru, berminat dalam pembelajaran, berdisiplin dan mencapai pencapaian
akademik yang tinggi (Littky, 2016).
Hakikatnya, masyarakat menekankan kepentingan sesebuah sekolah
untuk memiliki guru berkualiti seperti mana dibincangkan sebelum ini. Malah,
masyarakat dan kerajaan menyokong usaha melahirkan guru berkualiti.
Misalnya, kerajaan mewujudkan peperiksaan piawai bagi menilai pencapaian
guru menerusi keputusan peperiksaan yang diterima oleh murid (Thomas
& Mortimore, 2006). Dengan kata lain, banyak faktor penyumbang yang
berupaya meningkatkan pencapaian murid seperti karakter murid, keluarga
dan masyarakat tetapi banyak kajian (seperti Sammons, 1996; Shepard, 2014)
21
menemui faktor guru adalah faktor penyumbang utama. Namun, perlu disedari
pencapaian guru amat dipengaruhi oleh faktor sekolah seperti kepimpinan
sekolah, persekitaran sekolah yang kondusif dan bidang tugas (Rowe &
Fitzgerald, 2009). Pandangan tersebut selari dengan penemuan kajian ini
yang mendapati faktor guru dan sekolah merupakan faktor penyumbang
ketidakberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama.
Dalam aspek guru, kajian mendapati tahap beban tugas dan kompetensi
guru merupakan cabaran utama keberkesanan sekolah jenis ini. Penemuan
yang sama oleh Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(2009) mendapati guru kurang bermotivasi untuk berprestasi cemerlang
kerana tahap beban tugas mereka yang tinggi. Kajian itu turut mendapati hal
tersebut mengganggu tahap kompetensi dan kehidupan berkeluarga guru.
Mereka memberikan alasan kepentingan menjaga kebajikan keluarga untuk
tidak menghadiri program profesionalisme (Nelson, 2002). Implikasinya,
pengetahuan dan kemahiran guru agak kurang selari dengan perubahan
persekitaran khususnya dalam pendidikan (Littky, 2016) dan mereka akan
sering bertukar lokasi pekerjaan bagi mencapai kepuasan kerja (Shepard, 2014).
Bagi mengatasi permasalahan tersebut, persekitaran dalaman dan
luaran sekolah seharusnya memainkan peranan. Goldhaber dan Brewer
(2007) menggambarkan kenyataan tersebut dengan berpesan kepada pihak
berkepentingan dalam pendidikan untuk berganding bahu mengurangkan
tugas kurang penting guru dan pemimpin sekolah agar mereka berupaya
menumpukan perhatian kepada pencapaian murid. Penggubal dasar yang
dikaitkan dengan persekitaran luaran sekolah seharusnya memperkenalkan
dasar pendidikan berasaskan perancangan sistematik. Usaha tersebut
disebabkan dasar yang berlandaskan akauntabiliti akan menggalakkan pihak
sekolah meningkatkan pencapaian mereka (Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development, 2009). Manakala, pemimpin sekolah merupakan
salah satu faktor penyumbang yang berada dalam persekitaran sekolah,
seharusnya berkeyakinan diri tinggi untuk menolak keputusan yang berupaya
meningkatkan beban tugas dalam kalangan warga sekolah khususnya guru
(Shepard, 2014). Guru pula perlu berkolaborasi bagi membuktikan setiap
tugas yang dilaksanakan dalam bilik darjah bertujuan untuk meningkatkan
pencapaian murid (Hanushek, 2012).
Akan tetapi, situasi yang digambarkan ini kurang berlaku di sekolah
kajian. Misalnya, peserta kajian menyetujui pengetua Sekolah Menengah
Kebangsaan Agama kurang berpengetahuan dan kemahiran untuk memimpin
warga sekolah. Mereka juga bersetuju pengetua kurang telus dalam
menyampaikan maklumat kepada warga sekolah adalah salah satu cabaran
keberkesanan sekolah mereka. Persoalannya kini mengapakah terdapat
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jurang antara amalan pengetua dengan pendekatan yang dicadangkan oleh

pengkaji sekolah berkesan? Ramai pengkaji (seperti Berlin, Kavanagh &
Jensen, 2010; Flath, 2006) meyakini aktiviti perkembangan profesionalisme
berupaya meningkatkan kompetensi pengetua. Alasan tersebut disebabkan
jika prasyarat untuk menjadi pemimpin sekolah adalah kelayakan akademik
dalam bidang Pentadbiran Pendidikan, kualiti dan kandungan program
tersebut adalah berbeza-beza antara universiti tempatan, luar negara, awam
dan swasta (Nelson, 2002). Malah, laporan National Staff Development
Council (2016) menyatakan 96 peratus daripada 1000 orang pengetua baru
mendapati pengalaman rakan sejawat lebih membantu memainkan peranan
mereka sebagai seorang pemimpin sekolah berbanding pengetahuan dan
kemahiran yang dipelajari daripada program pengajian dahulu. Alasan
tersebut kerana pengetahuan dan kemahiran yang dipelajari ketika pengajian
adalah kurang selari dengan perubahan persekitaran khususnya bidang
Pendidikan (Falath, 2006).
Jelas di sini bahawa keberkesanan sesebuah sekolah amat bergantung
kepada kepimpinan sekolah seperti mana dinyatakan oleh Howard, Howell,
dan Brainard (1987, h. 23).
“Saya belum pernah melihat sebuah sekolah cemerlang dipimpin

oleh pengetua yang lemah atau sebuah sekolah lemah dipimpin
oleh pengetua yang cemerlang. Saya pernah melihat sekolah yang
kurang berjaya bertukar menjadi cemerlang dan berasa menyesal
sekiranya sekolah cemerlang bertukar menjadi lemah. Pokok
punca hal di atas adalah kualiti pengetua sesebuah sekolah…”
Oleh itu, kepemimpinan yang dimainkan oleh pengetua sekolah adalah

suatu yang penting. Pengetua seharusnya memakai pelbagai topi ketika
memimpin sekolah tetapi kebanyakan pemimpin sekolah yang cemerlang
bukan sahaja berperanan sebagai pengurus dan pengawal disiplin, mereka juga
bertindak sebagai pemimpin pembelajaran (Cohen, 2015). Sebagai pemimpin
pembelajaran, mereka akan bertindak agar permasalahan yang ditemui
dalam kajian ini berkaitan dengan cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah
Kebangsaan Agama sekurang-kurangnya berkurangan: mewujudkan
persekitaran sekolah yang kondusif dalam aspek hubungan erat antara warga
sekolah untuk melahirkan budaya kolaboratif dan menyediakan kemudahan
sekolah yang berfungsi, menggalakkan penglibatan aktif ibu bapa di sekolah
serta berkongsi visi dan misi yang jelas.
Peranan pengetua seperti dibincangkan ini ditegaskan oleh Bill dan
Foundation (2010) bahawa kepimpinan pengetua mempunyai perkaitan
23
rapat dengan keberkesanan faktor sekolah yang lain. Mereka berpendapat

pencapaian murid akan menurun sekiranya pengetua gagal memimpin faktor
sekolah secara cekap dan berkesan. Malah, kajian Davis, Darling-Hammond,
LaPointe dan Meyerson (2015) menjelaskan dengan harapan tinggi masyarakat
terhadap sekolah, jawatan pengetua dianggap penting kerana berupaya
menambahbaik proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Justeru, pengetua
seharusnya berperanan sebagai pencetus visi sekolah, pemimpin kurikulum
dan pengajaran, pakar penilaian, pengawal disiplin sekolah, pembina
jaringan permuafakatan antara rumah dan sekolah, pakar jalinan masyarakat,
penganalisis bajet sekolah, pengurus kemudahan sekolah, pentadbir
sekolah dan pakar analisis dasar pendidikan dan sekolah (Nelson, 2002).
Dengan kata lain, pengetua seharusnya berperanan sebagai orang tengah
kepada guru, ibu bapa, murid, penggubal dasar, kesatuan keguruan dan pihak
berkepentingan lain bagi memenuhi keperluan pembelajaran murid. Davis
et al. (2015) menggambarkan kenyataan tersebut bahawa peranan pengetua
kelihatan melangkaui tugas pihak berkepentingan lain yang memberikan tanda
awal sebagai satu pengiktirafan terhadap pengetua untuk memastikan murid
dapat belajar di sekolah cemerlang. Begitu juga dengan pandangan Schmidt-
Davis dan Bottoms (2016) bahawa seorang pengetua berupaya memberikan
impak kehidupan murid dalam jumlah yang ramai untuk sesuatu tahun.
Walau bagaimanapun, sebaik mana kualiti kepimpinan seseorang
pengetua, beliau masih memerlukan sokongan daripada warga sekolah.
Shepard (2014) menyetujui pandangan tersebut dengan menyatakan pengetua
seharusnya memimpin dalam kerangka kerja kolaboratif dan berkongsi dalam
pembuatan keputusan sekolah bersama-sama warga sekolah khususnya guru
dalam mengatasi cabaran yang ditemui dalam kajian ini. Hal tersebut kerana
pengetua lebih bertindak sebagai orang tengah kepada pihak berkepentingan
dalam pendidikan khususnya penggubal dasar manakala pihak berkepentingan
lain sebagai pelaksana utama dasar pendidikan (Sammons, 1996; Shepard, 2014).
Sebagai kesimpulan, cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah
Kebangsaan Agama melibatkan aspek dalaman dan luaran persekitaran
sekolah iaitu faktor konteks, guru, murid dan sekolah. Cabaran tersebut
berupaya diatasi dengan kepimpinan profesional pengetua dan guru yang
bertindak dalam sebuah kerangka kerja kolaboratif dan berkongsi dalam
pembuatan keputusan mengenai sekolah. Hal tersebut kerana cabaran yang
dihadapi oleh SMKA adalah berpunca daripada kepimpinan pengetua yang
berupaya bagi mengatasi cabaran berkaitan faktor konteks, murid, guru dan
sekolah.
24
PENUTUP
Sekiranya kita serius dengan proses penambahbaikan terhadap sesebuah
sekolah yang kurang berkesan, kita seharusnya memberikan tumpuan kepada
punca berlakunya ketidakberkesanan sekolah tersebut. Usaha tersebut
disebabkan punca berlakunya ketidakberkesanan sekolah adalah pelbagai dan
strategi pemulihan seharusnya berbeza-beza berdasarkan tahap pelaksanaan.
Dengan kata lain, proses mengenal pasti punca berlakunya
ketidakberkesanan merupakan satu usaha permulaan yang sangat penting
sebelum memulakan proses pemulihan. Justeru, kajian ini telah mengenal
pasti empat cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama
berprestasi tinggi iaitu faktor konteks, murid, guru dan sekolah. Selanjutnya,
kebanyakan pengkaji sekolah berkesan seperti Evertson, Emmer, dan
Worsham (2006) menyatakan proses awal untuk mengenal pasti punca
ketidakberkesanan sesebuah sekolah adalah menilai tugas yang telah
dilakukan oleh pemimpin sekolah khususnya pengetua. Alasan tersebut
disebabkan pengetua adalah individu yang mempunyai kuasa sebagai
pembuat keputusan terakhir bagi sesebuah sekolah (Shepard, 2014). Jatuh
bangun sesebuah sekolah bergantung kepada kepimpinan sekolah. Manakala,
faktor penyumbang ketidakberkesanan sekolah yang lain merupakan
penyokong kepada usaha yang dijalankan oleh pengetua.
Bagi mengatasi cabaran tersebut, setiap faktor konteks, murid, guru
dan sekolah perlu berkolaboratif dan melakukan penambahbaikan bagi
mewujudkan peluang pembelajaran kepada murid. Permuafakatan antara
komuniti sekolah khususnya yang terlibat langsung dengan pembelajaran
murid adalah penting bagi melahirkan murid yang berjaya dan persekitaran
sekolah yang kondusif menerusi perancangan penambahbaikan sekolah yang
cekap dan berkesan.
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30
PEMBENTUKAN AKHLAK AWAL KANAK-KANAK

MENERUSI TELADAN IBU BAPA
Noraziah Ahmad Nadzim* & Mohd Nizam Sahad (PhD)

Pusat Pengajian Ilmu Kemanusiaan
Universiti Sains Malaysia
emiaziah@yahoo.com
Mohd Nazri Abdul Rahman (PhD)

Fakulti Pendidikan
Universiti Malaya
Abstrak
Pembentukan akhlak awal kanak-kanak bermula dengan didikan
dan asuhan ibu bapa.Ibu bapa berperanan sebagai penyebar
pertama kepada sosialisasi sejak anak-anak dilahirkan ke dunia.
Kegagalan ibu bapa dalam mendidik anak-anak menyebabkan
mereka terjerumus kepada keruntuhan ahklak. Kertas kerja ini
ini bertujuan mengetengahkan isu berkaitan pembentukan akhlak
awal kanak-kanak menerusi teladan ibu bapa dalam Islam. Kertas
kerja ini memberi fokus terhadap konsep pembentukan akhlak awal
kanak-kanak berserta kepentingannya. Konsep teladan ibu bapa
dalam Islam dan prinsip-prinsipnya turut dibincangkan. Kanak-
kanak dipilih sebagai subjek sasaran perbincangan kerana ibu bapa
memainkan peranan yang penting dalam mencorakkan tingkahlaku
dan akhlak awal kanak-kanak. Metodologi penulisan kertas
konsep ini adalah melalui kajian kepustakaan dengan menekankan
aspek analisis kandungan (content analysis). Hasil analisis telah
membuktikan bahawa pembentukan akhlak awal kanak-kanak
dipengaruhi oleh faktor teladan ibu bapa meliputi aspek perbuatan
dan percakapan. Adalah menjadi harapan agar penulisan berkaitan
pembentukan akhlak awal kanak-kanak menerusi teladan ibu bapa
ini memberi gambaran dan kefahaman terhadap konsep keibubapaan
dalam Islam agar difahami bagi tujuan pembentukan akhlak yang
mulia dalam kalangan awal kanak-kanak berpaksikan ajaran Islam
berpandukan Al-Quran dan Sunnah.
Kata kunci: pembentukan akhlak, awal kanak-kanak teladan,

ibu bapa
31
PENGENALAN
Dalam pendidikan awal kanak-kanak, ibu bapalah yang menjadi pendidik
pertama kepada pembentukan peribadi dan akhlak kanak-kanak tersebut.
Dalam kertas kerja ini akan menerangkan berkaitan konsep pembentukan
akhlak awal kanak-kanak menerusi teladan ibu bapa merangkumi persediaan
ibu bapa dalam menjadi teladan kepada anak-anak serta bentuk teladan yang
akan dicontohi dalam kehidupan kanak-kanak tersebut. Dalam membentuk
akhlak anak-anak, ibu bapa perlulah menggunakan kaedah pendidikan akhlak
yang sesuai serta waktu yang tepat agar menjadi pegangan kukuh kepada
anak-anak.
Anak-anak yang soleh akan muncul bermula dengan kesolehahan ibu
dan bapa kerana keduanya merupakan pencorak kepada peribadi-peribadi ini
sejak daripada kecil berterusan sehingga dewasa. Pendidikan kanak-kanak
pada umumnya adalah berasaskan pada dua bahagian iaitu apa yang ditiru
daripada orang yang rapat sama ada ahli keluarga ataupun rakan dan apa
yang diperolehi secara asuhan. Oleh itu, institusi keluarga adalah institusi
terpenting dalam memupuk keperibadian kanak-kanak.
Konsep Pembentukan Akhlak Kanak-kanak dari Pespektif Islam

Fenomena keruntuhan akhlak dalam kalangan masyarakat Islam di
Malaysia semakin mendapat perhatian semua pihak. Masyarakat Islam
yang menyedari fenomena negatif yang semakin menular menyeru supaya
ibu bapa meletakkan Islam sebagai prinsip dalam kehidupan berkeluarga.
Maka ibu bapa perlu menerapkan anak-anak dengan penghayatan cara hidup
Islam dalam menghadapi cabaran kehidupan. Pendidikan akhlak awal kanak-
kanak melalui peranan ibu bapa menurut prinsip Islam amatlah ditekankan
dalam Islam. Saranan yang terdapat dalam al- Quran adalah pendidikan yang
menyeluruh, tidak terbatas kepada ibadat dan melupakan tingkah laku, atau
memberatkan individu dan melupakan amal, tetapi meliputi segala aspek
kehidupan manusia.
Muhammad Nur Abdullah Hafiz Suaid (2006:157) menyatakan tempat
yang paling subur bagi pembinaan pendidikan adalah fasa kanak-kanak
yang merupakan fasa terpanjang dalam perjalanan hidup. Masa kanak-kanak
mempunyai keistimewaan yang berupa kelenturan, kesucian dan fitrah. Jika
masa kanak-kanak ini dibangunkan dengan penjagaan , bimbingan dan arahan
maka kelak kanak-kanak ini akan kukuh pegangannya dalam menghadapi
hari depannya. Dalam mendidik kanak-kanak, Khayr Fatimah (1998: 202)
dalam Abdul Salam (2003) beliau membahagikan peringkat umur kanak-
kanak kepada tiga peringkat utama iaitu:
32
1. antara masa bercerai susu iaitu fitam, 2 tahun sehingga umur 7 tahun,
2. antara umur 7 tahun sehingga 10 tahun,
3. antara umur 10 tahun sehingga baligh.
Pada peringkat umur ini, anak –anak perlulah diberikan asas pembinaan
akidah, ibadah, akhlak, emosi, intelektual dan jasmani berdasarkan hadis
Rasulullah, setiap manusia itu perlu dibekalkan dengan enam aspek
pendidikan ini. Miqdad Yalchin (1983) dalam Ahmad Mohd Salleh (2003)
menyatakan bahawa pendidikan akhlak sebagai satu usaha untk membina
peribadi, masyarakat dan budaya yang baik. Terdapat banyak kaedah atau
cara perlaksanaan sistem pendidikan di sebuah institusi keluarga. Namun
kaedah pendidikan dengan menunjukkan contoh dan tauladan, dan pendidikan
yang menekankan aspek kerohanian adalah dikira asas yang paling penting.

“ Wahai orang yang beriman peliharalah dirimu dan keluargamu
dari api neraka yang berbahan manusia dan bau, sedangkan
para penjaganya adalah para malaikat yang kasar dan keras
, serta tidak pernah menderhakai Allah terhadap apa yang
diperintahkan-Nya kepada mereka serta selalu mengerjakan apa
yang diperintahkan”.
(At-Tahrim: 6)
Setiap Muslim haruslah mendidik diri dan keluarganya dengan cara

memerintahkan mereka untuk mengerjakan kebaikan dan melarang mereka
dari berbuat kejahatan.Kesolehan kedua orang tua merupakan teladan yang
baik bagi anak, mempunyai pengaruh yang besar terhadap kejiwaaan anak.
Apabila kedua orang tuanya mempunyai disiplin untuk bertakwa kepada
Allah dan mengikuti jalan Allah, dan juga terus ada kerjasama antara ibu
bapa untuk menunaikan perkara tersebut, maka anak-anak akan mengikut
membesar dalam ketaatan dan berbakti kepada Allah kerana mencontohi
kedua ibu bapanya.
Penerapan adab merupakan asas akhlak seseorang. Adab dimaksudkan
sebagaai pergaulan yang baik. Penanaman adab kepada anak dan
membiasakansehingga menjadi tabiat dan perangai itu lebih utama dan sangat
penting dalam Islam. Pendidikan akhlak terhadap awal kanak-kanak yang
disarankan dalam Islam ialah beradab terhadap kedua ibu bapa, adab terhadap
ulama adab menghormati dan menghargai orang lain, adab persaudaraan,
adab berjiran, adab meminta izin, adab makan dan adab dalam penampilan
diri. Kesemua ini merupakan asas kepada pembentukan akhlak awal kanak-
33
kanak dan mudah dicontohi sekiranya ibu bapa menerapkan dalam kehidupan
sehariannya.
Pemilihan waktu yang tepat oleh kedua ibu bapa dalam memberikan
bimbingan kepada anak-anak, memberikan pengaruh yang sangat besar agar
nasihat yang diberikan memberikan kesan yang diharapkan. Pemilihan waku
yang tepat akan memudahkan dan meringankan usaha dalam melakukan
kegiatan mengajar. Jika ibu bapa mampu memilih waktu yang tepat , di mana
anak mudah menerima bimbingan ibu bapanya, maka ketika itu ibu bapa akan
dapat melaksanakan kegiatan pendidikan kepada anak-anak. Menurut Abdur
Rahman Annahlawi (1995), Rasulullah SAW menyarankan tiga waktu yang
tepat dalam membimbing anak-anak:
i- Waktu berkelah, ketika dalam perjalanan dan di atas kenderaan.
Rasululah SAW pernah mendukung anak ketika sedang berjalan .
Ini kerana pada masa itu, anak mudah mendapatkan pengaruh dari
bimbingan yang diberikan oleh orang yang bersamanya.
ii- Waktu makan

Pada waktu ini, seorang anak akan mulai lemah di hadapan keinginan
untuk makan sehingga terkadang dia melakukan perbuatan yang tidak
baik atau tercela. Jika kedua iu bapanya tidak menemaninya ketika
makan dan meluruskan kesalahan-kesalahan kereka, maka anak akan
berperangai tidak baik.
iii- Ketika anak sedang sakit

Sakit dapat membuatkan lentur hati orang dewasa yang kasar. Seorang
anak yang sedang sakit mempunyai dua kelembutan iaitu kelembutan
fitrah keanakan itu sendiri dan juga fitrah kelembutan hati dan jiwa
ketika dia sedang sakit. Dengan demikian, dia mudah untuk diluruskan
segala kesalahannya.
Kajian-kajian Berkaitan Pembentukan Akhlak Awal kanak-kanak

Penulisan ini bukan yang pertama kalinya berkaitan ibu bapa, namun ada
beberapa kajian berkaitan pengaruh gaya asuhan ibu bapa terhadap akademik
dan tingkahlaku remaja. Terdapat banyak kajian berkaitan contoh teladan
dan model dalam pendidikan seperti kajian peranan guru sebagai role
model atau contoh teladan kepada pelajar yang dijalankan oleh A. Halim
Tamuri,Mohamad Khairul Azman Ajuhary (2010). Menurut Kamarul Azmi
Jasmi (2007:31) corak pendidikan dan kebiasaan anak-anak sewaktu kecil
sehingga remaja dijadikan kayu pengukur kepada pembentukan peribadi
anak-anak apabila dewasa. Seorang dewasa yang beretika, berdisiplin dan
34
berbudi bahasa adalah datang daripada kelompok kanak-kanak yang terdidik

dengan etika, disiplin dan berbudi bahasa. Begitu juga sebaliknya, seorang
dewasa yang kejam, ganas dan tidak beretika datangnya daripada kelompok
kanak-kanak dan remaja yang terbiasa dengan persekitaran yang kejam,
ganas dan tidak beretika
Terdapat beberapa kajian berkaitan gaya asuhan ibu bapa dan
pencapaian akademik pelajar. Kajian oleh Nor Mazana Ismail (2001), dalam
tesis sarjana beliau yang bertajuk Hubungan Di Antara Gaya Kepimpinan
Ibu Bapa Dengan Pelanggaran Disiplin Pelajar-Pelajar Tingkatan Empat Di
Sekolah Menengah Teknik Slim River, Perak menyatakan terdapat empat
gaya kepimpinan ibu bapa iaitu gaya kepimpinan demokratik, gaya kepimpin
autoritarian, gaya kepimpinan permissive-indulgent dan gaya kepimpinan
permissive-neglectful. Daripada analisis data yang diperolehi, menunjukkan
bahawa terdapat hubungan di antara gaya kepimpinan ibu bapa dengan
pelanggaran disiplin pelajar. Walau bagaimanapun, dalam penulisan ini,
penulis akan memfokuskan kepada teladan ibu bapa ke arah pembentukan
akhlak awal kanak-kanak.
Kajian oleh Zakaria Stapa et al. (2012) membincangkan faktor-
faktor persekitaran sosial yang boleh mempengaruhi pembentukan jati
diri setiap individu. Faktor-faktor persekitaran sosial yang dikenal pasti
memberikan kesan yang cukup signifikan dalam pembentukan jati diri
individu adalah terdiri daripada ibu bapa, rakan sebaya, sekolah dan guru
dan media massa. Amla et al.(2010) dalam kajiannya berkaitan Peranan
Bapa dalam Pembangunan Sahsiah Remaja dan Implikasinya terhadap Nilai
Kekeluargaan membentangkan hasil kajian yang penting iaitu penglibatan
bapa agak baik, iaitu bertanggungjawab dari segi menyediakan kemudahan
fizikal serta sokongan kepada ibu. Walau bagaimanapun, fokus penulis ialah
melihat pembentukan akhlak awal kanak-kanak berbanding kajian tersebut
yang mengkaji perkembangan pembelajaran dan konsep kendiri remaja.
Secara keseluruhannya, penulis mendapati terdapat beberapa kajian
lepas dan penulisan berkaitan tajuk kepimpinan ibu bapa dan akhlak remaja,
namun masih terdapat kurang perbincangan berkaitan teladan ibu bapa dan
hubungannya dengan pembentukan akhlak awal kanak-kanak.. Justeru, adalah
menjadi satu keperluan bagi membincangkan isu berkaitan pembentukan
akhlak awal kanak-kanak menerusi teladan ibu bapa dalam penulisan ini.
Konsep Teladan Ibu bapa

Al-Quran dan Sunnah merupakan sumber panduan hidup dalam Islam. Asas
kehidupan manusia itu mestilah berteraskan kepada asas akidah, ibadah dan
juga akhlak sebagai panduan kehidupan. Firman Allah:
35
“Kamu wahai (Muhammad) adalah sebaik-baik umat dilahirkan

bagi (faedah) umat manusia, kerana kamu menyuruh berbuat
segala perkara yang baik dan melarang kepada perkara yang
salah. Serta kamu pula beriman kepada Allah”.
(Ali Imran, 3:110)
Kamarul Azmi Jasmi et al. (2007) menyatakan bahawa teknik uswah hasanah
yang bermaksud contoh ikutan yang baik merupakan salah satu teknik
pengajaran terhadap pendidikan Islam .Ini berdasarkan daripada firman Allah
yang bermaksud:
“Demi sesungguhnya adalah bagi kamu pada diri Rasulullah itu

uswah hasanah (contoh ikutan yang baik iaitu bagi orang yang
sentiasa mengharapkan keredhaan Allah dan balasan baik hari
Akhirat”.
(Al-Ahzab, 33:21)
Teknik ini adalah teknik utama yang digunakan Rasulullah SAW dalam
pendidikan Islam. Penerapan pendidikan Islam yang dilaksanakan baginda
mencapai kejayan yang baik kerana baginda sendiri menunjukkan contoh
teladan dalam melaksanakan perkara yang hendak disampaikannya.Kaedah ini
memudahkann kefahaman para sahabat terhadap pelaksanaan sesuatu amalan.
Sebagai contoh, Rasulullah SAW mengajarkan tentang bagaimana tatacara
berkenderaan kepada Saidina Ali r.a dan saidina Ali r.a pula mengajarkan
secara lengkap kepada pelajarnya (Kamarul Azmi Jasmi 2007: 54).
Rasulullah SAW diutuskan Allah SWT sebagai suri teladan kepada umat
manusia. Sebagai pemimpin dalam keluarga, ibubapa mestilah mencontohi
akhlak Baginda Rasulullah SAW dalam segala aspek kehidupan ke arah
membentuk anak-anak yang soleh serta berakhlak terpuji. Berkaitan peranan
ibu bapa terhadap pendidikan anak-anak, Imam al-Ghazali mengatakan
bahawa anak merupakan amanah bagi kedua orang tuanya. Jika dia dibiasakan
dan diajarkan untuk berbuat kebaikan, maka dia akan membesar menjadi
anak yang baik. Dengan begitu, kedua orang tuanya akan berbahagia di dunia
dan akhirat. Sedangkan apabila dia dibiasakan berbuat jahat, dan dibiarkan
begitu saja seperti membiarkan haiwan ternak, maka dia akan sengasara dan
binasa. Malahan, dosanya akan dipikul oleh orang yang bertanggungjawab
untuk mengurus dan walinya (Muhammad Nur Abdullah Hafiz Suaid ,2006).
Pendidikan keibubapaan menerusi ajaran Islam memperingatkan ibu
bapa tentang peranan mereka sebagai khalifah dalam keluarga. Konsep
khalifah mengangkat martabat ibu bapa sebagai pemimpin. Ibu bapa
36
memimpin ahli keluarganya ke arah kebaikan dan menjauhkan mereka dari

melakukan kejahatan. Ibu bapa mestilah menunjukkan teladan yang baik
agar menjadi cerminan dan panduan hidup sejak dari awal kanak-kanak lagi.
Para pakar pendidik menyatakan bahawa masa yang penting bagi kehidupan
seseorang ialah pada masa kanak-kanak. Mereka berpandangan bahawa
pada masa ini adalah membentuk masa depan seseorang manusia tersebut
(Muhammad Baihaqi :2002).
Sabda Nabi Muhammad SAW:
Setiap bayi yang dilahirkan, dilahirkan dalam keadaan fitrah

(Islam). Maka kedua orang tuanyalah yang menjadikan Yahudi,
Nasrani atau Majusi.
(Hadith Riwayat Muslim).
Berdasarkan hadith tersebut, adalah menjadi kewajian bagi setiap ibu bapa
untuk memberikan tunjuk ajar yang dapat memudahkan mereka untuk
mendapatkan pendidikan yang layak. Ibu bapa mempunyai pengaruh yang
kuat terhadap perkembangan psikologi anak.Dari ibu bapalah akan diambil
contoh oleh anak-anaknya., dan mengikuti jejaknya. Oleh itu, apa yang
diucapkan dan yang dilakukan akan selalu terkesan serta menjadi ikutan
oleh anak-anaknya. Ibu bapa merupakan contoh teladan bagi anak-anakya.
Oleh itu, ucapannya tidak boleh bertentangan dengan perbuatanya. Apabila
mengajak sesuatu kebaikan , maka ibu bapa yang harus melakukannya terlebih
dahulu agar dapat diikuti dan dicontohi anak-anak.
Sebelum membentuk tingkahlaku anak-anak, semestinya setiap ibu
bapa itu perlulah melengkapkan dirinya dengan asas -asas Islam agar terbiasa
dengan cara hidup Islam dan seterusnya diteladani dan menjadi ikutan oleh
kanak-kanak dan masyarakat sekelillngnya. Muhammad Qutb dalam Ahmad
Mohd Salleh (2003) menerangkan bahawa kualiti insan yang soleh ialah:
a. Manusia yang beriman kepadaAllah dan membersihkan dirinya dari
unsur syirik
b. Manusia yang melakukan amal soleh dalam seluruh kehidupannya
untuk dunia dan akhirat
c. Manusia yang memiliki akhlak yang mulia hasil dariada iman dan amal
yang soleh.
Kewajipan ibubapa bukan sekadar menyediakan keperluan kebendaan

malahan mencakupi pendidikan keimanan sebagai asas kehidupan kepada
anak-anak. Ibubapa bertanggung jawab memberikan pendidikan yang
sempurna kepada anak-anak terutamanya dalam menjalankan tanggung jawab
37
kepada Allah, kepada diri dan juga masyarakat. Ibubapa merupakan contoh
teladan yang sangat penting kepada kanak-kanak yang sedang membesar.
Teladan yang ditunjukkan kepada oleh ibubapa akan meninggalkan kesan
yang sangat mendalam (Muhammad Baihaqi ,2002) . Selain itu, dalam
membentuk akhlak awal kanak-kanak, perkara utama yang perlu ditekankan
ialah ibu bapa hendaklah:
1. berpegang kepada akidah Islam,
2. bergaul dengan sopan dan hormat agar anak dapat menghormati orang
lain,
3. Menjauhkan diri dari perbuatan zalim dan berusaha untuk meluaskan
keadilan,
4. bergaul dengan kasih sayang,
5. melontarkan kata-kata yang baik dan tidak menggusarkan hati anak-
anak.
Keteladanan yang baik memberikan pengaruh yang besar terhadap jiwa

kanak-kanak. Anak banyak meniru ibubapanya. Ibubapa perlulah menjadi
teladan yang baik dalam kepada anak-anak terutama berkenaan akhlak di
dalam bergaul dengan anak-anak.. Anak-anak akan selalu memerhatikan dan
mengawasi perilaku orang dewasa. Mereka akan sentiasa mencontohi ibu
bapa mereka kerana terbiasa melihat perkara sedemikian di dalam kehidupan
seharian.. Sekranya ibu bapa berlaku jujur, maka mereka maka membesar
dengan kejujuran. Demikian juga dalam perkara-perkara lain. Oleh itu,
kedua ibubapa dituntut menerapkan perintah Allah sebagai amalan serta
terus menambah amalan sunnah menurut kemampuan kerana anak-anak akan
terus mengawasi dan meniru mereka setiap waktu. Ini kerana kemampuan
anak-anak dalam menerima secara sedar taupun tidak sedar sangatlah tinggi
tanpa kita sedari dan jangkakan.
Pengajaran dan pendidikan menjadi tidak berkesan apabila tindakan atau
perilaku pendidik bertentangan dengan isi kandungan pengajarannya sendiri.
Sebenarnya pengajaran melalui tindakan adalah lebih berkesan daripada
pengajaran secara lisan. Peribahasa Melayu sendiri ada menyebutkan, “Jika
guru kencing berdiri, murid kencing berlari”. Begitulah pentingnya kedudukan
ibubapa sebagai pendidik awal dalam pembentukan diri anak-anak.
Dalam konteks keluarga pula, Abdur Rahman Annahlawi (1995)
menyatakan bahawa ibu bapa adalah murabbi kepada anak-anak mereka setiap
kali berlaku interaksi antara kedua-dua pihak. Dalam pendidikan di rumah,
kedudukan ibubapa sebagai contoh teladan menjadi lebih penting kerana anak-
anak lebih terdedah kepada peribadi dan tingkah laku ibubapanya dengan
lebih dekat. Kita semua menyedari bahawa sungguh banyak pengajaran dan
38
pengalaman yang diperolehi anak-anak melalui interaksi dengan ibu bapa

mereka sejak hari pertama kelahiran lagi. Pengajaran dan pengalaman ini
mungkin membina keperibadian mereka. Kanak-kanak kecil belajar melalui
pengamatan dan meniru perlakuan dan tindak tanduk ibu bapanya. Melalui
pengamatan, akan terbentuk sesuatu di dalam mental anak-anak dan akan
menjadi satu pelajaran kepada mereka. Oleh itu sesuatu tingkah laku ibu
bapa yang dilakukan secara berterusan akan membentuk proses pengukuhan
dalam diri anak-anak dan akhirnya tindakan tersebut akan menjadi sebati
dengan peribadi anak-anak.
Menurut Abdur Rahman Annahlawi (1995) menyatakan bahawa teladan
ibu bapa dalam kehidupan kanak-kanak berlaku dalam dua situasi iaitu:
a. Pengaruh langsung yang tak disengaja (spontan)
Keberhasilan peneladanan ini banyak bergantung pada kualiti
kesungguhan tingkahlaku yang diteladankan. Dalam situasi ini,
pengaruh teladan berjalan secara langsung tanpa sengaja. Ini bermaksud
bahawa setiap orang diharapkan menjadi teladan hendaklah memelihara
tingkah lakunya, disertai kesedaran bahawa ia bertanggung jawab
dihadapan Allah dalam segala hal yang diikuti oleh orang lain. Anak-
anak akan meniru teladan ibu bapa secara tidak langsung kerana terbiasa
melihat perlakuan ibu bapa mereka dalam urusan kehidupan seharian.
Sebagai contoh, sekiranya ibubapa berinteraksi dengan lemah lembut
terhadap anak-anak maka anak-anak juga akan terbiasa mengikut
perilaku ibu bapa mereka dan berinteraksi dengan masyarakat dengan
cara yang sopan dan lemah lembut.
b. Pengaruh yang sengaja

Peneladanan ini dilakukan secara sengaja ataupun bertujuan. Sebagai
contoh, sekiranya ibu bapa ingin menerapkan solat sebagai ibadah wajib
kepada anak-anak maka ibu bapa akan mengajar dan menerangkan
cara bersolat dan kepentingan solat itu sendiri. Maka, anak-anak akan
mengikut perlakuan tersebut atas dasar ajaran secara langsung daripada
ibu bapa mereka sendiri.
Dapatlah kita simpulkan di sini bahawa keteladanan ibu bapa ini

berlaku secara langsung dan tidak langsung terutamanya mencakupi aspek
percakapan dan perbuatan dalam kehidupan seharian. Aspek perbuatan yang
dilakukan secara berulangkali ternyata memberi kesan yang lebih mendalam
dan semakin dekat untuk diikuti dan memberi kesan kepada pembentukan
akhlak awal kanak-kanak.
39
Pembentukan Akhlak Awal Kanak-Kanak : Isu dan Cabaran

Menurut Abdullah Nasih Ulwan (1988:58) pendidikan akhlak awal kanak-
kanak melalui teladan ini juga, mengikut tahap atau peringkat. Mula-mula
anak-anak akan terikut dengan contoh daripada ibu bapa mereka kemudian,
teman-teman ,guru dan seterusnya dari anak-anak yang lebih tua usia
darinya.Justeru, ibu bapa perlulah memainkan peranan yang sangat penting
dalam mengambil inti pati dan mengamalkan semua yang telah diajarkan
oleh Rasulullah saw dalam mengikutpelbagai cara atau kaedah yang telah
disampaikan kepada kita untuk mendidik anak-anak sejak dari kecil lagi.
Antara contoh teladan yang telah ditunjukkan juga oleh Rasulullah
dalam menzahirkan sifat-sifat mulia Baginda ialah dalam ibadatnya,
kemurahan hatinya, sifat zuhud dan tawaduknya , sopan santun, ketegasan
dan keberanian, dan belas kasihan Rasulullah kepada anak-anak yang boleh
dijadikan contoh oleh ibu bapa dalam memberikan pendidikan Islam dalam
jiwa anak-anak. Tambahan lagi, menjadikan Rasulullah sebagai ikutan juga
merupakan pilihan yang utama kerana Rasulullah sendiri telah diutuskan
oleh Allah bertujuan untuk menjadi teladan yang baik bagi kaum Muslimin.
Allah juga telah meletakkan semua sifat-sifat mulia di dalam peribadi Nabi
Muhammad s.a.w. sebagai lambang dasar Islam, agar generasi akan datang
dapat mencontohi kesemua sifat-sifat Baginda Nabi Muhammad s.a.w.
(Abdullah Nasih Ulwan 1990:142) .
Nabi Muhammad s.a.w mengingatkan sesiapa yang memikul tugas
pendidikan , supaya mengambil teladan yang baik dalam segala sesuatu
yang boleh memberikan gambaran yang baik kepada orang yang dididiknya
, supaya mereka dapat menurut segala kelakuan dengan sifat yang terpuji
dan mulia ,mengikut nasihat-nasihat dengan berkesan dan perhatian yang
jelas serta perilaku mereka selari dengan syariat Islam. Justeru Rasulullah
merupakan contoh ikutan yang baik oleh ibu bapa dalam mendidik anak-anak
dalam membina rumah tangga bahagia (Abdullah Nasih Ulwan 1990:142).
Walau bagaimanapun terdapat cabaran yang dihadapi ibu bapa dalam
membentuk akhlak awal kanak-kanak memandangkan terdapat pengaruh-
pengaruh luar yang turut serta dalam menghakis pembentukan akhlak
anak-anak. Pendedahan anak-anak kepada media elektronik terutamanya
siri animasi yang berunsur hiburan duniawi dan berbentuk keganasan akan
melunturkan sikap kelembutan yang ada pada diri kanak-kanak tersebut.
Penggunaan gajet-gajet terkini juga menyekat perkembangan sosial anak-anak
untuk berinteraksi dengan masyarakat sekeliing dan menjadikan anak-anak
tersebut sebagai seorang individualistik.
Tuntutan hidup dan desakan ekonomi masa kini menyebabkan kedua
ibu bapa keluar mencari rezeki manakala anak-anak ditinggalkan di pusat
40
asuhan kanak-kanak.Di sini, pengaruh rakan sebaya terutamanya ketika

bersama rakan di taman asuhan atau pusat penjagaan kanak-kanak ketika ibu
bapa bekerja juga dapat mempengaruhi tingkahlaku dan akhlak kanak-kanak.
Faktor kesibukan ibu bapa juga memainkan peranan dalam pembentukan
akhlak awal aknak-kanak di mana terdapat situasi kedua ibu bapa bekerja serta
tiada masa untuk berinteraksi dengan anak-anak menyebabkan anak-anak
sering ditnggalkan dan diasuh oleh penjaga atau pembantu rumah. Segala
perilaku orang yang paling hampir dengan mereka akan dicontohi saban
hari dan membentuk peribadi dan tingkahlaku anak-anak itu sendiri.Faktor
persekitaran juga memainkan peranan dalam pembentukan akhlak awal
kanak-kanak di mana ibu bapa juga didapati tiada kemahiran keibubapaan
positif bagi menangani atau memenuhi keperluan anak-anak ini seperti yang
diharapkan.
Oleh yang demikian, ibu bapa perlulah memperuntukkan masa yang
berkualiti dalam berinteraksi dengan anak-anak agar terlahir bentuk teladan
yang dapat dicontohi anak-anak dalam proses pembentukan akhlak seiring
dengan pertumbuhan fizikal, mental dan emosi anak-anak tersebut.
RUMUSAN
Aspek pembinaan institusi keluarga sesungguhnya merupakan isu yang
melibatkan hampir setiap individu yang telah berumah tangga. Masalah
kekeluargaan khususnya cabaran dan peranan dalam mendidik anak-anak
adalah merupakan perkara yang amat penting dalam kehidupan berkeluarga.
Oleh kerana itu, institusi kekeluargaan merupakan unit yang terkecil bagi
sesebuah negara dan ummah. Jika keluarga itu kuat, maka kuatlah negara
dan ummah. Sebagaimana kata-kata hukama’, “Binalah kerajaan Islam di
dalam diri sendiri, sebelum anda membina kerajaan Islam di dalam keluarga.
Binalah kerajaan Islam dalam keluarga, sebelum anda membina kerajaan
Islam di dalam masyarakat.”
Ibu bapa selaku pemimpin mestilah menyedari sebenar-benarnya
bahawa tugas mendidik dan mentarbiyah anak-anak dengan didikan agama
dan akhlak Islam adalah merupakan tugas murni yang amat dituntut dan
ianya merupakan salah satu ibadat yang tinggi dan mulia di sisi Allah SWT.
Justeru, diharapkan dengan penulisan ini, akan membantu ibu bapa
memberi ruang dan masa agar dapat menbentuk akhlak anak-anak dengan
contoh teladan yang baik secara optimum walaupun dalam kesuntukan masa
dan desakan hidup yang semakin meruncing pada masa kini. Sesungguhya
masa bersama anak-anak itu merupakan detik berharga dalam membentuk
akhlak anak-anak sebagai aset kita agar menjadi generasi yang soleh
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dapat berbakti kepada ibu bapa, keluarga, masyarakat, agama dan negara.
Sewajarnya, isu pembentukan akhlak awal kanak-kanak ini patut dipandang
serius dan mendapat pehatian daripada pihak berwajib berkaitan isu
pendidikan awal kanak-anak Islam. Maka, dapatlah disimpulkan bahawa
terdapat keperluan untuk membangunkan satu modul dan model pendidikan
akhlak awal kanak-kanak di rumah yang menyeluruh dengan melibatkan
peranan ibu bapa dan institusi masyarakat dalam pendidikan kanak-kanak
di usia dini berdasarkan perbincangan di atas.
RUJUKAN
Al-Quran al-Karim
Abdur Rahman Annahlawi.(1995).Pendidikan Islam di Rumah, Sekolah
danMasyarakat. Jakarta:Gema Insani Press.
Abdullah Nasih Ulwan .(1988). Pedoman Pendidikan Anak Dalam Islam
Jilid 1-2.Saifullah
Abdullah Nasih Ulwan .(1993).Pendidikan Anak-anak dalam Islam Jilid 2.
Pustaka Nasional Pte Ltd: Singapura
Abdul Salam Muhamad Shukri. (2003). Panduan Mengajar Aaqidah kepada
Kanak-Kanak.Pahang : PTS Publication & Distributors Sdn Bhd.
Ahmad Mohd Salleh.(2003). Pendidikan Islam, Falsafah Sejarah dan Kaedah
Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran . Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Fajar Bakti
Amla Salleh, Zahara Aziz, Zuria Mahmud dan Abd. Aziz Mahyuddin (2010)
,Peranan Bapa dalam Pembangunan Sahsiah Remaja dan Implikasinya
terhadap Nilai Kekeluargaan , Jurnal Pendidikan Malaysia 35(2)(2010):
9-17.
Kamarul Azmi Jasmi, Ab. Halim Tamuri.(2007). Pendidikan Islam Kaedah
Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran. Johor:Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Muhammad Nur Abdullah Hafiz Suaid,(2006). Didik Anak Cara Rasulullah
SAW, Kuala Lumpur: Klang Book Centre.
Muhammad . Baihaqi .(2002).Pesanan Untuk Para Ibu Menangani Masalah
Anak Nakal. Kuala Lumpur: Al-Hidayah Publishers.
Nor Mazana Ismail (2001), Hubungan Di Antara Gaya Kepimpinan Ibu
Bapa Dengan Pelanggaran Disiplin Pelajar-Pelajar Tingkatan Empat
Di Sekolah Menengah Teknik Slim River, Perak. Tesis Sarjana. Fakulti
Teknologi Kejuruteraan Kolej Universiti Teknologi Tun Hussein Onn.
Zakaria Stapa, Ahmad Munawar Ismail dan Noranizah Yusuf (2012), Faktor
Pesekitaran Sosial dan Hubunganya Dengan Pembentukan Jati
Diri,Fakulti Pengajian Islam, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,Social
Environmental Factors and Their Relation to Identity Formation, Jurnal
Hadhari Special Edition (2012) 155-172.
42
KEPERLUAN NILAI ETIKA DAN AKHLAK:

PERSPEKTIF PENDIDIKAN KEMAHIRAN
Abdul Muqsith Ahmad*, Zaharah Husin (PhD), Farazila Yusof,

Saedah Siraj (PhD), Siti Syahidah Mohd Rum,
Mohd Ridhuan Mohd Jamil & Maisarah A Malik
Fakulti Pendidikan
Universiti Malaya
muqsith.ahmad@yahoo.com
Abstrak
Pembangunan modal insan sering menjadi perkara yang
diutamakan dalam setiap dasar yang digubal umumnya pada
dasar negara dan khususnya pada dasar pendidikan negara.
Pembangunan secara menyeluruh hanya dapat dicapai melalui
pendidikan. Pendidikan adalah mendium yang tepat di mana
pelajar sedang melalui satu proses yang komprehensif dan
menyeluruh bukan sekadar menimba pengetahuan, malah ia juga
melibatkan proses yang membentuk diri serta mempersiapkan
diri pelajar dengan tata susila yang tinggi sebelum memasuki
dunia pekerjaan. Mutakhir ini, masyarakat dibimbangkan
dengan pelbagai permasalahan berkaitan sosial tidak kira dari
golongan professional mahupun golongan bahawan. Hal ini
ekoran kurangnya penerapan nilai-nilai yang boleh membantu
serta memandu mereka kearah jalan yang betul. Justeru itu, kertas
ini menerangkan serta membincangkan berkaitan pendidikan
kemahiran, etika dan akhlak serta kepentingannya dalam usaha
melahirkan seorang individu yang baik. Beberapa cadangan turut
dicadangkan bagi mengatasi permasalahan ini.
Kata Kunci: Nilai, Etika, Akhlak, Pendidikan Kemahiran
PENGENALAN
Polemik masalah-masalah sosial kini sering mendapat perhatian di media
massa sejak akhir-akhir ini (Shazaitul Azreen & Maisarah, 2016). Bagi
43
mengatasi permasalahan ini, pelbagai bentuk usaha kearah penyelesaian

dikemukan beberapa agensi samada sekolah, kementerian mahupun di
peringkat pentadbiran tertinggi negara. Rentetan itu, jelas dilihat bahawa
penekanan terhadap aspek modal insan dikemukakan bersama setiap dasar-
dasar baru yang diperkenalkan oleh kerajaan. Bagi mencapai sebuah negara
maju dan berjaya, pembangunan modal insan haruslah diberikan perhatian
yang cukup serius (Aishah, Junaida & Mahadir, 2012). Dalam usaha kearah
negara maju, salah satu keperluan yang perlu dipenuhi adalah bilangan
tenaga mahirnya (Rancangan Malaysia ke 11). Namun begitu, permasalahan
yang melanda kini adalah merosotnya kualiti tenaga kerja. Kemerosotan ini
berlaku disebabkan oleh kebergantungan negara terhadap buruh yang tidak
mahir seterusnya menyebabkan berlakunya krisis kewangan dan ekonomi.
Penegasan oleh Norhayati, Ishak dan Rahmah (2012) menyatakan bahawa
hasil daripada kebergantungan negara terhadap buruh tidak mahir terutamanya
buruh dari negara asing telah mengakibatkan kadar pengangguran yang tinggi
dan menjadikan pasaran buruh yang tidak menentu. Perkara ini dapat dilihat
hasil daripada permintaan yang tinggi oleh syarikat-syarikat tempatan dengan
membawa masuk tenaga buruh dari luar (Siti Rohayu, Rahmah & Norlin,
2014). Secara jelas dapat dirumuskan bahawa negara kekurangan tenaga
tempatan yang sangat mendesak terutamanya dalam bidang professional dan
teknikal lalu menyebabkan kelembapan ekonomi. Namun begitu, kemasukan
tenaga buruh asing ini kebanyakannya tidak menepati kemahiran yang
diperlukan oleh industri dan ia tidak menyelesaikan permasalahan sedia ada.
Jika disorot kembali kajian yang dilakukan oleh Muhammad Hazrul
(2012), terdapat beberapa kelemahan yang telah dikenal pasti di lakukan
oleh para graduan yang baru memulakan kerjaya mereka. Rata-rata syarikat
tempatan memberi maklum balas bahawa kebanyakan pekerja baru warga
tempatan mempunyai kekurangan dalam berfikir secara kritis terutamanya
dalam menganalisis dan menyelesaikan masalah. Kita sedia maklum bahawa
pekerja baru kebanyakannya cetek pengalaman dan kebanyakan mereka tiada
daya kompeten. Bagi melatih mereka, industri memerlukan modal yang besar
dalam menyediakan latihan pekerja (Mustafa, et. al., 2010). Selain itu juga,
aspek yang perlu ditekankan adalah kemahiran-kemahiran sampingan iaitu
kemahiran insaniah termasuklah etika, moral dan akhlak pelajar Pengukuhan
ini disokong oleh International Employer Barometer (IEB) (2008) dimana
dalam kajiannya mendapati dalam menggaji pekerja, majikan cenderung
melihat kebolehan berkomunikasi beserta ciri-ciri personal yang baik bakal
pekerja berbanding akademik. Ini menjelaskan keperluan nilai-nilai ini
diterapkan ke dalam diri pelajar. Penekanan ini juga turut terkandung dalam
Pelan Induk Latihan Dan Pembangunan Kemahiran Pekerjaan Malaysia
44
(2008-2020) dimana telah disebut bahawa pelajar yang akan dihasilkan bukan
sahaja mahir berpengetahuan malah baik budi pekertinya.
Dalam konteks artikel ini, pengkaji melihat perlunya di tekankan
aspek etika dan akhlak ditekankan. Secara jelasnya, kedua-dua elemen ini
menjadi teras kepada pembangunan modal insan dan ianya dilihat sebagai
remeh oleh sesetengah pihak. Namun dari sudut pengkaji, dua elemen ini
mampu memberikan impak yang cukup besar seterusnya mampu untuk
menghasilkan modal insan yang mampu berdaya saing. Pengukuhan yang
sama turut dinyatakan oleh Mustapha Kamal, Zahiah dan Abdullah (2010)
bahawa perlunya seseorang manusia itu mempunyai kualiti yang tinggi
dimana tiga unsur utama iaitu akal, rohani dan jasmani haruslah disuburkan
dan disegarkan. Hal ini menjelaskan bahawa keseimbangan terhadap segala
aspek harus diberi penekanan bagi malahirkan modal insan yang baik. Telah
banyak sarjana-sarjana Islam yang telah menghuraikan konsep berkaitan etika
dan akhlak secara spesifiknya (Abdul Muqsith et. al., 2016)
Nilai Etika
Kajian asal usul dan sejarah perkataan etika adalah berasal dari greek
iaitu ethos dan ethikos. Ethos membawa maksud sifat, kebiasaan, watak dan
adat yang baik manakala ethikos pula membawa maksud kelakuan, perbuatan,
dan adab yang baik (Abd Haris, 2007). Kamus Dewan Bahasa edisi keempat
mendefinisikan etika sebagai prinsip moral atau nilai-nilai akhlak (adab sopan
santun dan sebagainya) yang menjadi pegangan seseorang individu atau
sesuatu kumpulan manusia. Namun secara terminologi pula, etika bermaksud
pengetahuan yang membincangkan berkenaan baik dan buruk serta kebenaran
dan kebatilan tindakan dan tingkahlaku manusia selaras nilai-nilai kewajipan
setiap manusia.
Terdapat beberapa pandangan berkenaan defisini yang tepat mengenai
etika dan akhlak di mana Zaharah, Abu Daud, dan Nazri (2009) memberi
penegasan bahawa etika merupakan keupayaan seseorang manusia dalam
membezakan perkara betul dan salah berdasarkan pertimbangan pemikiran
dan akhirnya melakukan perkara yang betul. Namun begitu, penakrifan
yang berbeza dinyatakan oleh Roziah, Zulkarnain, Nasruddin (2011) yang
menghujahkan bahawa etika adalah suatu sistem tingkah laku manusia yang
bersumberkan kepada daya pemikiran manusia itu sendiri. Berdasarkan
Hamzah (1985) pula, etika bermaksud satu ilmu dalam menyelidik pelakuan
baik dan buruk dengan memerhatikan tingkahlaku manusia menggunakan
akal fikiran. Etika juga merupakan persoalan berkenaan kebaikan dan
keburukan dan juga tujuan pelakuan sesuatu perkara. Ia juga merangkumi
prinsip akhlak dan moral dimana ianya menjadi pegangan seseorang idividu
45
atau kumpulan tertentu (Ajmain, Aminudin, Ahmad Marzuki & Idris, 2013).
Hal yang sama turut dipersetujui oleh sarjana lain di mana etika merupakan
disiplin yang bertindak sebagai indeks prestasi atau rujukan bagi mengawal
sesuatu sistem (Martin, 1994). Konteks yang berbeza, di dalam setiap kajian
pastinya terdapat teori yang mendasari kajian. Pengkaji melihat aspek etika
berdasarkan teori virtue ethics yang di perkenalkan oleh aristotles. Hal
ini kerana tokoh tersohor ini menyebut bahawa terdapat beberapa elemen
yang mampu menyuburkan keharmonian sesebuah masyarakat selagi ianya
mengekalkan nilai-nilai yang baik seperti kejujuran, keadilan, keberanian/
semangat serta kesederhanaan dan ianya diperlukan dalam menentukan
kestabilan kehidupan yang baik (Strike dan Moss, 2006). Gambaran yang
lebih jelas mengenai elemen ini dengan merujuk rajah 1.
Virtue ethics ( Aristotles )

384-322 B.C
Kejujuran Keadilan Keberanian Kesederhanaan
Rajah 1:
Elemen-elemen dalam virtue ethics (Khalidah, Rohani dan Mashitah, 2010)
Walaupun teori yang di perkenalkan ini agak lama, namun ianya

mampu menjawab soalan asas berkaitan etika dimana tindakan di ambil
oleh seseorang itu menjadikan siapa dia di kemudian hari. Hal ini adalah
berasaskan akhlak yang baik, motif pelakuan dan juga nilai-nilai teras (Weiss,
2006). Di samping itu juga, teori ini selaras dengan apa yang digariskan di
dalam Al-Quran dan As-sunnah yang dinyatakan dalam dalam hadis sahih
bukhari (Khalidah, Rohani dan Mashitah, 2010). Namun begitu, terdapat juga
artikel yang memilih untuk menggunakan beberapa nilai-nilai moral yang di
terima secara universal ; integriti, kejujuran, hormat, kawalan diri dan juga
keberanian (Jennings, 2006).
Oleh yang demikian, jika disorot kembali definisi yang dinyatakan oleh
para sarjana, maka terdapat kontradiksi dalam memperihalkan berkenaan
aspek etika namun pengkaji menyimpulkan bahawa etika merupakan satu
pelakuan yang memerlukan manusia berfikir menggunakan akal fikiran
seterusnya menghasilkan sesuatu tindakan yang baik atau buruk berlandaskan
kaca mata masyarakat umumnya.
46
Kepentingan serta Kajian Mengenai Etika

Kepentingan kajian terhadap aspek etika dapat dilihat melalui kajian-kajian
yang telah dilakukan oleh pengkaji terdahulu. Penyataan yang diberikan oleh
Weisul dan Merrit (2002) menyatakan ‘pelajar hari ini mungkin menjadi
penjenayah di masa hadapan’ harus difikirkan secara serius oleh semua pihak
berkepentingan. Penyataan yang cukup mendalam ini memberi makna yang
cukup jelas bahawa perlunya diterapkan aspek etika dalam sistem pendidikan
pada hari ini. Kepentingan ini harus disegerakan memandangkan etika pelajar
kini mampu memberi kesan terhadap masa depan sesebuah negara (Aishah,
Junaida & Mahadir, 2012).
Jika dilihat di peringkat global, terdapat laporan kajian menyatakan 70%
pelajar di institusi pendidikan tinggi di Romania mengamalkan tingkah laku
yang tidak beretika (Iorga, Ciuhodaru, Romedea, 2013). Selain itu, bukti-bukti
yang diterima menunjukkan permasalahan ini sentiasa meningkat dari semasa
ke semasa (Simkin and Mcleod, 2010). Hal yang sama turut dilaporkan oleh
Lin dan Wen (2007) dimana 61.72% pelajar mengaku pernah melakukan
kesalahan akademik sekurang-kurangnya sekali sepanjang pengajian mereka
seperti datang lambat, membantu rakan meniru tugasan, menipu dalam
peperiksaan dan lain-lain lagi. Manakala, Jumoke (2014) menegaskan dalam
dapatan kajiannya bahawa 80% pelajar kejuruteraan akan melakukan sekali
kesalahan terhadap akademik sepanjang pengajiannya.
Dalam konteks kajian yang dijalankan di pusat pengajian dalam negara
pula, kajian-kajian terdahulu menunjukkan beberapa dapatan yang sama di
peringkat global. Hal ini dinyatakan dalam kajian oleh Khalidah, Rohani
dan Mashitah (2010) di Intitut Pengajian Tinggi Swasta (IPTS) dimana
dapatan kajian yang diperoleh mendapati bahawa kelakuan pelajar terhadap
aspek tidak beretika adalah tinggi. Selari dengan kajian yang dijalankan oleh
Abdul Muqsith et. al., (2016) dimana kajiannya terhadap pelajar seni mushaf
di Kolej Restu mendapati bahawa secara keseluruhannya menunjukkan
penglibatan pelajar terhadap kelakuan yang tidak beretika adalah sangat
tinggi dengan mencatatkan 62.94%. Ditegaskan juga bahawa pelajar seni
mushaf ini cenderung untuk melakukan kelakuan yang tidak beretika
sekurang-kurangnya sekali sepanjang pengajiannya. Dapatan ini berbeza
dengan dapatan yang diperoleh Shazaitul Azreen dan Maisarah (2016) dimana
kajiannya terhadap para pelajar di Universiti Awam Malaysia mendapati
bahawa kesedaran pelajar terhadap aspek beretika bervariasi iaitu campuran
antara tinggi dan rendah. Namun begitu, kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa
pelajar kejuruteraan mempunyai tahap kesedaran yang rendah berbanding
pelajar aliran sains dan sosial sains.
47
Manakala itu, kajian serupa turut dijalankan oleh Shahrulanuar et. al.,
(2011) di mana kajiannya di Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM)
mendapati bahawa beberapa kekangan dan halangan yang perlu di atasi dalam
menerapkan aspek etika iaitu kurangnya bahan rujukan, tiada garis panduan
yang jelas dalam menilai aspek nilai, moral dan etika, kekurangan prasana
serta persekitaran yang menggalakkan pembangunan etika dan moral pelajar,
dan dinyatakan bahawa kebanyakan kursus menekankan aspek teknikal
berbanding aspek etika. Kepentingan penerapan elemen etika diperkukuhkan
lagi dengan kajian yang dijalankan oleh Cheng Ooi dan Michelle (2014)
dalam kajiannya dimana dapatan yang diperoleh menunjukkan perlunya
bengkel berkenaan aspek etika dibangunkan. Hal ini kerana ia memberikan
impak yang positif kepada pelajar sebagai persediaan sebagai manusia yang
beretika. Penegasan yang sama turut dinyatakan oleh Balakrishnan, Er dan
Visvanathan (2013) dimana pendidikan serta isu-isu sosio etika mempunyai
pengaruh yang kuat ke atas pengetahuan, kemahiran serta sikap dalam
kajiannya terhadap pelajar kejuruteraan nanoteknologi.
Selain daripada sektor pendidikan, sektor awam turut menekankan
aspek etika dalam pekerjaan. Hal ini boleh dilihat dalam kajian yang
dijalankan oleh Roslan dan Nik Rosnah (2008) terhadap pendidikan etika,
moral dan integriti dalam organisasi sektor awam di Malaysia dimana dapatan
kajian yang diperoleh menunjukkan pekerja di sektor awam mempunyai
kesedaran yang cukup rendah dan kurang memberangsangkan. Dapatan ini
secara tidak langsung menguatkan lagi keperluan elemen etika dalam setiap
profesion dan hal ini juga perlu di titik beratkan dalam persekitaran pekerjaan
atau pembelajaran serta proses pengambilan kerja. Pendapat ini berpadanan
dengan kajian yang di jalankan oleh Lawson (2004) dimana hasil dapatannya
mendapati hubungan yang kuat di antara kelakuan yang tidak beretika ketika
belajar dengan tingkah laku yang tidak beretika ketika bekerja. Manakala
itu, terdapat beberapa komponen telah dikenal pasti sebagai asas kepada
aspek etika iaitu hormat sesama pelajar, keselamatan dan kesihatan pelajar,
privasi pelajar, kegagalan menyediakan bahan yang bermanfaat kepada
pelajar dan sebagai balasan memberikan markah yang baik kepada pelajar,
kepercayaan dan rasa hormat pelajar, toleransi dan keterbukaan, penampilan,
tidak meggunakan kemudahan tempat belajar untuk kepentingan peribadi dan
mengelakkan jenaka yang tidak sesuai (Mohsen dan Farzin, 2014).
Jika disorot kembali kajian-kajian terdahulu, pengkaji mendapati
tiada kajian terdahulu yang mengkaji penerapan aspek etika dijalankan di
mana-mana institusi kemahiran di Malaysia. Kelompongan ini seharusnya
diisi bagi melihat serta membandingkan dapatan kajian dengan dapatan
kajian yang terdahulu. Penegasan yang di buat oleh Roncin (2013) dalam
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kajiannya menyatakan bahawa etika bukan sahaja mendidik sikap serta

tingkah laku malah ia mengajar bagaimana menyelesaikan masalah dengan
meminimumkan kesan buruk terhadap alam, masyarakat serta mengutamakan
keselamatan umum. Kajian-kajian terdahulu juga menunjukkan keperluan
menerapkan konsep etika dalam kursus yang ditawarkan. Kajian-kajian
lepas samada dari luar mahupun dalam negara menunjukkan bahawa etika
seharusnya diberikan fokus yang serius dalam membentuk pelajar yang bukan
sahaja kompeten malah baik perilakunya.
Nilai Akhlak
Definisi akhlak yang ditakrifkan oleh Roziah et. al., (2011) menyatakan
bahawa akhlak merupakan nilai yang perlu diberi perhatian khususnya aspek
rohani dan jasmani. Manakala, hujah Ibn Miskawaih (1398) pula menegaskan
bahawa akhlak adalah satu perbuatan manusia yang di lakukan dengan mudah
tanpa perlu menggunakan akal dan pemikiran kerana ianya telah tertanam di
dalam jiwa. Pandangan yang berbeza pula dinyatakan Ibrahim Mustafa t.th.
dimana akhlak di definisikan sebagai satu perbuatan yang zahir menerusi
latihan dan didikan sehingga perbuatan itu menjadi kebiasaan. Sebagai
seorang muslim, kita harus mencontohi akhlak Rasulullah SAW sebagaimana
firman Allah bermaksud :
Dan sesungguhnya kamu benar-benar berbudi pekerti (khuluq)

yang agung.
(Ayat Al-Qalam : 4)
Perkara ini dikukuhkan lagi dengan penyataan oleh Aisyah r.a dimana
akhlak Rasulullah adalah Al-Quran. Hal ini jelas menggambarkan bahawa
al-Quran dan al-Sunnah secara dasarnya menjadi sandaran akhlak. Namun,
jika di amati dan dibincangkan, skop bidang ini amat luas sehingga meliputi
perbuatan zahir dan batin serta perbuatan zahir manusia (Aminudin & Jamsari,
2012). Kajian terdahulu terhadap bidang akhlak telah banyak dilakukan.
Hal ini dibuktikan melalui sejarah dimana jatuh bangunnya sesuatu bangsa
dan negara itu berkait rapat dengan akhlak (Hamid et. al., 2004). Oleh hal
demikian, perlunya kita membentuk akhlak generasi muda pada masa kini
untuk dijadikan bekalan untuk masa hadapan (Fuad Nasar, 1992). Hasil
pembentukan akhlak yang mantap terhadap generasi muda, ianya mampu
dijadikan benteng kepada umat islam seterusnya menghindarkan mereka
terpesong dari landasan agama islam. Umat Islam perlu kembali menyemarak
serta menyuburkan Islam sebagaimana yang diajar dan dilakukan oleh
Rasulullah S.A.W dan para sahabatnya. Sebagaimana riwayat Imam Malik :
49
“Tidaklah berjaya umat akhir zaman ini melainkan mereka

berpegang dengan apa yang dipegang dari generasi pertama”.
Hasil daripada kajian yang dijalankan oleh pengkaji, sarjana-sarjana

muslim melalui falsafahnya kebanyakan menyatakan perlunya di tekankan
pembangunan jiwa ini berlandaskan Al-Quran dan Al-Sunnah. Didikan akhlak
ini harus dimulakan bermula dari peringkat kanak-kanak lagi. Namun begitu,
pengkaji merumuskan bahawa terdapat beberapa perkara yang perlu menjadi
tunjang kepada pembentukan akhlak ini. Hal ini selari dengan Zaharah
(2008) dimana pembentukan akhlak terutamanya dalam pendidikan harus
bertunjangkan kepada empat domain iaitu hubungan dengan Allah, hubungan
dengan manusia, hubungan dengan diri sendiri dan juga hubungan dengan
diri sendiri. Domain-domain ini adalah berlandaskan oleh Al-Ghazali dalam
kitabnya Ihya Ullumuddin (Khairani, 2012). Rajah 2 menunjukkan domain-
domain yang terdapat dalam pembentukan akhlak menurut al-Ghazali.
Rajah 2:
Domain-domain pembentukan akhlak menurut al-Ghazali (Zaharah, 2009)
Jika diimbas kembali, dapat disimpulkan secara ringkas bahawa

akhlak adalah perbuatan yang telah tertanam kuat di dalam diri seseorang
sehingga menjadi kebiasaan, perbuatan yang di buat tanpa perlu pemikiran,
tiada paksaan, dilakukan secara rela dan bersungguh-sungguh, ikhlas kerana
melakukan ibadah kepada Allah dan seterusnya melahirkan perbuatan yang
baik dan buruk (Saedah, 2003 ; Zaharah 2005 ; Hairuddin, 2013). Justeru itu,
penegasan oleh Abdul Salam (2010) menyatakan keutamaan harus diberikan
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terhadap semua disiplin ilmu dalam menerapkan nilai-nilai etika, moral dan
akhlak. Hal ini kerana seseorang berperanan dan bertindak secara rasional
apabila nilai-nilai positif dan murni ini ditanamkan ke dalam diri dan secara
tidak langsung dapat menangani segala permasalahan yang dihadapi.
Kepentingan serta Kajian Mengenai Akhlak

Dalam konteks islam, akhlak adalah teras kepada pembangunan diri
(Zainudin & Norazmah, 2011). Oleh yang demikian, pendidikan agama harus
ditanamkan di dalam setiap diri anak-anak agar dapat membantu mebentuk
perkembangan diri yang positif serta mempunyai nilai-nilai murni di dalam
jiwa mereka. Pelbagai kajian terdahulu dijalankan berkaitan akhlak bukan
sahaja di peringkat domestik malah di peringkat global (Fauziah et.al., 2012).
Hal ini mengukuhkan lagi kepentingan pembangunan akhlak terutamanya
kepada para pelajar remaja. Hal ini bagi meningkatkan imej, kualiti hidup,
jati diri dimana ia seharusnya menjadi agenda utama Negara.
Hasil sorotan literatur yang dijalankan oleh pengkaji, kebanyakan kajian
menumpukan kepada pembentukan akhlak bermula di peringkat sekolah lagi.
Hal ini memberikan satu persepsi kepada pengkaji dimana pengkaji mendapati
kadar permasalahan tingkah laku pelajar di sekolah berada pada tahap yang
tinggi. Hal ini di buktikan dalam kajian yang dijalankan oleh Khalim dan
Wan Zulkifli (2009) menyatakan bahawa di Malaysia, masalah tingkah laku
pelajar sering menjadi perhatian di media massa sehingga ianya terus di
perdebatkan oleh pihak berkepentingan dan masyarakat seolah-seolah tiada
berpenghujung. Di peringkat global, masalah tingkah laku pelajar menjadi
isu yang hangat diperkatakan seawal 1980-an. Hal ini dibuktikan oleh kajian
yang di jalankan oleh Englander (1987) dimana dapatan kajian mendapati
bahawa 80 % masa guru telah diperuntukkan untuk menguruskan kes-kes
pelajar. Ini bermakna kadar masalah tingkah laku pelajar adalah tinggi dan
ianya telah bermula lebih awal. Hal yang sama turut di catatkan di Malaysia
secara khususnya institusi kemahiran dimana kajian yang dijalankan oleh
Normarina (2015) terhadap pensyarah Kolej Vokasional di Johor mendapati
bahawa tahap stres dalam kalangan pensyarah berada pada tahap tinggi.
Dinyatakan juga dalam kajiannya bahawa antara faktor penyumbang kepada
stres dikalangan para pensyarah adalah disiplin dan tingkah laku pelajar.
Di peringkat domestik pula, kajian berkaitan akhlak begitu banyak
dijalankan oleh para sarjana. Kupasan mengenai konsep, definisi remaja dan
belia, konsep akhlak, konsep akidah dan hubunganya dengan tingkah laku
manusia. Penegasan dibuat oleh Rohana dan Norhusni (2014) menyatakan
tingkah laku yang positif adalah berhubung kait serta didorong oleh amalan
51
dan penerapan nilai-nilai akhlak dan akidah. Kepentingan dalam memantapkan

nilai yang ada dalam diri melalui kerohanian perlu dalam membentuk tingkah
laku yang positif dan baik. Hasil kajian yang dijalankan Khairani (2013)
pula menunjukkan bahawa kaedah pembangunan akhlak menurut al-Ghazali
boleh digunapakai dan di amalkan oleh golongan pengajar dalam program
tarbiah sekolah agama di negeri Kedah. Pembelajaran ini sangat signifikan
dan releven dalam dalam konteks membentuk akhlak pelajar. Manakala,
pendapat Khalim dan Wan Zulkifli (2009) pula menyatakan bahawa bagi
mengatasi permasalahan tingkah laku pelajar, pendekatan Islam adalah sesuai
digunakan. Hal ini dibuktikan hasil dari satu program pemulihan yang telah
dianjurkannya. Selain itu juga Ajmain et. al., (2013) memperihalkan keperluan
kurikulum akhlak dalam melahirkan pelajar muslim berakhlak dalam
melahirkan modal insan yang baik dalam konteks Malaysia. Tambahnya lagi,
pendidikan modal insan yang bersifat holistik sangat diperlukan ketika ini
dalam melahirkan para ilmuwan yang bukan sahaj berilmu malah berakhlak
mulia melalui penerapan nilai dalam melaksanakan tanggungjawab di muka
bumi ini.
Pendapat yang berbeza dinyatakan oleh Rohana, Zikmal & Mohd Nur
Adzham, (2014) dimana kajiannya mendapati bahawa melalui pengamalan
amalan tadabbur Al-Quran, akan terhasil seorang muslim tinggi akhlak dan
baik budi pekertinya. Dapatan juga menekankan kepentingan pembangunan
akhlak dalam menentukan siasah dan hal ini selaras dengan perkembangan
jiwa seseorang. Dalam hal yang berkaitan, faktor-faktor kearah pembentukan
akhlak juga turut disentuh dalam kajian-kajian terdahulu. Hal ini dapat
dilihat dalam kajian yang dijalankan oleh Wan Norina, Zaharah, Ahmad
Fkrudin dan Ahmad Arifin (2013) dalam mengenalpasti pengaruh media
massa terhadap penampilan akhlak pelajar Islam di Politeknik Malaysia
menunjukkan bahawa media massa memberikan pengaruh positif dalam
pembentukan akhlak pelajar. Hasil dapatan kajian juga mendapati bahan-
bahan media massa memberi kesan negatif terhadap pelajar dan hal ini mampu
membuatkan pelajar hilang fokus serta tujuan mereka berada di Institusi
Pengajian. Keseimbangan dalam memilih bahan bacaan dan tontonan perlu
di ambil kira dalam aspek pembentukan akhlak pelajar.
Faktor lain yang mempengaruhi pembentukan akhlak juga turut
di kaji oleh Hamidah, Zawawi dan Roslina (2013) dimana dapatannya
menunjukkan bahawa kecerdasan emosi mempunyai hubungan signifikan
dalam pembentukan akhlak seseorang. Hasil penyelidikannya juga mendapati
kecerdasan emosi yang tinggi memberikan kecenderungan kepada tingkah
laku yang positif. Hal ini menguatkan lagi hujah agar penekanan terhadap
kecerdasan emosi perlu di ambil kira dalam pembentukan akhlak yang baik.
52
Selain itu juga, Pendekatan psikologis merupakan salah satu pendekatan

yang boleh di amalkan dalam pembangunan akhlak seseorang dan perkara
ini ditekankan dalam kajian yang dijalankan oleh Faridah dan Tengku Sarina
Aini (2006). Kajian juga mendapati psikologis juga adalah elemen penting
mewujudkan peradaban ummah malah kewujudan sesebuah tamadun itu
didorong oleh kemantapan dan penghayatan kepada moral dan nilai yang
tinggi. Antara elemen yang memberi sumbangan yang besar terhadap
pembentukan akhlak adalah ilmu pengetahuan, nilai-nilai murni dan kreativiti.
Terdapat juga kajian yang mengkaji berkaitan penghayatan akhlak dari
sudut gender. Hal ini dapat dilihat dalam kajian yang dijalankan oleh Sarimah,
Mohd Kashfi, Ab. Halim dan Kamarulzaman (2011) dimana mendapati
bahawa pelajar perempuan mendominasi kebanyakan penghayatan akhlak
berbanding pelajar lelaki. Oleh hal demikian, usaha yang padu perlu dilakukan
dalam meningkatkan tahap penghayatan pelajar lelaki ke tahap tertinggi.
Kajian juga mencadangkan supaya pihak-pihak berkepentingan memainkan
peranan masing-masing dalam membentuk akhlak para pelajar. Kesedian
pengajar merupakan antara factor yang kritikal dalam menentukan kejayaan
sesebuah sistem pendidikan. Penghayatan akhlak perlu bermula oleh para
guru atau pengajar sebelum diaplikasikan kepada pelajar.
Jika disorot kembali, akhlak merupakan asset yang sangat berharga
bagi setiap individu sebagai satu usaha dalam menjalankan tanggungjawab
sebagai pemimpin di muka bumi ini. Kajian-kajian lepas menunjukkan
kepentingan menerapkan pendidikan akhlak samada di serap dalam proses
pengajaran dan pembelajaran mahupun dalam setiap pekerjaan. Kajian-kajian
lepas juga menunjukkan bahawa akhlak merupakan tunjang kepada sikap
yang baik. Sifat yang baik seharusnya menjadi asas kepada pembentukan
modal insan yang baik. Namun begitu, pengkaji mendapati tiada kajian yang
dijalankan berkaitan aspek akhlak ke atas institusi kemahiran di Malaysia
secara khususnya dijalankan. Dalam konteks program kemahiran di Malaysia,
elemen pembangunan akhlak seharusnya menjadi antara perkara yang perlu
dimabil berat dan diserapkan ke dalam kurikulum supaya negara dapat
melahirkan modal insan yang bukan sahaja kompeten malahan baik perilaku
dan akhlaknya.
Perbincangan dan kesimpulan

Jika di sorot kembali perbezaan antara etika dan akhlak, kita dapat melihat
bahawa kedua-duanya tidak banyak perbezaan dari segi definisi dan makna.
Etika merujuk pengetahuan berkaitan perbuatan manusia dalam menentukan
baik dan buruk bersandarkan kepada pemikiran dan perasaan sahaja manakala
53
akhlak pula perbuatan yang di buat tanpa perlu pemikiran melibatkan

dosa dan pahala bersandarkan al-Quran dan al-Sunnah. Apabila di amati,
kedua-dua elemen ini memperihalkan mengenai pertimbangan terhadap
sesuatu yang baik dan buruk. Namun, bagi elemen akhlak, perbuatan harus
bersandarkan al-Quran dan al-Sunnah. Dapat dirumuskan bahawa akhlak
merupakan payung kepada etika dan etika adalah sebahagian dari akhlak.
Elemen akhlak mampu menjadi penentu dalam menentukan perkara yang
benar terhadap sesuatu etika dan keduanya saling melengkapi (Aminudin
dan Jamsari, 2012 ; Roziah et. al., 2011 ; Owoyemi & Ahmad, 2012). Oleh
yang demikian, pengkaji berpendapat bahawa etika dan akhlak tidak boleh
dipisahkan dan ianya harus berjalan seiring dalam pembangunan diri pelajar.
Disamping itu juga, pembangunan akhlak seharusnya menjadi
tanggungjawab semua pihak. Pembangunan yang menyeluruh dan seimbang
ini haruslah dimulakan dengan pendidikan kerana pendidikan merupakan
medium yang menyalurkan semua aspek pembelajaran malah melangkaui
aspek pengetahuan. Melalui penerapan nilai etika dan akhlak, maka terhasil
sebuah jiwa yang mampu memandu diri dalam menghadapi cabaran yang
semakin hari kian mencabar. Hal ini juga diharapkan mampu menjadi
benteng yang kukuh dalam mendepani dugaan-dugaan yang getir dan hebat.
Diharapkan dengan adanya penyelesaian yang holistic maka ia mampu
mengurangkan kadar penyakit sosial yang kini kian membarah.
Secara dasarnya, kita mengetahui bahawa dalam usaha mencapai negara
maju, negara bukan sahaja perlu mencapai sasaran dalam melahirkan tenaga
mahir. Sejajar dengan itu, pembangunan modal insan turut menjadi aspek
yang diutamakan. Oleh yang demikian, keutamaan secara umumnya harus
diberikan kepada pendidikan dan dalam kertas konsep ini pendidikan yang
dimaksudkan adalah pendidikan kemahiran. Hal ini disebabkan pendidikan
kemahiran merupakan tunjang dalam melahirkan tenaga-tenaga mahir dan
perkara ini juga turut ditekankan dalam Rancangan Malaysia Ke Sebelas.
Semua ini mampu terlaksana jika terdapatnya kesedaran, tanggungjawab,
penghayatan dan kefahaman akan keperluan nilai-nilai sejagat dalam
melahirkan sebuah negara bangsa yang berjaya. Pendek kata, pendidikan
merupakan tunjang dalam membentuk sahsiah diri yang baik dalam mendidik
masyarakat terutamanya Malaysia yang mempunyai demografik yang berbeza.
Jika di sorot kembali kupasan kertas konsep ini, ia menunjukkan
bahawa terdapat keperluan membangunkan model etika dan akhlak di dalam
proses pengajian di Pusat Kemahiran Malaysia hasil dari kelompongan
terhadap kurangnya kajian yang dijalankan di institusi tersebut. Dengan
kewujudan model ini, pelajar akan dapat mengaplikasikan serta menangani
isu-isu yang timbul semasa menyelesaikan sesuatu permasalahan. Hal ini
54
mampu meningkatkan keberkesanan pengajaran dan pembelajaran dalam

usaha melahirkan pelajar yang berkemahiran dan berketrampilan seterusnya
mempunyai akhlak serta nilai yang baik. Saranan keperluan membangunkan
model ini selari dengan cadangan yang dicadangkan oleh Muhammad Khairi,
(2016) ; Abdul Muqsith et. al., (2016).
PENGHARGAAN
Pengkaji ingin berterima kasih kepada para penilai serta editor dalam proses
menilai artikel ini. Sekalung penghargaan juga diucapkan kepada penyelia
dan rakan-rakan yang telah memberikan tunjuk ajar dalam penghasilan kertas
kajian ini. Tidak lupa juga kepada penaja, Universiti Malaya melalui Skim
Biasiswa Universiti Malaya (SBUM) dan juga Geran PPP (PG092-2015B)
dalam memberikan segala bentuk bantuan sepanjang pengajian ijazah tinggi.
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PENERAPAN NILAI MORAL DAN AKHLAK BAGI

MENJANA KELESTARIAN ALAM SEKITAR DALAM
PENGAJARAN DAN PEMBELAJARAN:
SATU PERBINCANGAN
Habib Mat Som (PhD)

Fakulti Sains Kemanusiaan
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris
Syed Kamaruzzaman Syed Ali (PhD)

Fakulti Pendidikan
Universiti Malaya
Abstrak
Artikel ini membincangkan pendekatan bersepadu bagi
menerapkan nilai moral dan akhlak merentas kurikulum dalam
proses pengajaran bagi melahirkan pelajar yang berupaya
melestarikan alam sekitar. Dari segi dimensi moral, pendekatan
sedemikian diharapkan dapat melahirkan pelajar yang memiliki
kemoralan yang menpunyai pengetahuan moral, perasaan moral
dan amalan moral dalam melestarikan alam sekitar secara
bertanggungjawab. Penerapan dimensi akhlak pula, diharapkan
pelajar dapat menghayati dan menginsafi dirinya selaku
makhluk Tuhan yang tahu memelihara hubungannya dengan
Pencipta, hubungan sesama manusia dan hubungan dengan
alam sekitar. Gabungan kedua-dua dimensi yang disisipkan
merentas kurikulum dalam proses pengajaran diharapkan dapat
melahirkan individu yang mempunyai sikap positif sebagai warga
bumi yang bertanggungjawab terhadap alam sekitar mereka.
PENGENALAN
Keadaan alam sekitar mutakhir ini menyaksikan wujudnya pelbagai isu di
mana pencemaran alam, gangguan terhadap persekitaran fizikal bumi telah
berlaku secara berleluasa seperti aktiviti penebangan hutan, pencemaran
sungai, penarahan dan penggondolan bukit dan gunung, pencemaran pantai
61
dan sebagainya. Kehidupan alam sekitar telah terjejas dan menatijahkan

kehidupan yang tidak selesa sehingga menyebabkan terjadinya banyak
kematian (Grove, 2002). Situasi ini berlaku disebabkan sikap tamak
haloba, rakus di samping tekanan terhadap pembangunan ekonomi dan
keperluan penduduk (Gardner & Stern,2001). Persoalannya apakah situasi
ini disebabkan orientasi kurikulum di sekolah mahu pun institusi pendidikan
kurang berkesan dalam memupuk semangat mencintai alam atau pun strategi
pengajaran yang kurang berkesan dalam memberi pendidikan kepada pelajar
terhadap kesedaran untuk melestarikan alam sekitar itu sendiri .
Dalam hal ini, Ornstein (1998) mencadangkan kurikulum perlu
mengambil sumber kerohanian yang berpaksikan moral supaya dapat
membangunkan modal insan dan prinsip- prinsip moral yang baik dalam
kalangan pelajar. Huebner (1985) pula berpandangan unsur-unsur moral
dalam pelaksanaan kurikulum akan membangkitkan kesedaran kemanusiaan
yang tinggi, bertimbang rasa, kepekaan terhadap fenomena kehidupan yang
melengkari alam jagat.
Mengintegrasikan Aspek Moral dan Akhlak Dalam Proses Pengajaran

dan Pembelajaran
Pendidikan alam sekitar bermatlamat untuk melahirkan individu yang
peka terhadap isu-isu alam sekitar dan prihatin dalam menguruskan alam
yang merangkimi aspek aspek kelestarian sosial, persekitaran dan ekonomi
(Lukman & Glavic, 2007). O’Riordan (1981) pula menyatakan pendidikan
alam sekitar perlu mencakupi elemen keprihatinan terhadap alam dan
kepekaan terhadap isu kelestarian alam itu sendiri. Moseley (2000) pula
berpandangan pendidikan alam sekitar hendaklah dimulai dengan kesedaran
kognitif berkaitan kepentingan memulihara alam sekitar untuk kesejahteraan
hidup manusia sejagat. Dalam hal ini, United Nations Decade of Education
for Sustainable Development (DESD) 2005-2014 telah diwujudkan bertujuan
untuk memberi pendidikan yang memberi fokus terhadap kepentingan
pendidikan alam sekitar dalam kalangan pelajar dan masyarakat umum.
Tyler (1949) sebagai pakar dalam bidang kurikulum menyatakan
kurikulum adalah balapan yang menjadi laluan bagi seseorang pelajar untuk
memperoleh ilmu pengetahuan, pembinaan sikap dan sahsiah serta kemahiran.
Justeru itu, sekiranya matlamat pendidikan adalah untuk melahirkan individu
pelajar yang prihatin tehadap kelestarian alam sekitar di atas bumi sebagai
tempat kediaman dan kegiatan manusia, maka orientasi kurikulum perlu
memberi penekanan kepada unsur moral yang dapat memupuk kesedaran
sedemikian dalam pada diri seseorang pelajar itu sendiri. Goodlad (1979)
62
menyatakan pendidikan yang berkesan perlu berkisar bukan sahaja

kepada penghasilan (output) bagi mengembangkan potensi individu tetapi
perlu menghasilkan ahli masyarakat yang bertanggungjawab yang dapat
mengekalkan unsur-unsur jatidiri, kesedaran, keinsafan dan prihatin .
Kajian-kajian berkaitan komitmen pelajar dalam melestarikan alam
sekitar menunjukkan dapatan yang berbeza berdasarkan orientasi kurikulum
itu sendiri. Misalnya kajian Norsharini (2009) dan Tan Pei San dan Norzaini
(2011) mendapati pelajar jurusan Sains Tulen mempunyai tahap komitmen
yang rendah terhadap alam sekitar berbanding pelajar aliran sains Sosial dan
Pengajian Islam. Implikasi kajian memberi interpretasi terdapat kemungkinan
orientasi kurikulum dan pendekatan pengajaran dan pembelajaran berbeza
telah menghasilkan output individu pelajar yang berbeza dari segi penerapan
elemen akhlak dan moral dalam proses pembelajaran.
Bagi mencapai matlamat pendidikan kelestarian, pendekatan pengajaran
dan pembelajaran dalam pendidikan moral dan akhlak boleh diberi nilai
tambah yang merangkumi elemen pembagunan modal insan melalui
strategi penerapan nilai murni merentas kurikulum selaras dengan Falsafah
Pendidikan Kebangsaan yang ingin melahirkan rakyat Malaysia yang berilmu
berpengetahuan, berakhlak mulia, bertanggungjawab dan berkeupayaan
mencapai kesejahteraan diri. Pendekatan tersebut juga dapat melahirkan
pemastautin dunia yang bertanggungjawab dalam konteks ”sebuah keluarga
dalam perkampungan global ” (Jafni, 1987). Pendidikan moral dan akhlak
yang berkesan seterusnya akan dapat membentuk semangat dan keghairahan
melakukan tindakan-tindakan yang sihat, membentuk kesedaran hidup yang
mementingkan kemaslahatan umum dan menumbuhkan semangat kekitaan
yang dapat meresapkan rasa tenteram dan damai terhadap kehidupan (Muqdad
Yaljan, 1986).
Pendidikan unsur kelestarian dalam pendekatan pengajaran dan

pembelanjaran Moral
Orientasi dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran Moral merangkumi tiga
domain iaitu Pengetahuan Moral, Perasaan Moral dan Amalan Moral.
Pemikiran Moral
Domain ini memberi penekanan dari segi kognitif di mana pelajar memperoleh
pengetahuan berkaitan kepentingan kelestarian alam sekitar yang dikaitkan
dengan nilai-nilai moral seperti; baik hati, bertanggungjawab, berterima
kasih, hemah tinggi, kasih sayang, kerajinan, kerjasama dan toleransi.
Kaedah penjelasan nilai boleh diaplikasikan bagi penerapan nilai-nilai
63
yang dinyatakan. Bahan pengajaran yang disokong dengan gambar, grafik,

video, ilustrasi, penggunaan laman web akan memperteguhkan kefahaman
pelajar terhadap aspek pengetahuan moral yang boleh diterap dan disisip
dalam konteks penjagaan alam sekitar. Aspek pemikiran moral juga boleh
menerapkan pendekatan Teori Constraints yakni satu pendekatan dalam
pendidikan nilai moral yang menekankan pemikiran secara kritis dengan
memfokus kepada tiga peroalan iaitu;
(a) apa yang perlu dilakukan perubahan (misalnya penguatkuasaan
undang-undang bagi mengawal kegiatan manusia terhadap alam
sekitar, penggunaan perkhidmatan awam dan kawalan terhadap aktiviti
penggondolan lereng bukit bagi tujuan pembangunan)
(b) apakah bentuk perubahan yang ingin dibuat (misalnya mengubah sikap
rakus manusia dalam mengejar keuntungan dalam kegiatan ekonomi
agar tidak terlalu rakus melakukan aktiviti tanpa memikirkan implikasi
terhadap generasi akan datang)
(c) bagaimana untuk mengubahnya (Misalnya melalui pendidikan komuniti,
memperkasa peranan pertubuhan sosial dan NGO, pendidikan undang-
undang dan mengaktifkan kegiatan kesukarelawanan) .
Dalam erti kata lain, bagi domain pemikiran moral, pelajar dirangsang
melalui sesi pembelajaran di bilik darjah agar berfikir secara kritis berkaitan
isu-isu yang berbangkit tentang alam sekitar dengan penumpuan terhadap
persoalan tentang:
(a) Apakah tanggungjawab masyarakat dalam melestarikan alam
(b) Mengapa masyarakat memerlukan alam sekitar yang lestari
(c) Sejauh mana pengetahuan dan pemahaman masyarakat terhadap
kepentingan persekitaran yang selesa bagi sebuah kehidupan
(d) Sejauh mana masyarakat dapat mengaplikasikan pengetahuan mereka
dalam penyelesaian isu-isu alam sekitar.
(e) Perasaan Moral. Domain ini berkaitan dengan aspek afektif seperti
perasaan sayang, suka, gembira, menghayati, menghargai, kesyukuran,
tolak ansur dan sebagainya. Orientasi pengajaran dan pembelajaran
melalui pendekatan ini menjurus kepada pemupukan perasaan moral
yang berkaitan dengan sikap dan penghayatan dalam penjagaan alam
sekitar. Aktiviti yang dicadangkan antara lain adalah aplikasi pendekatan
”real life” yang merujuk kepada pengalaman sebenar yang pernah
dilalui oleh pelajar, masyarakat dan komuniti secara langsung. Misalnya
peristiwa yang pernah dialami pelajar akibat akitiviti penggondolan
bukit yang menyebabkan rumah ditenggelami banjir lumpur, yang
mengakibatkan kematian ahli keluarga dan orang yang disayangi .Kes-
64
kes sebenar yang dilalui sendiri oleh pelajar yang boleh diceritakan
dan dikongsi bersama berkaitan isu-isu yang melibatkan alam sekitar
akan meninggalkan kesan yang mendalam dalam jiwa pelajar sekiranya
guru dapat berperanan sebagai pemudahcara yang berkesan dalam sesi
pengajaran tersebut. Perbincangan apakah isu-isu moral yang boleh
dipelajari dari ”:real life” akan mendorong kepada bentuk pembelajaran
aktif dalam kelas dengan membangkitkan persoalan-persoalan yang
mencabar minda dan perasaan moral pelajar. Soalan yang boleh
dicetuskan dalam perbincangan seperti; Apakah amalan nilai murni
yang hilang dalam masyarakat; Apakah kesan kelestarian alam sekitar
kepada kehidupan Aktiviti boleh didokumentasikan dalam bentuk
penulisan jurnal reflektif.
Amalan Moral
Aktiviti berkaitan penjagaan alam sekitar boleh dilaksanakan di sekolah
melalui aktiviti seperti membersihkan persekitaran sekolah melalui projek
kawasan angkat mengikut kelas, kelab dan persatuan. Antara aktitiviti seperti
projek menghijaukan persekitaran sekolah dengan menanam pokok dan juga
penyelenggaran taman. Guru perlu memberi fokus terhadap amalan moral
semasa proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran sama ada secara langsung atau
tidak langsung dalam kelas dan di luar kelas supaya dapat memupuk amalan
yang positif dalam kehidupan pelajar. Aspek pemupukan ini penting dalam
meningkatkan kesedaran moral terhadap pemuliharaan alam. Misalnya
dapatan kajian Wahida et al. (2004) menunjukkan kesedaran terhadap isu-
isu alam sekitar dan pemuliharaan alam sekitar dalam kalangan pelajar
secara umumnya adalah rendah. Walau bagaimanapun dapatan kajian oleh
Zarina dan Norjan (2003) mengenai tahap kesedaran alam sekitar dalam
kalangan pelajar Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia didapati tinggi tetapi
kesediaan untuk mengatasi masalah alam sekitar adalah rendah. Implikasi
dapatan kajian tersebut menunjukkan terdapat keperluan institusi pendidikan
memberi penekanan terhadap pemupukan kesedaran dan amalan moral dalam
pemuliharaan alam sekitar agar keprihatinan tersebut dapat dipertingkatkan
dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran.
Dari segi pendidikan akhlak pula, menghargai alam sekitar dan
memuliharanya adalah perkara yang dituntut sebagai manusia yang berakhlak
dan beradab. Menurut Asmawati Suhid (2005) sekolah berperanan penting
dalam memupuk akhlak dan membangunkan modal insan Komponen Adab
dan Akhlak Islam dalam Kurikulum Pendidikan Islam KBSM merangkumi
antara lain aspek berkaitan hubungan dengan diri sendiri, individu lain, alam
65
sekitar serta hubungan dengan Tuhan. Nilai akhlak tersebut boleh diterapkan
guru merentas kurikulum bagi subjek yang diajar mereka dengan penekanan
kepada nilai bersifat sejagat.
Integrasi pendekatan moral dan akhlak dalam pengajaran merentas
kurikulkum berkaitan kelestarian alam sekitar adalah selaras dengan konsep
pendidikan bersepadu yang menjadi intipati dalam pelaksanaan Kurikulum
Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah (KBSM). Walaupun terdapat kepelbagaian
pandangan mengenai kesepaduan pendidikan akhlak dan moral dalam proses
pengajaran, namun ianya bukanlah suatu masalah sekiranya dapat diterapkan
secara harmonis. Sementata itu, Muqdad Yaljan (1986) menegaskan
pemupukan akhlak dalam kalangan pelajar patut digalakkan supaya sekolah
dapat melahirkan individu yang prihatin melaksanakan prinsip-prinsip moral
dan menjauhi amalan-amalan negatif yang tidak diterima oleh masyarakat.
Melalui penerapan aspek akhlak merentas kuruikulum pelajar dapat
dididik supaya menyantuni persekitaran sosial secara berakhlak sama
ada secara individu atau berjamaah (dalam kelompok masyarakat) untuk
saling bantu seperti pengukuhan satu binaan bangunan. Pendidikan akhlak
yang disisipkan dalam proses pengajaran guru boleh melahirkan manusia
bersifat holistik yang terasuh secara sepadu dari segi tuntutan material,
kerohanian dan keagamaan yang seterusnnya dapat menjadi warga bumi
yang bertanggungjawab (Muqdad Yaljan, 1986).
Pendekatan Pendidikan Akhlak Merentas Kurikulum.

Al Ghazali telah memperkenalkan konsep Konsep Tiga P dalam pendekatan
pendidikan akhlak. Elemen tersebut adalah:
Pendekatan Pembentukan
Pendekatan pembentukan bermaksud membentuk kebiasaan melakukan
perbuatan dan sikap yang baik serta bertanggungjawab. Sekiranya guru ingin
membentuk sikap mencintai alam sekitar dalam kalangan pelajarnya, guru
dan pihak sekolah secara terancang dan bersepadu perlu membiasakan para
pelajarnya ke arah sikap tersebut seperti melaksanakan aktiviti membersihkan
tandas, kantin, membersihkan kawasan sekolah, taman, tempat rekreasi di
kawasan sekolah dan melaksanakan projek-projek komuniti di luar sekolah
secara berterusan melalui pendidikan komuniti yang melibatkan masyarakat
di luar sekolah. Persatuan Ibubapa Guru, Persatuan Penduduk, NGO,
Pertubuhan Sukarela yang wujud di luar komuniti sekolah boleh dilibatkan
melalui jaringan sosial yang terancang. Satu budaya baharu perlu diwujudkan
66
melahirkan sikap proaktif dan beriltizam dan bukan sekadar kempen dan
galakan yang muncul secara bermusim.
Pendekatan Penghalang
Pendekatan ini bermaksud menjauhkan seseorang daripada anasir yang
mendorong kepada terbentuknya moraliti yang buruk. Dalam konteks ini
Al Ghazali telah memperkenalkan konsep pendidikan keinginan di mana
sesuatu keinginan perlu dipupuk dan dilatih seperti mana kebiasaan lain.
Ini bermakna pelajar boleh dilatih untuk sentiasa berkeinginan melihat
kawasan persekitaran sekolah yang cantik dan bersih, persekitaran yang
menarik dan terurus, keinginan melihat aliran air sungai yang jernih,
keinginan untuk menghirup udara yang nyaman, segar yang tidak tercemar
dan sebagainya. Keinginan-keinginan sedemikian, boleh disisipkan dalam
pengajaran merentasi kurikulum seperti mata pelajaran Geografi, Bahasa
Melayu, Biologi dan sebaginya dengan matlamat untuk mengembangkan
dan membentuk intuisi spontan bagi menghalang jiwa pelajar daripada
melakukan kerosakan terhadap persekitaran. Dalam erti kata lain, melalui
pendekatan ini kecenderungan-kecenderungan yang baik boleh diulang-ulangi
berserta dengan aspek dorongan, ganjaran dan motivasi guru dan sekolah
supaya pelajar terus terdidik dengan keinginan-keinginan yang positif dan
kebiasaan-kebiasaan yang boleh mencetuskan perasaan cinta akan keindahan
alam sekitar.
Pendekatan penyembuhan
Pendekatan ini bermaksud melalui proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran,
guru berperanan sebagai tabib yang mengubati perlakuan yang bertentangan
dengan akhlak dan moral.
Dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran, pengalaman pembelajaran
yang hendak disampaikan kepada pelajar hendaklah menyisipkan pendekatan
penyembuhan seperti konsep hukuman kepada pelajar yang melanggar
peraturan, pemotongan merit bagi pelajar yang melanggar amalan penjagaan
kebersihan dan kelestarian persekitaran sekolah (misalnya membuang
sampah, menconteng dinding, merosakkan pasu bunga, mematahkan dahan
pokok dengan sesuka hati).
Selain itu sesi info berterusan, sesi kaunseling, tazkirah, penerangan
dari pihak berkuasa tempatan dan lain-lain perlu dimasukkan dalam takwim
aktiviti sekolah. Melalui Pendekatan Penyembuhan ini, pelajar akan
menyedari kesilapan yang mereka lakukan dan seterusnya guru memberi
rawatan secara berterusan secara hikmah. Dari segi jangka panjangnya,
67
pendekatan ini berupaya melahirkan individu yang bijaksana, bertoleransi,

bersikap terbuka, mempunyai akal budi yang tinggi, memiliki kesantunan
bersikap rasional dan memiliki sifat-sifat kearifan.
RUMUSAN DAN CADANGAN

Pelajar di bangku sekolah adalah pewaris khazanah alam di masa hadapan.
Justeru hala tuju dan pendekatan dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran
perlu menjurus kepada pembinaan generasi yang berkembang mengikut fitrah
semula jadi manusia yang cinta akan keindahan dan kedamaian. Kesedaran
mengembalikan manusia kepada fitrahnya bermakna kita kembali kepada
pendekatan kerohanian yang berteraskan akhlak dan moral. Kembalinya
manusia kepada fitrah akan membantu dalam menyelesaikan pelbagai
masalah kerakusan manusia, sifat tamak haloba, merosakkan alam sekitar dan
pelbagai lagi amalan buruk (mazmumah). Kesepaduan pendekatan akhlak
dan moral dengan penekanan kepada sumber autentik yakni agama perlu
diusahakan secara bersungguh-sungguh dalam menjana kelestarian alam
sekitar. Antaranya disarankan:
• Komitmen guru: Guru perlu mempunyai kesedaran moral dan iltizam
yang tinggi untuk menghasilkan generasi yang dihasratkan melalui
kepekaan terhadap isu-isu berkaitan dan fenomena yang menjejaskan
persekitaran kehidupan manusia. Nasihat, teguran dan kreativiti guru
secara profesional perlu digembeleng secara bersepadu melalui aktiviti
kurikulum dan kokurikulum
• Budaya sekolah: Sekolah perlu membudayakan kehidupan mesra
alam yang dilaksanakan secara tersirat melalui kurikulum tersembunyi
seperti mengupayakan budaya menyayangi alam sekitar sekolah yang
bersih dan pengurusan persekitaran sekolah yang berfokuskan amalan
kehidupam insan berakhlak dan bermoral.
• Jaringan sosial: Sekolah perlu mewujudkan jaringan sosial dengan
komuniti luar sekolah agar pelajar dapat menterjemahkan pengalaman
pembelajaran di bilik darjah secara langsung dengan realiti kehidupan
di luar bilik darjah berkaitan penjagaan alam sekitar.
Memetik kata-kata Muhammad Iqbal (Dlm Kamal Hasssan, 1988, h.
167);
Dalam hal pendidikan, cara Islam adalah untuk membina manusia

yang menyeluruh. Ia adalah skema pembinaan komprehensif
yang tidak mengenepikan atau melupakan apa sahaja bahagian-
bahagian manusia seperti jasad, intelek dan rohnya, kehidupan
68
material dan spiritualnya dan setiap aktiviti kehidupan. Ia

mengambil kira keseluruhan diri manusia itu sendiri dengan
keadaan semulajadi (fitrah) yang Allah jadikan baginya
Usaha melestarikan alam sekitar adalah satu ibadah dan amal soleh yang
dituntut dalam agama. Dalam menyongsong cabaran globalisasi yang
menyaksikan kerencaman citarasa manusia dari pelbagai dimensi kehidupan
yang menerjah masuk dalam ekosistem kehidupan kita, setiap warga pendidik
harus memainkan peranan secara pro aktif menggunakan kebijaksanaan dan
kreativiti dalam pendekatan pengajaran dan pembelajaran agar gagasan murni
ini dapat mencapai matlamatnya.
RUJUKAN
Asmawati Suhid. (2005). Pengajaran adab akhlak Islamiah dalam
membangunkan modal insan. Dlm. Prosiding Seminar Pendidikan
Islam & Bahasa Arab Pemangkin Peradaban Ummah. Bangi: Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Gardner, G. T., & Stern, P. C. (2002). Environmental problems and human
behavior. Boston, MA: Pearson.
Grove, R. (2002). Climate fears: Colonialism and the history of
environmentalism. Harvad International Review, 23(4), 50-55
Huebner, D. E. (1985). Spirituality and knowing. Dlm. E. W. Eisner (ED.),
Learning and teaching the ways of knowing (1985). Chicago, IL:
University pf Chicago Press
Jafni Hassan. (1987). Pendidikan Moral dalam kurikulum bersepadu: Ke
arah memupuk seorang insan harmonis. Jurnal Pendidikan. Fakulti
Pendidikan Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 12, 83-91.
Kamal Hassan (1988). Pendidikan dan pembangunan: Satu perspektif
bersepadu. Kuala Lumpur: Nurin.
Lukman, R., & Glavic, P. (2007). What are the key elements of a sustainable
university? Clean Techn Environ Policy, 9, 103-114.
Moffett, J. (1994). The universal schoolhouse. San Fransisco, CA: Jossey-
Bass.
Ornstein, A, C., Pajak, E, F., & Ornstein, S. B. (2009). Contemporary issues
in curriculum. Boston, MA: Pearson.
Pinar, W. F., Reynolds, W. M., Patrick, S., & Taubman, P. M. (1995).
Understanding curriculum. New York, NY: Peter Lang.
Tan Pei San, & Norzaini Azman. (2011). Hubungan antara komitmen terhadap
alam sekitar dengan tingkahlaku mesra alam sekitar dalam kalangan
pelajar universiti. Jurnal Personalia Pelajar, 14, 11-22
69
Tyler, R. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago,

IL: University of Chicago Press
Zurina Mahadi, & Norjan Yusof. (2003). Kesedaran alam sekitar: Tinjauan
awal di kalangan pelajar Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Prosiding
Seminar Kebangsaan Pengurusan Persekitaran. Bangi: Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia.
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PROBLEM SOLVING IN CULINARY ARTS:

PEDAGOGICAL ISSUES FACED BY CULINARY
INSTRUCTORS AT COMMUNITY COLLEGES
Umawathy Techanamurthy, Norlidah Alias (PhD) &

Dorothy DeWitt (PhD)
Faculty of Education,
University of Malaya
uma_leogal@yahoo.com, drnorlidah@um.edu.my & dorothy@um.edu.my
Abstract
Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) graduates
need to be skilled in problem-solving to increase employability.
However, TVET graduates seem to lack problem-solving skills.
This article discusses the pedagogical issues faced by Culinary
Arts instructors to inculcate problem solving skills among their
students. Among the issues faced by instructors is the lack of
instructional guidance on how to inculcate problem solving
skills during instruction. This is due to the lack of instructional
materials such as examples of real world problems and knowledge
on instructional strategies required to teach problem-solving skills
related to Culinary Arts. Culinary instructors, especially those
without industrial experience may not have the real world exposure
to teach problem solving skills using real world examples. Thus,
in current teaching practice, instructors seem to focus more on
transmitting technical skills (culinary skills). Instructors also
seem to have insufficient time to cover both content and implement
problem-solving activities within the stipulated class time. Hence,
we need to develop a pedagogical module to ensure instructors
in TVET institutions are more prepared to teach problem-solving
using real world problems with help from technology. This can
be accomplished by involving industry practitioners and experts
in designing curriculum delivery which will benefit culinary
instructors and their students at Community Colleges.
Keywords: problem-solving, instructional, Community College,

Culinary Arts, Technical Vocational Education and Training,
instructors, issues
71
INTRODUCTION
The Ministry of Education in its Malaysia Education Blueprint 2015 to 2025
(Higher Education) (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2015) highlighted
the critical role of Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET)
in developing a highly skilled workforce for the nation. A highly skilled
workforce requires skilled TVET graduates who match industry needs
(Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2015). One initiative to ensure TVET
graduates match industry needs is to enhance collaboration with the key
industry players which can be achieved through collaboration in curriculum
delivery. Students can get exposed to industry needs through apprenticeship,
exposure to real-life simulations or special training programs by industry
(Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2015). These initiatives will be beneficial
as it exposes students to industry needs.
Moreover, these initiatives, if taken, will benefit students as there is
a growing recognition for TVET graduates to have good problem-solving
skills, nationally and internationally. Graduates will be required to solve non-
routine tasks or unfamiliar problems once they join the workforce. Being able
to identify and solve problems is the core of actual professional experience
that graduates will need to perform in industry and society in general
(Doornekamp, 2001; Hedges, 1996). This means TVET graduates should
be skilled within the area of specialization as well as in solving problems
and thinking critically to be able to transfer knowledge in attempting non-
routine tasks in a variety of situations (Hämäläinen, Cincinnato, Malin, & De
Wever, 2014; Rasul, Rauf, Mansor, Yasin, & Mahamod, 2013; Soden, 2013;
UNESCO, 2014). This is in line with the National Education Philosophy,
where students and graduates must be able to think critically and innovatively
and solve problems (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2015).
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The Ministry of Education in its Malaysia Education Blueprint 2015 to
2025 (Higher Education) report also outlined that higher education TVET
providers such as Community Colleges, together with Polytechnics and
Vocational Colleges are to supply skilled TVET workers by 2020 (Ministry
of Education Malaysia, 2015). Despite the growing number graduating from
higher education TVET providers, employers are finding it difficult to hire
graduates who possess both technical skills and employability skills to fit
their organization (Muhd Khaizer Omar, Ab. Rahim Bakar, & Abdullah Mat
Rashid, 2012). For instance, the National Graduate Employability Blueprint
between 2012 to 2017 published by the Ministry of Higher Education (2012),
72
reported that 23.8% fresh graduates lack the depth of skills related knowledge
and 25.9% fresh graduates are unable to solve problems. The graduates’
lack of problem solving skills also resonates with the findings from the
Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013 to 2025 which reports that employers
were concerned about the lack of higher order thinking skills including
problem-solving and creativity among graduates (MOE, 2012). Similarly,
several local studies on TVET students in Vocational Colleges in Malaysia
have consistently documented that TVET students lack problem-solving skills
(Bakar & Hanafi, 2007; Mimi Mohamad, Heong, Muhammad Rajuddin, &
Keong, 2011; Rahman, Mokhtar, Hamzah, & Yasin, 2011). Just like graduates
from other TVET institutions, Community College graduates also seem to
lack problem-solving skills despite having skills specific to their area of
specialization (Awang, Ibrahim, Hussain, Ramli, & Lyndon, 2013; Zaliza
Hanapi, Mohd Safarin Nordin, & Khamis, 2015). A study by Reezlin, Ishak,
Zahari, and Inoormaziah (2012) also highlighted the alarming scenario when
they found that Culinary Arts students at Community Colleges were unable
to transfer their knowledge to new environments or solve related problems.
Studies are still lacking with regard to the issue of problem-solving
skills among Community College students, even lesser on Culinary Arts
graduates from Community Colleges. This matter merits further investigation
as there has been a steady increase in student enrolment in Culinary Arts
courses at Community Colleges over recent years (MOHE, 2011). Thus,
this article focuses on the Culinary Arts Courses offered at Community
Colleges. Community Colleges fall under the purview of the Department
of Community College Education (DCCE), under the Higher Education
Sector of the Ministry of Education of Malaysia. The mission of Community
Colleges in Malaysia is to leverage on TVET and learning opportunities
throughout life, as a means for preparing local communities for education
for the world of work and skills development for employability. Community
Colleges were established as centers of excellence for technology, business
and service industries (Don, Daud, Kasim, Sakdan, & Fauzee, 2014). One
of the service industries that Community College students are prepared
for is the food and beverage industry, namely Culinary Arts. The two-year
Certificate level Culinary Arts program is offered at 11 Community Colleges
throughout Malaysia.
The Culinary Arts workplace environment has also become increasingly
challenging and competitive which requires graduates to be better prepared
to enter the workforce. The changing workplace demands Culinary Arts
graduates to be better prepared to solve non-routine tasks or ill-structured
problems at the workplace. Food service operators and restaurant managers
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are looking for employees that can identify problems and take the initiative
to come up with a workable or creative solution especially when solving on
the ground problems (Deutsch, Billingsley, & Azima, 2009). The problem
with procedures is that they seem to be useful when solving simple, well-
structured problems, but, when procedures fail to work, students get stuck, not
knowing what to do in different situations (Jonassen, 2004). It is necessary
that students be provided with many problem-solving opportunities so that
they can develop strategies to solve unfamiliar problems or on the ground
problems at the workplace. Without the ability to transfer knowledge and
solve problems, Culinary Arts graduates are unprepared to participate in
the “real-world of restaurant work” (Hegarty, 2004). Thus, they would be
unable to meet the standards of the workplace (Hegarty, 2004; Ko & Chung,
2015). To meet the standards of the workplace, Culinary Arts graduates are
required to possess skills such as problem-solving to adapt and transfer
learning to different situations (Ko, 2015; Müller, VanLeeuwen, Mandabach,
& Harrington, 2009; Thomas, 1992; Way, Ottenbacher, & Harrington, 2011;
Yao-Fen & Chen-Tsang, 2014; Zahari, Jalis, Zulfifly, Radzi, & Othman, 2009).
PEDAGOGICAL ISSUES FACED BY CULINARY

ARTS INSTRUCTORS
With the growing importance of problem solving in the workforce, students
should be taught problem-solving skills using real-world problems as early
as possible. The emphasis on problem-solving is clearly outlined in the
curriculum specification for the Community College Culinary Arts Certificate
course. It is stated in the curriculum specification that students should be able
to solve problems creatively and innovatively by the end of the program.
Interestingly, the National Occupational Skills Standards (NOSS) document
which sets the standards for a skilled workforce in Malaysia also highlights
that one of the core abilities of a skilled workforce is being able to apply
problem-solving strategies (Department of Skills Development, 2014).
However, there seems to be a gap between policy and implementation. The
problem-solving approach to instruction requires instructors to be trained in
teaching with authentic or real-world problems (Buttles, 2002). Just like the
Community College curriculum, the NOSS document for the Kitchen Sector
also does not provide the instructor with examples of real-world problems that
can be used as examples to teach the Culinary Arts discipline. Both documents
also do not provide guidance to instructors on how to inculcate problem
solving skills during instruction. The lack of examples or guidelines that can
assist instructors to teach using real world problems in these documents seems
74
to indicate that there is a shortage of instructional materials for instructors to

develop their students’ problem solving skills. When instructional materials
are not provided, there is the probability of significant variation between the
intended or specified curriculum that students should learn, what instructors
teach, and what students learn.
Instructors have a role in using a variety of resources to help students
develop better problem-solving skills. Instructors are encouraged to use
various scenarios of real-world problems so that students can apply problem-
solving strategies to develop their problem-solving skills. Scenarios of real
world problems can come from real world exposure. Unfortunately, instructors
who lack industrial experience also may not have the real world exposure (Lin
& Cherng, 2006). Some local studies have highlighted that culinary instructors
lack industrial experience (Idris, 2011; Mohammad Azli Razali, Farina
Nozakiah Tazijan, Suzana Ab. Rahim, Nina Farisha Isa, & Hemdi, 2012).
This is not surprising as most instructors employed to teach in Polytechnics
and Community Colleges are hired directly after having completed their
studies based on their academic qualifications with less importance given to
their industrial work experience (Idris, 2011). The overemphasis on academic
credentials has resulted in the lack of relevant professional experience (Ko,
2012) which may reduce the quality of instruction. Instructors lacking in
industrial experience may be unable to integrate theory and practice, thus
leaving out the content most relevant and appropriate to industry needs (Ko
& Chung, 2015; Lin & Cherng, 2006). They end up depending on what they
have read in textbooks or experienced as consumers (Brown et al., 2015).
This often results in students lacking a clear understanding of the industry
realities (Brown et al., 2015).
With the lack of pedagogical support to teach problem solving, instructors
perceive that it is harder to teach problem-solving skills; thus they focus
more on teaching technical skills (culinary skills). The emphasis on culinary
skills in current teaching practices results in the lack of focus on cultivating
problem-solving and response abilities required in the workplace (Hegarty,
2011; Shani, Belhassen, & Soskolne, 2013; Wang, 2015).For instance, past
studies have highlighted that in foundational level Culinary Arts courses,
instructors seem to focus more on transmitting knowledge and technical
skills (culinary skills), rather than keeping students engaged with creative
problem-solving opportunities (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Hannafin
& Land, 1997; Wang, 2015).Typically, traditional culinary arts instruction
follows the recipe-based pedagogy where the chef-instructor demonstrates
the recipe, then the students diligently replicate the demonstration, and the
75
chef-instructor provides feedback based on the outcome (Brown, Mao, &

Chesser, 2013; Deutsch, 2014; Noe, 2005).
Similarly, in the Community College Culinary Arts program, there is
more emphasis on delivering technical skills, rather than learning theoretical
knowledge and being able to apply it to real-world situations (Reezlin et al.,
2012). A preliminary study of current problem-solving teaching practices at
a Community College also revealed that culinary instructors at Community
Colleges tend to focus more on developing cooking skills and technical skills
among their students, rather than developing students’ problem-solving skills
(Umawathy Techanamurthy, Norlidah Alias, & Dewitt, 2015).
The major obstacle in teaching using problem solving approaches is
the reluctance to deviate from traditional teaching practices (Garton & Cano,
1996; Mimi Mohamad et al., 2011).Instructors seem to have insufficient time
to inculcate problem solving skills during the stipulated class time as they
focus on completing the syllabus. Reezlin Abdul Rahman, Mohamad Amer
Hasbullah, and Zahari (2011) highlighted that instructors in the traditional
foundation level culinary arts program have to teach a large amount of
hands-on content that emphasize on skill-based cooking knowledge which
forms the basis of the Community College Culinary Arts curriculum. Thus,
instructors usually leave it to students to learn problem-solving skills during
their industrial attachment, at the workplace, or when they pursue their studies
at higher levels (Umawathy Techanamurthy et al., 2015). Hence, it may not
be surprising that Community College Culinary Arts students seem unable
to transfer their knowledge to new environments or solve related problems
as reported by Reezlin et al. (2012).
As more emphasis is placed on delivering technical skills in the Culinary
Arts course offered at Community Colleges, there is an imbalance between
acquiring theoretical knowledge and applying it to unfamiliar situations
(Reezlin Abdul Rahman et al., 2011). Some researchers suggest that emphasis
must be placed on subject matter content and its application to nurture real-
world problem-solving skills (Ko & Chung, 2015; Sweller, 2015). Owing to
this, Reezlin Abdul Rahman et al. (2011) proposed that at least two hours per
week should be allocated separately for imparting of theoretical knowledge
which is currently taught along with the hands-on content. To achieve the
balance between applying content knowledge and practicing real-world
problem-solving skills, both conventional syllabus and practice of problem-
solving skills can be delivered by planning the use of time flexibly with the
affordances of technology.
76
CONCLUSION
Students need to be equipped with better problem-solving skills demanded
by today’s ill-structured nature of work (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1993;
Jonassen, 1997; Lohman, 2004; Mohamed, Omar, & Romli, 2011). Instead of
leaving it to the students to learn real-world problem-solving skills while on
industrial attachments, at the workplace or when they continue higher studies,
instructors need to prepare students to face the realities of employment as
early as possible. To prepare them to be critical thinkers and better problem
solvers, instructors need to expose them to more situations in authentic
contexts to reflect how their knowledge will be used in reality (Billett, 1996;
Herrington & Oliver, 1995; Herrington, Reeves, & Oliver, 2014; Jonassen,
2013; Kirschner & van Merrienboer, 2008; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Merrill,
2002; Merrill, 2012; Pratten, 2003; Pratten & O’Leary, 2007; Savery & Duffy,
1995). Thus, instructors need real world problems and suitable instructional
strategies they can use to teach problem solving skills required by industry.
The intensive modes of delivery of the technical skills of Culinary Arts
and less emphasis on delivery of fundamental knowledge and applying the
knowledge to solve real-world problems are prevalent in current teaching
practices at institutions. Change seems to be needed in attitude among
instructors towards the importance of teaching problem solving to Culinary
Arts students. Instructors must realize that competency in skills specific to
the area of specialization or technical skills such as knife skills and cooking
skills in culinary studies are no longer sufficient for survival in the industry
(Horng & Lee, 2009; Müller et al., 2009; Rinsky, 2012; Shani et al., 2013).
Employers in the Culinary Arts are seeking employees who can identify
problems and take the initiative in developing practical and creative solutions
for problems (Deutsch et al., 2009).
To meet employer expectations, students need to be trained by culinary
instructors based on the workplace realities (Ko & Chung, 2015; Pratten,
2003; Pratten & O’Leary, 2007) according to the needs and expectations of the
culinary industry (Ko & Chung, 2015). This means students need lessons with
more practice in addressing real-world problems using authentic contexts,
coupled with instructor’s guidance. This may be difficult to achieve especially
with instructors who lack industry exposure. To follow the problem-solving
approach to teaching, instructors will need guidance on how Culinary Arts
concepts can be used to solve real world problems. Based on the literature,
students should be taught to identify problems, identify suitable information,
connect and use the information to solve problems, make decisions after
generating alternative solutions and evaluate the success of the solution
77
(Barrows, 1996; Jonassen, 1997; Lohman, 2004) these can be used as a

strategy when solving problems. Not only that, the problem solving approach
to instruction relies on using authentic problems to place learning in context
and to link classroom learning to the real world (Buttles, 2002).
Unfortunately, the available documents such as curriculum specifications
and NOSS documents only provide instructors with the specific requirements
with regard to the competency in skills specific to the specialization or
technical skills that need to be acquired in the Culinary Arts field. These
documents do not provide instructors with pedagogical support such as
real world problems or instructional strategies that can be used to inculcate
problem solving. Thus, instructors need pedagogical support in terms of
instructional strategies for teaching problem-solving. Implementing these
instructional strategies must be informed by educational research and good
practice (Porcaro, Jackson, McLaughlin, & O’Malley, 2016). Instructors also
need time to cover the content and spend time on problem-solving based
approaches in class. Design of all activities must also be aligned with the
learning outcomes. The sequence of the learning activities must be carefully
arranged to increase student ability to attain learning outcomes.
Based on the abovementioned issues, the opportunity to acquire
knowledge and skills based on authentic real-world problems or tasks which
are very relevant to vocational education seems to be hardly practiced in the
Culinary Arts program as there is lack of pedagogical support for culinary
instructors. This leads to the scenario where instructors do not seem to
impart problem-solving skills during instructional time (Dasmani, 2011).
Hence, a pedagogical module needs to be designed and developed to improve
curriculum delivery at Community Colleges. According to the Malaysia
Education Blueprint for Higher Education (2015-2025) (MOE, 2015), this
can be achieved by enabling the industry to lead curriculum design and
delivery. Hence, curriculum planning should involve participation of industry
representatives and experts to reflect the most recent trends (Lin & Cherng,
2006; Maier & Thomas, 2013; Spowart, 2011; Zhong, Couch, & Blum, 2013).
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84
ART APPRECIATION TEACHING MODEL FOR

UNDERGRADUATE LEVEL TO GAIN AN
AESTHETIC EXPERIENCE
Maithreyi Subramaniam*
Cultural Centre
my3subra@gmail.com
Jaffri Hanafi & Abu Talib Putih (PhD)

Faculty of Education
Abstract
One of the key objectives of Art Education by the Ministry of
Education Malaysia (MOE) is to enable students to develop the
ability to appreciate, evaluate, analyze and discuss the production
of various types of art and visual production. Students who are
able to appreciate a work of art are also able to value and produce
a good piece of work. The main purpose of this study was to
build and examine an art appreciation model to be offered as an
integral part of a subject of instruction in undergraduate level art
education to gain an aesthetic experience. Several related theories
of art appreciation were incorporated in developing the model
such as Feldman (1967), Broudy (1970) and Mittler (1986/2005).
The art appreciation theories were incorporated with formalism
theories of Bell (1914/2014) and Fry (1920/2012) as well as
Dewey’s (1934/1980/2005) aesthetic experience and Parker’s
(1920) elements of experience. Therefore, these selected theories
were used in developing this art appreciation teaching model.
Fundamentally, the whole guideline reflects several art appreciation theories

were applied to create a teaching model in teaching art appreciation to students
at undergraduate level. The ability to experience aesthetically or respond to
art is viewed by many writers as an affective condition necessary for entering
into the appreciative realm. In addition, numerous writers stated that cognitive
85
components and activities that tend to fall outside of the aesthetic experience
nevertheless contribute to appreciation. Feldman (1967), Broudy (1970) and
Mittler (1986/2005) theories have been referred that these methods are able
to provide valuable experiences exploring the meanings of art.
Inquiry to Art Appreciation Theories

Feldman (1967) offered a different method for critical response or inquiry
to art appreciation formats. Feldman claimed that the model is appropriate
to be used in the art education programs because art educators basically
involved in art criticism in the teaching of art appreciation and in studio
instruction. The educators are engaged in the critical talk; therefore they must
have some of the skills as art critics. During the process of instruction an art
educator describes, analyzes, interprets and makes judgment about the art
objects in the classroom. Feldman’s model of art criticism is incorporated in
studio art production and art history instruction. Feldman has four aspects
in performing criticism: (a) describing a work of art by naming things seen
and how the artwork seems to have been formed; (b) formal analysis that
includes explanation of qualities like shape, colour, texture and line; (c)
interpreting the meaning of the artwork; and (d) judgment, Feldman’s method
means evaluating by making comparison, or talking about the originality and
craftsmanship. In the process of learning, the purpose of art talk and student’s
experience would be influenced by the art educator’s objective; which is,
whether the instruction is intended at assisting the students to become only
art producers for their artwork or to assist them to be more sensitive in their
responses to art (MacGregor, 1971).
Greer and Rush (1985) agreed with Broudy’s (1972) four steps of
appreciative or perceptual process and revealed widespread use in most
art education programs, and the most outstanding model being the one at
Getty Education Institutes (as cited in Hamblen, 1985). Occasionally also
called aesthetic scanning, Broudy’s structure consists of exploring sensory
qualities, formal relationships, expressive meanings and technical properties.
Although judgment is not included, Madeja (1979) described that Broudy’s
work appears to place upon it and stress was given to perceiving an art object
aesthetically in terms of its qualities (as cited in Hamblen, 1985). Numerous
art educators, art critics and aestheticians have created about components of
informed aesthetic response for education programs.
Furthermore, Holden (1977), an art teacher, used Broudy’s theory
and established a method in preparing an aesthetic education curriculum
mentioned that this framework was found useful and successful both in
86
the teaching and learning process for the teachers and students in aesthetic
education. This is the perceptual method to aesthetic education established
predominantly on Broudy’s work and also others who have tried with new
approaches in various situations at various levels (as cited in Borgmann,
1981). In expanding aesthetic experience, it requires expansion of aesthetic
sensitivity for works of art whereby aesthetic sensitivity could be developed
methodically by creating awareness for critical appreciation in terms of
sensory properties, formal properties, technical properties and expressiveness
properties in arts. Broudy’s model identifies these four levels of aesthetic
scanning involving what art educators call the informed aesthetic response
(Broudy, 1970).
On the other hand, Mittler (1980) proposed an art appreciation program
incorporating a sequence of art criticism and art history operations. The
educator proposed four stages; (a) premature decision-making that is a crude
scanning operation which often terminates in premature decision-making
based upon incomplete analysis of available cues in a perceived object; (b)
searching for internal cues that lead to more discriminate decision-making;
(c) searching for external cues to check out and confirm decisions; and (d)
final decision-making to take consideration of both internal and external
cues. The educator also explained that by using the suggested four steps as a
guide, it is likely to recognize and categorize the art criticism and art history
process believed to be significant to an art appreciation program. Through
this process students are able to make and defend individual, differentiate
judgments with regard to a various kind of visual art forms.
Formalism Theory
For both Bell (1914/2014) and Fry (1920/2012) the main notion consists
of aesthetics; only “significant form” must be studied as the soul of visual
art forms. It is believed that through significant form, one can assess the art
since it can clarify the peculiar nature of an aesthetic experience in which it
represents the autonomy of work of arts (as cited in Braembussche, 2009).
Braembussche also emphasized that Bell and Fry’s theory of significant form
is similar to the contemporary view that visual art is concerning the artistic
process that is often related to formalism, technical and aesthetic property of
works of art. Both art critics believe that the elements such as lines, shapes
and colors govern the formal quality of works of art.
Formalism is predominantly an examination about what it takes to
determine the aesthetic characteristics or features or properties of things that
incorporate the elements and principles of art. “Aesthetic” is an approach to
give a sense of features that are aesthetic such as: beauty, ugliness, daintiness,
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dumpiness, elegance, and so forth. Formalist theory emphasizes meaning that

is intrinsic in the formal qualities of an artwork. Bell (1914/2014) explained
that to appreciate works of art they have to be related to the experience from
our past, the knowledge that we have and emotion can influence an individual
interest. The only internal or intrinsic criteria are considered important for
the formalists, which are the forms of the artwork and not the content so that
judgment of artworks can be merely based on the formal properties (as cited
in Braembussche, 2009).
Intrinsic Value
Parker (1920/2003) established that one is concerned with the intrinsic value
of art instantly recognized in the experience of the arts that is frequently
identified as “hedonistic”; value of art involves the enjoyment of sense of the
aesthetic expression media offers, such as pleasure in the color, rhythm and
movement through the use of line and form. There are two essential parts of
formalism theory, which are the elements of design (line, color, shape, form,
value, texture and space) and principles of design (harmony, balance, rhythm,
pattern, emphasis, movement, variety, economy and proportion which later
contribute to unity of a work of art). These two components are the building
blocks used to create a work of art. Braembussche (2009) stressed formalism
depends purely on the artistic criteria to assess works of art that are judged
with independent, intricate, autonomous experience to be reflected on their
own distinctions.
Aesthetic Experience
Aesthetic experience begins with a compelling reason to engage—a felt need,
tension, or puzzlement that requires struggle. It continues in an uninterrupted
movement towards an end, a movement infused with anticipation of the final
outcome. (While the movement may be interrupted in time, it is not interrupted
in intent.) Along the way we take action, even if that action is only intent
observation, and we care about the things and conditions that result from our
action, especially their bearing on the anticipated end. Finally, the ending
is a consummation (not merely a cessation) that connects all events in the
experience into a continuous, purposeful movement (Dewey, 1934, 1980,
2005). Art in the narrow sense results when the students create products or
experiences whose direct aim is to create aesthetic experience in those who
appreciate the work.
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Elements of Experience
In terms of analysis of aesthetic experience, Parker (1920/2003) has proposed
elements of experience in the process of learning. The writer stated that to
create a tangible notion of art experience and relate it with other facts, one
should choose the components of mind inflowing into the art experience and
reveal their relationship of characteristic. It is described the first element;
each and every experience contains sensation of the media of expression.
For example, a painting that has color. Vague feeling is the characteristic of
aesthetic expressions, which the media used, represented by an expressive
display of moods. Meanwhile the third element that is considered is the sense
element, which possesses a function to represent a thing. The last element
included is image of various senses—sight, hearing, taste, smell, temperature,
movement which arise in connection with the ideas or meanings, making
them concrete and full.
For this conceptual framework, related theories were used in this
study. Art criticism or inquiry to art appreciation theories, Feldman (1967),
Broudy (1972) and Mittler (1986/2005) were used as the departure point;
incorporating formalism theory (Bell, 1914/2014; Fry, 1920/2011); and
also elements of experience (Parker, 1920/2003). Following this section is
a detailed explanation of the conceptual framework. Figure 1 displays the
conceptual framework proposed for this study, which this section focuses
on applying the concepts to the teaching model for art appreciation, which
can be used generally in visual arts or applied arts. The researcher has
generated two propositions which were included into two response modes:
(a) intrinsic value covers the aspects of elements and principles of art and
(b) aesthetic experience: elements of experience covers the aspects of media
of expressions, aesthetic expression, sense elements and image of various
senses. These levels are sequentially arranged and are as seen as progressive
in achieving art appreciation.
Statement of Problem
Zimmerman (1985) claimed that the teaching and learning of studio art
production typically concentrates completely on students’ artistic technique,
design layout or composition and psychomotor domain. So far, there is
no indication that shows the studio art production offers students with an
appreciation towards the visual arts. Furthermore, the educator also mentioned
that many students have excellent skills in using various types of media or
medium but are only able to make shallow responses toward a work of art.
In addition, Eisner (1972b) established the aptitude to study and observe
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Figure 1.1.
Conceptual framework of the teaching model for art appreciation.
the world does not flow from the aptitude of making artistic process or art
production. Moreover, Carpentier (1987) explained that art teachers in the
1960s and 1970s condemned the most important and powerful key studio art
curricula established aiming at self-expression as inadequate and suggested
a need to change the art education program by integrating art appreciation
in the curriculum. Besides that, most art educators do not incorporate the
aesthetics theory because they are uncertain about how to go about; hence
art appreciation is missing in most art programs (Hamblen, 1988). Mittler
(1980) also agreed with Chapman (1969) pointing out there are numerous
indications showing that a studio-based program only offers insufficient
factual information about the topic of art and has only a slight effect on the
students’ attitude regarding art appreciation.
In emphasizing the disregarded part of critical aspects of art as one main
line for curriculum improvement, Eisner (1965) argued that the combination
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of art appreciation with an art subject is a fundamental area in need of

development for students who are the main target audience rather than art
creators. Furthermore, Eisner also stated art educators must not concentrate
too much on the artistic production but also cover the critical aspects of art.
The students have to learn how to look at art by using particular tools to study
it. Moreover, Eisner stated that upon conducting tests to hundreds of high
school and college students within the state some years back, the writer found
the student’s attitude concerning art shows very minimal appreciation of the
role of the arts in society or an understanding of the ways critical judgments
were made. Students also did not perform well in the tests dealing with details
of the artists and art history.
Perhaps this could be due to the lack of teacher’s preparation and
insufficient resource materials in preparing the curriculum. Chapman (1969)
asserted that among the obstacles to creating an effective of art appreciation
goals are lack of teacher’s preparation and insufficient resource materials in
preparing the curriculum that should be helpful for the art teachers. Conant
(1965) also explained that only 25% of the schooling has a proper curriculum
guide in art education, however the majority of them were obsolete and
redundant. This explains why only a few art teachers deliver sufficient
guidance in planning and presenting art appreciation and art experience to
their students. The little substantiation to support this issue has been enhanced
over the recent years (as cited in Mittler, 1980).
Research Objectives
Resolutions of the research adapt to the following moves and they are:
a. To explore the models of art appreciation
b. To identify the related theories of art appreciation
c. To investigate the connection between art appreciation theories with
aesthetic experience
Findings
Upon analyzing the related models and theories of art appreciation for
students to achieve an aesthetic experience, several findings were made and
they are namely:
Implication toward Theory

The findings of this research have proven to strengthen the cognitive skills.
Art appreciation theories introduced by Feldman, Broudy and Mittler have
91
the potential to enhance appreciation of artists’ works and students’ studio art
production which has been an issue in the visual communication subject and
in art education in general. The incorporation of formalism theories by Bell
and Fry found most essential terminology to be incorporated in the learning
module for classroom learning and experience by Dewey. Parker’s theory
found to be the enlightenment that are in the form of classes of elements in
experience and to combine to create a tangible meaning of the experience of
art for students. All these relevant theories were able to be used in developing
the teaching model and at the same time it was a helpful material for the
lecturer to guide the students to develop their cognitive skills or enhance
their thinking skills. It is found to be the significant component and strategy
in visual communication subject.
Research Contribution towards Art Education Body of Knowledge

The main goal of this research is to develop a comprehensive concept of
implementation of art appreciation through visual communication subject.
Following is the summary of the model:
Figure 1.2.
Art appreciation teaching model for undergraduate level.
Through literature review, very little research used art appreciation

incorporating art vocabulary to enhance students’ cognitive skill in art
education programs. The introduction to this new teaching model is found
to be a method of problem solving, improvisation and innovation. The
contribution of knowledge specialized in visual communication, obtained
through the research findings using the quantitative methods. This method
is strong enough to justify the effectiveness of the art appreciation teaching
model from the research findings as follows:
92
Research Contribution towards Evaluation in Teaching Visual

Communication
The art appreciation teaching model emphasizes the evaluation in teaching
visual communication to stress on students’ active learning. Moreover, the
purpose is to have a deeper understanding to learn effectively in the classroom.
Cooperative learning and guided based learning have been shown through
this module to increase students’ higher-order thinking and problem solving.
The goal of the module is to offer resources to lecturers which will allow
them to transform their classrooms into active, student-centered learning
environments. The module has covered several topics from the lecture classes
and provides active learning activities that guided students to develop their
cognitive skill. This new paradigm for teaching recognizes that knowledge
is constructed, discovered and extended by students as they interact with
their environment. The lecturer is important in the learning process as he or
she creates conditions which support and encourage students to construct
meaning.
Preparation of Conceptual Framework for Instructional Approach

The conclusive findings of this research indicated that the majority of art
educators agreed that they are facing problems related to art appreciation.
They emphasized too much on studio art production and do not have
proper material in preparing a teaching model at undergraduate level. This
conceptual framework has two important components namely cognitive
skill and psychomotor skill for students to gain learning experience. So,
this conceptual framework can be applied to any other art subjects such as
drawing, photography, history of art and design, typography, graphic design,
illustration/cartoon, computer graphic and animation. Lecturers can develop
their own classroom instruction material based on this conceptual framework.
The only difference here is that each subject would have its own art vocabulary
so the lecturer can adjust this framework to suit the subject content.
This conceptual framework was developed based on the issue
specifically to solve the problems encountered in teaching art appreciation.
By integrating the two skills, this conceptual framework will help lecturers
resolve any issue pertaining to art appreciation. This conceptual framework
was formed through cognitive-based learning and such concept was discussed
in the literature review. Therefore, this conceptual framework should be used
in teaching diploma and undergraduate level graphic design and multimedia
programs.
93
Conclusion
The developed art appreciation teaching model in the visual communication
subject for the purpose of teaching art appreciation was designed to enhance
a small part of the current curriculum. Cognitive learning strategies are
effective instruments in helping students with learning problems. Learning
is a complex task requiring students to improve any shortcomings in terms of
cognitive skills—the higher order thinking skills comprising critical, logical,
reflective, metacognitive and creative thinking are also a requirement set
by the Ministry of Education (MOE). Learning needs mental effort; good
learners both strategic and poor, eventually improved themselves which
means learning occurs. The quality of the teaching model and its expectations
for learning and measurable level of understanding enhances their cognitive
learning point.
The use of cognitive strategies can increase the efficiency of learners
who approach a learning task. Finally the framework is to improve the teaching
of art appreciation at undergraduate level. Art appreciation has always been
the highest goal of art education and one of the powerful rationalizations for
art’s equivalent addition in the curriculum lies in its possession to cultivate
such appreciation. The introduction of this art appreciation teaching model
provides students with a higher stage of civilization or enlightenment,
expands their imagination, generates their successful communication abilities
and provides students with instruments for producing critical options and
assessments. In reality, the fourth contribution provided students with
instruments for producing critical options and assessments that were found
to be the foundation to the other three aspects.
References
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Mittler, G. A. (1980). Learning to look/looking to learn: A proposed approach

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ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING: WHY PROMOTING

LEARNER AUTONOMY IS DIFFICULT

renukasivam@um.edu.my
Abstract
Assessment for Learning (AfL) is an assessment process embedded
within the regular teaching and learning discourse to inform
and improve student learning by monitoring their progress and
encouraging learner autonomy. This article focuses on learner
autonomy in the context of AfL. Learner autonomy is a process of
discovery that advocates students, incrementally, to be responsible
to take ownership of their own learning. Teachers play a vital role
in encouraging and facilitating learner autonomy among their
students. However, teachers find it difficult to implement learner
autonomy within their regular classroom assessment practices
because it requires them to rethink their classroom traditions,
their beliefs about teaching and learning and their relationships
with their students. Teachers’ epistemological beliefs, pressures
of summative examinations, unrealistic breadth and depth of the
externally imposed curriculum, misconceptions with regards to
AfL and power balance issues among teachers and students are
some of the dilemmas that teachers face when promoting learner
autonomy. Three strategies are suggested to help teachers promote
learner autonomy in their classrooms. First, it would be easier for
teachers to embed learner autonomy within their regular lessons
if teachers reconceptualized AfL as a teaching approach rather
than an evaluative one; second, teachers may utilize teaching
approaches that favor incremental power depletion of teachers
and third, teachers should engage in contemporary professional
development that supports and guides them in their quest of
promoting learner autonomy in their classrooms.
97
International prominence of Assessment for Learning (AfL) should be

credited to the seminal review of research on formative assessment practices
undertaken by Black and Wiliam (1998a) that showed formative assessment
practices resulted in significant improvement of student achievement at all
grade levels, all types of students and worldwide. Formative assessment
is conceptualized as an ongoing process engaged by teachers and students
in order to gauge student understanding, and information gained from this
process serve as feedback to modify current and to enhance future directions
in teaching and learning (Dixson & Worrell, 2016; Young & Jackman, 2014).
According to Black and Wiliam (1998b), the assessment process becomes
formative when teachers use the evidence to adapt their teaching to meet
student needs. Many researchers have expressed concern regarding this
conceptualization of formative assessment because it seems to limit the
utilization of feedback to only the teachers, and not much is mentioned about
student involvement in this process (Frey & Schmitt, 2007; Klenowski, 2009;
Sambell, McDowell, & Montgomery, 2013).
To show active student involvement, Assessment for Learning (AfL)
was introduced (Swaffield, 2011). Willis (2011) defined AfL “as evaluative
practices within the regular flow of teaching and learning with the purpose
of informing and improving student learning to enhance learner autonomy”
(p. 401). Coined by Holec in 1981, ‘learner autonomy’ means learners
having the capacity and awareness to regulate their own learning. Learner
autonomy gives students the freedom to make choices about the direction
of their learning, so they have greater influence on their learning outcomes
(Littlewood, 1997; Nakata, 2014; Tassinari, 2012). In the AfL context, learner
autonomy refers to students acquiring knowledge and skills on self- and peer-
assessment strategies (Black & Wiliam, 2009). An autonomous learner who
has acquired the knowledge and skills on self- and peer-assessment would
be able to look at a piece of work or a learning context, and to evaluate the
level of that current piece of work/learning context in relation to the specific
or standard learning goals or criteria. The student is then able to assess the
quality of the piece of work and learning context and take the necessary
actions to revise and improve on it accordingly (Andrade & Valtcheva, 2009;
Spiller, 2012).
Teachers can make students understand and acquire learner autonomy
in the assessment process by facilitating activities where students are engaged
in analyzing marking schemes or scrutinizing exemplars of previous students’
work (Blair & McGinty, 2013; Wiliam & Thompson, 2007). When students
have experiences of undertaking these kinds of activities they are able to
formulate success criteria for themselves (Black & Wiliam, 2009). Students
98
are able to recognize success criteria because they are actively participating
in dialogs, initiating and contributing to discussions; feedback actively
received by students from these discussions act as stimulus for reflection
and metacognitive processes (Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006). As such,
autonomous learners are able to evaluate their own and others’ work, identify
strengths and weaknesses, and make suggestions for improvements (Dam
& Legenhausen, 2011). These evaluative practices not only support student
learning but also assist students in taking ownership of their learning and
eventually to become autonomous learners (Cowie, 2005; James, 2006).
Giving students autonomy does not mean that teachers completely
transfer all control and decisions to them. Teachers’ roles in this process
are vital as students collaborate with their teachers to gain some levels of
autonomy (Zou, 2011). Therefore, learner autonomy is a process of discovery
that advocates students, incrementally, to be responsible to take ownership
of their own learning and to look upon learning as a lifelong process (Jacobs
& Farrell, 2001; Zou, 2011). However, learner autonomy is not always an
innate trait. While in some students there is a natural drive to take control of
their own learning, in some others who are not naturally autonomous some
kind of intervention aimed at promoting learner autonomy must be present.
According to Littlewood (1997), the former is known as proactive autonomy
and is generally associated with students from the Western countries. The
latter is known as reactive autonomy and is prevalent among students in the
Eastern regions. Therefore, it is imperative for teachers, especially in the
Eastern regions, to provide their students with an awareness of how to think
and how to learn to lead them to learning independency. Teachers who present
themselves as facilitators of student learning and possess supportive attitudes
are usually better at creating opportunities for encouraging learner autonomy
(Clark, 2015). The success rate of learner autonomy implementation in the
AfL context depends largely on the teachers as well as the teacher-student
relationships (Little, 1995; Willis, 2011).
Conceptualizing Learner Autonomy in the Context of Assessment for

Learning (AfL)
Historically, AfL has been conceptualized from a cognitive-constructivist
perspective (Willis, 2011). In this paradigm, the learner autonomy concept
would require teachers to focus on cognitive processes to make students
become more of an expert and to develop expertise in self-assessment
strategies. Self-assessment is a metacognitive process where teachers
explicitly make students aware of the self-assessment strategies. These
strategies include students making judgment of their own work (self-monitor),
99
then identifying disparities between their current and desired performance and
lastly, diagnose and implement further learning activities for enhancing their
understanding or skills (Ramnarain, 2010; Spiller, 2012; Young & Jackman,
2014). Teachers inspire these competencies and skills by asking students
questions that focus on self-evaluating and self-monitoring skills (e.g., “What
do you think can be done to improve this work?” or “Good, the ideas are
developing. So how do you want to move forward?”). By facilitating these
metacognitive practices, teachers are slowly enabling the students to share and
eventually take up more of the responsibilities of learning and assessment;
hence creating autonomous learners (Buhagiar, 2007; Chappuis, 2005; Kay,
Li, & Fekete, 2007). Thus, teachers’ role is to encourage students to monitor
and make thoughtful judgements of their thinking as well as to explicitly
identify strategies that could lead to improved understanding (McMillan &
Hearn, 2008).
In recent years, AfL has been reconceptualized from a socio-cultural
perspective (Willis, 2010). Socio-cultural perspective draws the concept of
learning from social constructivism (Vygotsky, 1978) and the idea of situated
learning (Lave & Wenger, 1991). From the socio-cultural perspective, learning
is no longer an individual act but is a dialectical and cultural set of practices
because all learning involves interaction with one’s context (objects, people,
their words and ideas). This requires teachers to recalibrate their teaching
focus, from teaching as an individual cognitive acquisition to teaching as
an on-going student participation in cultural practices (Sfard, 1998; Willis,
2007). Giving autonomy in a sociocultural perspective means teachers must
also guide students on how to participate with others and to acknowledge the
importance of a cultural sense of what is ‘right-or-wrong’ that would allow
their students to participate socially in the learning process (Willis, 2007).
Therefore, to encourage learner autonomy teachers must devise learner-
centered classroom environments where knowledge is socially constructed,
students are actively participating in their learning, group work where trust
and cooperation among group members are evident and a safe learning
environment where feedback and evaluation of learning are provided in a
nonthreatening manner (McMillan & Hearn, 2008). In addition, teachers
must also practice flexibility as they bestow their students with choices on
what and how to learn, as well as ample opportunities to evaluate their own
and others’ learning (Spiller, 2012). Thus, within the context of AfL, peer-
assessment becomes the strategy to stimulate learner autonomy; as students
take ownership of their learning as a social enterprise where students engage
in dialogs and negotiate learning outcomes collectively (Black, Harrison,
Lee, Marshall & Wiliam, 2004; Leahy, Lyon, Thompson, & Wiliam, 2005).
100
Why is Encouraging Learner Autonomy in the Classroom Difficult to

Achieve?
Studies have shown that teachers find it difficult to implement learner
autonomy in the AfL context because it requires them to rethink their
classroom traditions, their beliefs about teaching and learning and their
relationships with their students (Buhagiar, 2007; Tan & Leong, 2014; Thanh-
Pham & Renshaw, 2014). Drummond (2008) highlighted that assessment
practices usually implemented in the classroom reflect teachers’ understanding
of learning and what is valued within the social and cultural context. For
example, a behaviorist teacher would view knowledge as objective and
stable. These teachers also believe that students’ learning abilities are innate
qualities and the best way for learning to occur is to transmit the knowledge
to the students (Murphy, Sharp, & Whitelegg, 2006). Therefore, behaviorist
teachers would view themselves as authoritative and administer usually
teacher-centered assessment activities and hold convergent classroom
discussions. Subsequently, these teachers tend to deprive students of any
teacher independent exchange opportunities (Brown, Kennedy, Fok, Chen,
& Yu, 2009).
Teachers, especially those working in high visibility summative
assessment environments, face external pressures that may prevent them
from encouraging student autonomy. In such environments, the spotlight is
generally on the results of the summative assessments but these assessments
primarily focus on low-level outcomes which mainly require memorization
and knowledge reproduction (Berry, 2011). Since these summative
examination results will be used to select students for elite schools and for the
limited number of university places, teachers feel accountable for students’
success and thus are not motivated to encourage learner autonomy as they
perceive it as a waste of time with little benefit for their students’ future.
Therefore, teachers are discouraged from deploying AfL and especially
learner autonomy, even though learner autonomy can develop sophisticated
knowledge and skills (Brown et al., 2009).
The concept of learner autonomy does not sync well with an externally
imposed curriculum which usually covers a very wide content matter
simultaneously demanding teachers to complete the curriculum within a
limited time (Clark, 2015). Even among those teachers who appreciate
the potential of AfL to positively influence student achievement, there
are concerns that AfL demands too much class time to integrate and its
implementation limits the amount of curriculum teachers can cover (Marshall
& Drummond, 2006). Carless (2005) noted that teachers believed AfL was
good in theory, but deemed it impractical to implement. Subsequently, many
101
teachers may express intentions seemingly aligned with AfL principles;

however their AfL implementation practices are usually conducted in a very
literal and procedural manner (Marshall & Drummond, 2006).
Teachers’ misconceptions about the fundamental principles of AfL may
also prevent them from achieving learner autonomy. For example, Hargreaves
(2005) examined teachers’ conceptions on AfL and found that many are still
holding on to the ‘first-generation’ definition of formative assessment. In
this definition, assessment is an activity teachers do to obtain feedback from
students to make more systematic improvements and guidance for future
classroom instructions. Having this misconception would then have teachers,
to some extent, putting the burden of student learning on themselves as
they feel it is their responsibility to help students with their learning (Black
& Wiliam, 2003). Teachers who have this misconception would generally
play down the students’ roles in assessing their own and peers’ learning and
even discourage students from using their assessment results to guide future
learning (McMillian, Hellsten, & Klinger, 2010). Another misconception
that may prevent AfL is the idea that sufficient resources are lacking to
successfully implement it. In reality, AfL integration requires very few
additional resources (Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall, & Wiliam, 2003) as the
majority of classroom strategies associated with AfL focus on teacher-student
interactions rather than on using sophisticated resources or technologies.
Teachers’ lack of experience in terms of learner autonomy may be a
challenge to implementing this strategy in their classrooms (Black et al.,
2003; Hargreaves, 2012). These teachers have been in a system where they
were constantly exposed to traditional learning experiences which required
knowledge acquisition through teacher-led textbook activities. Thus, when
these teachers are expected to provide learning opportunities which facilitate
learner autonomy and learning choices, their experiences offer little help.
For successful AfL integration, teachers would need to experience positive
instances for it to influence their practices (Harrison, 2005). Currently,
teachers widely base their use of AfL on their perceptions rather than on
positive experiences of AfL. This notion may be a contributing factor for the
low adoption rates of AfL in the classroom.
Practising learner autonomy especially from a socio-cultural perspective
is challenging for teachers because not only would teachers need to regulate
classroom activities that can encourage cognitive enhancement but they
also need to mediate and help students learn as a community (Perrenoud,
1998). The challenges for these teachers are two-fold as they would need to
infuse both, to encourage social participation as a classroom discourse and
102
acquisition of knowledge (Willis, 2011). Moreover, they need to maintain

these facets in each and every lesson (Sfard, 1998). Often only highly
competent teachers are able to recognize the importance of encouraging
learning and participation simultaneously through opportunities for peer
learning, in a lively environment of shared ownership, and when these
are done systematically and as routines they are able to impart autonomy
successfully (Willis, 2011).
Learner autonomy requires a shift in power balance. AfL shifts the
power balance from having power over students to sharing power with them
(Harjunen, 2012; Wall, 2012). While learning is occurring in the context of
AfL, students will be practising strategies of self- and peer-assessment and
for this enterprise to succeed, students would need to be able to share power
and take control of learning and assessment processes that have traditionally
rested with the teacher. Not all teachers are able to handle these changes in
power balance (Black & Wiliam, 2006). In giving students autonomy in their
learning, teachers would need to help students to negotiate the teacher’s
“discourse of power” (Munns & Woodward, 2006). This “discourse of power”
contains five key areas that previously were held by the teacher: knowledge,
ability, control, place and voice. This division of power becomes fuzzy when
students acquire autonomy; thus reconstructing the assessment relationships
to share ownership among teacher and students should take place (Willis,
2007). This is not a simple task and many teachers and students are unwilling
to come to the roundtable (Wall, 2012).
Teachers who advocate learner autonomy may face students who
find this approach does not fit with their own motivations and aspirations
(Chappuis, 2005). These students still associate learning with being provided
with facts and data. Subsequently, not all students want this power and may
choose to adopt an approach known as learned dependence. Yorke (2003)
defines learned dependence as a practice where students learn to rely on
the teacher “to say what has to be done and does not seek to go beyond the
boundaries that believes to be circumscribing the task” (p. 489). Promoting
learner autonomy among students in Eastern regions of the world may not be
popular. This is because learner autonomy often requires students to undertake
verbal interchanges, such as giving one’s opinion or challenging another’s
point of view and these actions seem to clash with students’ aspirations where
they strive to establish harmonious relationships and avoid conflicts (Chen
& Starosta, 1997; Thanh-Pham; 2013). Therefore, teachers who work within
this cultural backdrop and with these kinds of students are less likely to adopt
learner autonomy strategies.
103
Overcoming Learner Autonomy Challenges

In the previous section, challenges and barriers preventing teachers from
enhancing learner autonomy in their classrooms were discussed. Some of
these challenges stemmed from how teachers’ view themselves professionally,
misconceptions about the core ideas of AfL and the type of students that sway
their practices toward learner dependency. The concepts of sharing learning
power and responsibility with students are relatively new to teachers and
moreover, when asked to implement in unfavorable external pressures, many
teachers are unable to accept these challenges and overcome the barriers.
Studies have shown that teachers who are most successful in implementing
learner autonomy are those who take accountability for what happens in their
classrooms (Marshall & Drummond, 2006; Willis, 2011). These teachers
generally do not criticize external circumstances or student characteristics.
Furthermore, these teachers embed AfL principles throughout their lessons
rather than employ bolt-on techniques at definite segments during their lessons.
So how do we help teachers who have not embraced the concept of
learner autonomy to practise it in their classrooms? Willis (2011) provides
a solution when she suggests that teachers be helped to reconceptualize AfL
as an approach to teaching rather than a series of prescribed assessment
steps. This can be done by making teachers aware that AfL strategies can be
embedded into teaching and learning sessions and that supplying students
with autonomy is a process (Dooner et al., 2010). In Willis’s (2011) study,
one teacher realized that students value the process of achieving autonomy
if they already have a positive relationship with their teacher. This positive
relationship can be achieved if teachers share their own learning or life
experiences and link it to what their students are currently learning. Rather
than teaching autonomy as a ‘bolt on’ activity that is pushed upon the students,
learner autonomy can be embodied with the regular teaching and learning as
a social enterprise of mutual engagement (Willis, 2011).
If power balance is the issue teachers face regarding learner autonomy, it
is then desirable for the teachers to introduce this concept in small increments.
The 3E Framework (Enhance-Extend-Empower) allows teachers to let go
of their power over students gradually (Smyth, Bruce, Fotheringham, &
Mainka, 2011). For example, teachers want to create a scoring rubric with
their students. What would they do in the 3E Framework, so that eventually
students are able to take responsibility for their own learning? In the enhance
stage of creating a scoring rubric, teachers can practice learner autonomy by
make small adjustments to their practice to give students more responsibility
for their own learning. The teacher still takes the leading role but allows
104
students to give some input. In the extend stage, teacher would release more
reins to give opportunities for students to make key decisions about how and
what they want to learn or be assessed on. In creating the scoring rubric, the
teacher becomes the facilitator. Lastly, in the empowerment stage, teachers
then empower students to take full responsibility over their learning by
re-designing learning activities to ensure that learners’ needs and interests
drive the learning experience. In the context of the scoring rubric, teacher
may give students the option of whether they would like to be assessed using
a scoring rubric they have created themselves or even giving them choices
to use different methods to evaluate their work. Through this process, the
teachers have learned to provide autonomy to their students.
Contemporary flexible and productive professional development
programs should be designed to upgrade teachers’ knowledge and practices
on AfL strategies. Professional development models should focus on teachers
as learners while promoting collaborative, contextualized and skilled-based
learning (Darling-Hammond, Wei, Andree, Richardson, & Orphanos, 2009;
DeLuca, Luu, Sun, & Klinger, 2012). According to DeLuca et al. (2012),
contemporary professional development approaches suggest that teachers
may be able to learn more from each other with guidance from external
resources and support rather than attending these programs remotely where
knowledge is downloaded to them. Teachers are able to cope better with
uncertainties and difficulties when implementing autonomy if these programs
are designed such that teachers address authentic problems related to their
daily experiences. Similarly, fostering a collaborative atmosphere based on
mutual trust, respect and support as teachers work together to solve practice-
based problems will develop the concept of “communities of practice” that can
help reduce frustrations as teachers become experts in creating environments
that support learner autonomy (MacPhail, Patton, Parker, & Tannehill, 2014;
Pharo, Davison, McGregor, Warr, & Brown, 2014).
Conclusion
Successful implementation of learner autonomy in schools necessitates an
environment having “teachers who are willing to let go and learners who
are willing to take hold” (Kumaravadivelu, 2003, p. 144). Implementing
learner autonomy is vital because students must be autonomous and lifelong
learners to live successfully in the future. Dewey said that “if we teach
today as we taught yesterday, we rob our children of tomorrow.” Thus, it is
imperative that teachers consciously promote learner autonomy by creating
learning environments that make the goals and aspirations of learning explicit
105
and engineer classroom discussions that focus on social interactions and

sharpening metacognitive skills. We would not want to rob our children of
their future!
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DEMONSTRATION AND MENTAL IMAGERY ON THE

ACQUISITION OF MOTOR SKILL IN
PRIMARY SCHOOLS
Olubunmi O.Sodiya* & Syed Kamaruzaman Syed Ali (PhD)

olubunmisodiya@siswa.um.edu.my
Abstract
The teaching of fundamental motor skill in primary school is an
essential part of pupil’s development in knowledge, skills and
behaviours that will enable them to maintain good health and live
a healthy lifestyle. The role of physical activity in ensuring that
pupils are physically and mentally fit. Nowadays, teachers are
confronted with different factors that are affecting the teaching
of fundamental motor skills in schools, factors which are external
and internal factors such as teacher’s expertise in the field of
teaching of physical education, lack of understanding of teaching
theories and approaches need to facilitate acquisition of motor
skills, environment factor, lack of facilities and equipment. The
aim of this paper is to contribute to a better understanding of
demonstration and mental imagery as teaching strategies that can
accelerate motor skills acquisition in primary schools and review
past empirical studies on demonstration and mental imagery
in the acquisition of motor skills and the relationship between
fundamental motor skills learning and learning theories which
are framework of how students absorbed, processed, and retained
information during practice.
Keywords: Demonstration, Imagery, Acquisition, Teachers,

pupils, Skill
INTRODUCTION
Every functional activity of a human life involves some motor skills, motor
skills are movement and motion, it can be understood as an act of that has
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a goal to achieve that need voluntary muscle movements such as walking,

dancing, eating, running, driving a car, riding a bicycle, jumping, etc. Motor
skills are categorised into two group’s namely gross motor skills and fine
motor skills. Gross motor skills are involved in movement and coordination
of the arms, legs, and other large body parts. Fine motor skills involve control
over the smaller muscles in hands and feet. Fundamental motor and sports
skills are introduced to children in school during physical education classes
such as soccer, hockey, rugby, swimming, dancing, netball, volleyball.
Learning of motor skills knows as motor learning which is defined as a set
of rules or schemas to perform a skill and the whole procedure has to be
undertaken through the learning process. When learning takes place there
must be a change in the behaviour of an individual, improves performance,
but before performance can be improved there must be lots of practice. Let’s
look at the soccer game as an example of gross motor skills , the majority
of private schools include soccer game in the school CCA co-curricular
activities every year because children of both genders have developed a high
interest in the game of soccer, Children either participate playing soccer in
school or at a soccer academy within their various communities. A research
study at the Indiana High School Athletic Association (IHSAA) reveals that
coaches/physical education teachers play an important role in the teaching
of needed skills for children to learn, improve, and better their performance
in the game of soccer. There were reviews on the acquisition of sports skills
on the children’s stage by stage progress of skills learning, and the important
role of the physical education teachers in facilitating the progressive learning
process. Hodges, N. J., & Franks, I. M. (2002) explained how instruction,
demonstration and visualisation are the best approaches to the teaching of
motor skills. Fitts, P. M., & Posner, M. I. (1967) propose three principle stages
of skill acquisition, namely the cognitive, associative, and autonomous stage.
Physical education teachers, therefore, need a wide range of skills knowledge
in order to accelerate the learning process to guide students through these
three stages. Hall, C. R., Buckolz, E., & Fishburne, G. J. (1992) in their study
explained the relationship between imagery and the learning, acquisition, and
performance of motor skills. It was stated that imagery is intricately linked
with motor behaviour.
DEMONSTRATION
The demonstration is the most common method used by coaches/teachers
to convey information to learners. It is said to be more effective than pure
verbal information. The demonstration approach is an important process
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in learning, to help students learn correctly and to making the learning

effective children need some sort of reference information a demonstration
from the teacher in order to create a feedback response they observed during
the demonstration. It recommended that if teachers are not comfortable or
unable to demonstrate the specific skill with this approach, they can select
one of the most capable pupils to take him/her through the skill, action,
and then have him/her perform for the group. According to Coerver (2014)
nevertheless, guidance for students is needed throughout to ensure effective
learning. Teachers need to understand student’s needs and support them with
adequate guidance to improve their skills for better performance to meet these
needs, it’s a recommendation that demonstration approach should be applied
in during the practice to give the pupils a clear picture of how the specific
skill is performed. The demonstration approach is universally accepted
method of teaching motor skills because the pupil’s observation and have
a visual concept of the skill when it’s performed by the teacher with verbal
explanation during practice.
Mental Imagery
Feel it , see it , hear it and do it , skills learning is connected to the brain in the
aspect of new information input to process and produce better performance
.In other words, for skills learning and a cognitive mechanism such as mental
imagery , mental practice are the key to the effective way of learning sports
skills. Imagery, visualisation, mental practice and mental rehearsal have been
used interchangeably. Researchers, sports coaches, and athletes describe
mental imagery as a powerful training technique. Taylor, J., & Wilson, G. S.
(2005). Mental imagery is referred to as visualising, hearing the sound, and
experiencing the so- called ‘feel’ of the respective action through imagination.
Recently, there has been a success story about the use of ‘game sense theory’
as an effective way of acquiring and improving sports skills. However, limited
literature exists to date on the effects of this application in the acquisition
of soccer skills. On the other hand, the use of mental imagery for skill
acquisition is a new trend, but researchers, teachers and coaches need to do
more investigation on mental imagery as a teaching approach for primary
school pupils. Childhood development stage is a key period when changes
occur as a child grows to be physically and mentally fit, emotionally sound,
and ready to learn. At the kindergarten and primary school level, children
acquire numbers of indispensable experiences that help their growth process,
which is stored in their memory as a background knowledge or experiences
which can also recall through various methods of learning.
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It has been largely used by sports psychologists, physical education

teachers, sports instructors, and coaches as a tool for improving learning
and performance of the children during acquisition of motor skills .It helps
the pupils in imaging the skill or part of the skill during mental practice, it’s
known as the seeing of the mind, the representation in a person’s mind of the
physical outside world of the person. Mental imagery improves the acquisition
of motor skills of the pupils and helps in performing a well-learned skill.
Performing of any new motor skill always depends on learning; it requires
the accumulation of new knowledge to be retained in the long-term memory
and can be retrieved back to working memory for practice and performance.
There is much empirical evidence on the use of mental imagery, mental
imagery can help pupils to acquire many skills such as learning how to play
musical instruments, sports skills, and reading, listening, speaking and writing
skills and also to improve pupils drawing skills and solving maths problems.
Teachers, instructors and coaches need to implement the use of mental
imagery in their classes during teaching and learning process. Imagery is a
skill that helps learners to acquire, improve, motivate and develop confidence
performing other skills. Below in figure 1 shows the diagram of an applied
model of mental imagery use in sport Martin, K. A., Moritz, S. E., & Hall,
C. R. (1999).
Learning theories on demonstration and mental imagery
Figure 1.
An applied model of mental Imagery use in sport.
114
There are various educational theories of teaching and learning, several

experimental work and conceptual frameworks have been done in the past till
now to explained children’s nature of learning. All these Learning theories
and model has been proposed by different educational psychologists as a
framework describing how information is absorbed, processed, and retained
during learning. Some of the theories are the cognitive learning theory,
classification of educational objectives by Benjamin Bloom which was known
as “Bloom’s taxonomy “Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (1956). Albert
Bandura (1977) the social cognitive theory and self-efficacy which proposed
that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can
occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence
of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement and the learning model of
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) which proposed that human memory has three
separate components that help us to learn, stored and recall .In assessing the
role of mental imageryand demonstration in the acquisition of motor skills
in primary school different roles of mental imagery and demonstration were
reviewed, such as the development of mental imagery, the use of imagery
to develop physical and mental skill and the role of mental imagery to learn
and master sports skills. The implimentation of demonstration, implication
of wrong demonstration and effects of demonstration as a teaching method.
Applying mental imagery and demonstration during acquisition of motor
skills can enhance intrinsic motivation and student’s self-confidence during
practice and performance of the specific skill with an opportunity to create
new experiences. Self-confidence can be defined as the feeling of certainty
that you are hundred percent equal to the task at hand, freedom from doubt;
belief in yourself and your abilities. At the primary school level, the majority
of students learning sports skills are considered a novice because they don’t
have any idea of how well to practice and perform the sports skills, this is the
point where the teacher /coach has to play their role by using mental imagery
approach to help the students gain confidence practising and performing
the skill and it all falls under teaching learning of new behaviour. Aligning
the use of mental imagery and demonstration with Dr Benjamin Bloom’s
Taxonomy (1956) which is used when designing educational, training, and
learning processes. There are three domains of learning activities according
to Bloom, B. S. (1956) Cognitive: mental skills (knowledge) Affective:
growth in feelings or emotional areas (attitude or self) Psychomotor: manual
or physical skills (skills),a taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing,
the new domain which is a revision of bloom’s taxonomy of educational
objectives can be seen below in Table 2. The stages of learning activities,
115
which can be applied when using mental imagery and demonstration for
pupils at the primary school Level to acquire motor skills.
Table 2.
Bloom’s Taxonomy for teaching and learning
Bloom’s Taxonomy for Mental Imagery and Demonstration
teaching learning and
Assessment
Create Teachers will design lesson plan, construct an
approach using video to create a vivid image of
the skill or demonstrate the skill for the students
to see the physical movement of how the skill is
performed.
Evaluate Teachers need to make decision support and praise
the students because at that point the students will
also evaluate the information they observed during
teacher’s demonstration or from the video .There
is no right or wrong at this stage.
Analyse Students try to connect their ideas, analysing the
specific skill image or physical movement.
Apply Students will apply the information observed,
students mimic teachers demonstration and mental
image.
Understand Teachers give feedback and correction to student’s
skill practice for an understanding of the specific
skill.
Remember Practice correction and teacher’s feedback will
give students the opportunity to store the correct
information on how the skill is performed in the
long term memory and students can recall during a
rehearsal for a performance of the skill
Researchers report that children in general don’t learn the same way.
Some are faster learners than others; some are able learn on their own
through trial and error while others wait for adult instructions before they can
understand the movement or skill, and progress. During practice, students
only learn if the demonstration method is meaningful, arouses their interest
and can then ‘hold’ their interest. This is very important because it is the
motivational factor to increases the desire for the students to keep attending
the physical education classes and look forward to learn more . It has been
said that achieving excellence in any domain as an individual, one has to
spend time trying to improve performance through practice-related activities.
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According to Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993), to

make practice more meaningful and having the full attention of students, the
teacher for the training session has to show command and expertise of the
skill technique at hand. Throughout daily practice students learn and gain
the understanding of the game; if this is not well staged, the chances of an
achieving excellence is jeopardized. The teachers act as the role models via
the physical demonstration so the students are able to follow along and are
able to mimic the respective movement or skill.
Teachers are therefore the most influential factor besides the students,
the setting of the teaching and learning environment should be positive and
condusive environment and the access to available equipment. According to
Williams and Hodges (2005) although hereditary factors may always play a
certain role in shaping an individual’s response, skills are highly modifiable
and adaptable to practice and the students need to engage in practice to
develop and refine their skills. It is possible that the development of personal
expertise is dependent upon a complex formula between hereditary and correct
environmental factors such as parental support and guidance by teachers in
addition to the individual’s commitment and motivation to practice. Starkes,
J. L., & Ericsson, K. A. (2003) stated that even though students may bring
positive attitudes to the training scenario, they can be termed ‘raw material’,
whereby teachers take on the significant task to help redefine skills, provide
encouragement and motivation through their methods of teaching. In
addition, the availability of access to equipment, and foremost the conducive
environment are key to children’s skill development, improvement and better
performance.
CONCLUSION
In this article, we have presented the role of mental imagery and demonstration
in the acquisition of fundamental motor skills and how it can be applied by
physical education teachers and coaches in primary schools with the use of
Bloom’s Taxonomy learning ,teaching and assessment . We have elaborated
on the roles of learning theories, how children absorb information, process the
information and retain the information. The role of teachers as the facilitator
during the learning process, the importance of teaching pupils motor skills
in the primary school and the importance of motor skills to pupil’s lifestyle.
In addition, we reported some empirical literature on mental imagery
and demonstration, nevertheless, we hope this article can contribute to a better
understanding of mental imagery and demonstration as teaching strategies for
teachers to accelerate motor skills acquisition in primary schools. However,
more research is required for a better understanding of mental imagery and
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demonstration as effective teaching strategies for the acquisition of motor

skills in primary school.
REFERENCES
Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed
system and its control processes. Psychology of learning and motivation,
2, 89-195.
Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1977). Social learning theory.
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. Vol. 1: Cognitive
domain. New York: McKay, 20-24.
Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role
of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance.
Psychological review, 100(3), 363.
Fitts, P. M., & Posner, M. I. (1967). Human performance.
Hall, C. R., Buckolz, E., & Fishburne, G. J. (1992). Imagery and the
acquisition of motor skills. Canadian Journal of Sport Sciences.
Hodges, N. J., & Franks, I. M. (2002). Modeling coaching practice: The role
of instruction and demonstration. Journal of Sports Sciences, 20(10),
793-811.
Hodges, N. J., & Franks, I. M. (2002). Modeling coaching practice: the role
of instruction and demonstration. Journal of Sports Sciences) 793-811.
Horn, R. R., Williams, A. M., & Scott, M. A. (2002). Learning from
demonstrations: the role of visual search during observational learning
from video and point- light models. Journal of Sports Sciences, 20(3),
253-269.
Martin, K. A., Moritz, S. E., & Hall, C. R. (1999). Imagery use in sport: A
literature review and applied model. The sport psychologist.
Mensch, J., Crews, C., & Mitchell, M. (2005). Competing perspectives during
organizational socialization on the role of certified athletic trainers in
high school settings. Journal of athletic training, 40(4), 333.
Starkes, J. L., & Hodges, N. J. (1998). Team sports and the theory of deliberate
practice. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 20, 12-34.
Taylor, J., & Wilson, G. S. (2005). Applying sport psychology: Four
perspectives. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Weeks, D. L., & Kordus, R. N. (1998). Relative frequency of knowledge of
performance and motor skill learning. Research Quarterly for Exercise
and Sport, 69(3), 224-230.
Williams, A. M., & Hodges, N. J. (2005). Practice, instruction and skill
acquisition in soccer: Challenging tradition. Journal of Sports Sciences,
23(6), 637- 650.
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FRAMEWORK MATRIX: A STRUCTURED THEMATIC

ANALYSIS IN INITIAL STAGE OF MALAY TEXTILE
DESIGN IDEATION IN UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI
MARA, MALAYSIA
Rainal Hidayat Wardi*, Ruzaika Omar Basaree,

Maithreyi Subramaniam
Culture Centre
rainal@siswa.um.edu.my
Jaffri Hanafi
Abstract
Thematic analysis is an approach commonly used in qualitative
study through text and visual interpretations. Scholars such as
Braun Virginia and Victoria Clarke (2006) define the qualitative
thematic analysis as an analysis in qualitative research that
emphasizes, examines and records pattern or themes within the
data. However, in design discipline, the analysis is varied because
it merely uses visual representation. Initial ideation which was
collected in the earlier stage of the textile design process has
produced a certain quantity of ideas via creativity techniques
using brainstorming (Osborn, 1957) and mind mapping (Buzan,
1974). Later, these ideas were analyzed, categorized and
conceptualized through visual representation techniques. The
common techniques used are visual thematic representations
namely traditional mood board and concept board. Unfortunately,
there was a crucial process before producing mood board that
many of lecturers and students have overlooked. A proper design
thematic analysis procedure should be developed to avoid poor
selection of the design elements and imageries with actual design
goal(s). This concept paper is intended to propose an innovative
textile design thematic analysis framework that combines three
aspects of requirement, namely; 1) Braun and Clarke Thematic
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Analysis Procedure, 2) Framework Matrix Approach and, 3)

Structured Element of Design and Identity/Characteristics
(Semantic). These three constructs are designed to be cohered
as a conceptual framework. The main objective of this study is to
conceptualize thematic development procedures in order to help
textile design students to develop stronger thematic understanding
thus enable them to effectively conceptualize their design idea.
Keywords: Framework matrix, thematic analysis, Malay textiles

design ideation, semanti pattern
INTRODUCTION
Designing textiles are often related to the process of creating designs onto
fabrics. It deals with two-dimensional design with related imageries, design
elements and principles, repetitions, and compositions. There are two major
areas of textile namely interiors (soft furnishings, upholstery and carpets) and
clothing (fashion and specific function for industrial use). This will involve a
systematic design process that follows sequential procedures from ideation,
theme development, idea development and proposed textile products. Suzanne
(2008) stated that the field encompasses the actual pattern making while
supervising the production process. The most critical part of the process was
ideation, understanding and interpreting design theme.
This study is the continuation from previous researcher’s research
findings, which focused on textile design process and cognitive learning
strategy in Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Malaysia. The previous issue
in textile design process was about cognitive strategy that wasn’t designed
and implemented as part of the ideation procedure. Evidence proved that
the researcher’s research findings was ‘partially’ successful to solve ideation
issue due to certain circumstances. The main challenge was that the iterative
design process needs to be continually reflected not only in one process cycle.
Initial ideation was done in three cycles and to ensure consistent outputs
were not easy as it was very much dependent on the intervention strategy
and group commitment.
After generating a large number of ideas, the following process was to
develop a thematic understanding based on a set of generated ideas (verbs/
words) from the earlier stage of textile design ideation. At this stage, the
theme development process was emphasizing on Higher Order Thinking
Skills (HOTS) such as categorizing, synthesizing, analysis and evaluation.
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This effort needs innovative problem solving approach because it commonly

involves a concept of convergent thinking.
The existing approach for this stage was a random selection of
imageries without proper justification why and how the images, elements,
identity, icons, signs and symbols were selected. The decision was done
eventually by students’ self-preferences towards their most satisfactory
and convincing ideas. The needs of proper procedures towards the above
mentioned selections are crucially important in order to avoid poor selection
of imageries, irrelevant, inappropriate design theme and concept. A type
of convergent problem solving tool is needed at this point and should be
designed in order to have a proper thematic analysis format. The format is
still in qualitative approach and Framework Matrix is seen as a potential one
that can accommodate the concept of structured ideation in the framework.
This method is derived from Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) using NVIVO
text interpretation software.
Design Issue
The primary issue at this stage is the implementation of cognitive approaches
to develop thematic understandings in design ideation. Based on the above
discussion, traditional approaches to thematic solutions were only established
in self-preferences analysis of imageries and other elements. This type of
analysis drives to poor decision making thus creating inappropriate design
concept(s). The answer to this critical issue is to design a proper theme
analysis approach which covers planning, implementation and evaluation
of thematic analysis. The secondary issue is the needs of structured or
categorized elements as a guideline for ideation and thematic analysis.
Without the guidelines, most of the ideas were out of the context, thus
producing poor design concept.
Statement of Problem
The approach of idea generation in textile design was very much dependent
to the respective trainer/lecturer who was assigned to teach a design course.
The absence of a standard ideation procedure has caused various styles of
teaching approaches, which commonly derive from conventional practice. The
disadvantage of existing practice was seen in terms of poor decision- making
when choosing appropriate imageries and other related elements without
justification on why and how those imageries were selected. Eventually, the
initial ideas were totally out of the thematic context. (based on researcher’s
non-participant classroom observation, September 2015).
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The existing thematic analysis was also stagnantly conducted and

presented via mood boards with poor outcomes (visual and meaning). This
was because of its characteristic that limits the potential of emerging ideas
by straightforwardly inclosing it to the narrow framework.
The common issue faced by textile design students at this stage
was inability to i) categorize the ideas to specific categories, ii) make the
connection between the same and different elements, and iii) preserves the
identity and characteristic of the subject matter. The use of framework matrix
as a structured thematic analysis in teaching textile design has a great potential
to enhance students’ ability to develop thematic understandings thus solving
the design process related issue; therefore, an appropriate thematic analysis
should be developed at the initial stage of the textile design process and to
be implemented in teaching textile design.
Aim
The aim of this research is to conceptualize thematic development procedures
in order to help textile design students to develop stronger conceptual
understanding towards design project so that they could formulate and
rationalize their design idea better.
Objective
The objective of this research is to design a proper format for analyzing design
theme through the structured framework matrix with categorized design
elements and its identity that can be used as a standard thematic analysis for
all textile design courses.
Frame of References
The proposed framework matrix for this study was derived from two
qualitative data analysis method, namely Logical Framework Approach
(LFA) and Nvivo framework matrix. LFA has an identical approach with
Nvivo framework matrix in terms of a summarization of the data and a
rationale of the relationship in a specific structure. According to Jensen
(2010), LFA is a project design methodology that provides systematic
structure for identifying, planning and managing project. This method
was once developed in the United State for U.S Agency for International
Development (USAID) and being adopted/adapted by various international
agencies such as the Department for International Development (DFID) and
European Commission (EC).
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The approach empowers the fundamental components of a project

should be compactly summarized and acquires structure and rationale of
the relationship between project purpose and intended inputs, arranged
activities and anticipated outcomes. The adaptability for this approach is
encouraging creative thinking and also promotes participatory engagement
between respecting parties through the project life-cycle. The variation of
this approach is also known as Goal Oriented Project Planning (GOPP) or
Objective Oriented Project Planning (OOPP).
A Logical Framework (LFA) is a simple 4x4 matrix act as an instrument
to compactly describing the outcomes of the LFA project design process as
it summarizes in standard format:
i. What exercise will be conveyed out.
ii. What means/resources/inputs (human, technical, infrastructural, and
so forth.) would obliged.
iii. What potential problems could affect the success of the project.
iv. How the progress and ultimate success of the project will be measured
and verified.
LFA consists of four basic levels and four columns, each of which
relates to a specific crosscutting function as visualized in table 1.
Table 1:
Logical Framework Approach
Intervention Logic Objectively Sources Assumptions

Verifiable and Means
Indicator Verification
Overall Objectives
Specific Objective
Expected Results
Activities/Process
The Differences between LFA and Proposed Framework Matrix for

Thematic Analysis
LFA approach is explicitly convergence and very focus on its objective by
determining the objective(s) and expected outcome(s) as priority. It is also
providing a structure which consists of categorical variables as a guideline
for idea generation within the specific context.
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For design theme development, the proposed concept requires an

identical matrix approach as LFA, but in a different format and procedure. It
generates and assembles words/verbs for possible meaning (divergence) and
interpreting it accordingly to the suitability of the design theme (convergence).
The expected outcomes would be a meaningful factual statement results from
the text interpretation.
A thematic analysis approach is applied to various disciplines as a recent
study of the thematic analysis was from the field of Linguistic and Education
by Anna F. DeJarnette and Gloriana Gonzalez (2016). Their study was based
from a social semiotic perspective where the focus was on students’ use
language as fundamental to mathematical meaning making. They applied
thematic analysis introduced by Lemke (1988, 1990) to examine students’
use of geometric and contextual ideas while solving a geometry problem
that required them to determine the optimal location for a new grocery store
on a map of their local community. Students established semantic patterns
to connect the problem context to geometry. The groups differed in how
they used geometry in their discussion of the solution, in particular with
how students used distance to describe the location of a new grocery store.
Overall, students’ knowledge of the problem context served as a resource for
them to establish geometric meanings. Thematic analysis, which describes
the connections in students’ talk between out of school and discipline-specific
knowledge, highlights ways in which instruction can build upon students’
prior experiences for the purpose of learning in school.
The approach was also applied to computer science study. A research was
conducted by Teruel et.al (2016) which focusing on awareness interpretation
for collaborative computer games. According them, collaborative computer
games have evolved from single-player to massively multiplayer awareness-
demanding games, usually involving collaboration to achieve team goals.
As a consequence of such evolution, these players should be provided with
awareness information that enables them to perform collaborative tasks
with other team members. The objective of their research was the analysis
of current awareness interpretations in order to develop an awareness
interpretation that collects the awareness needs of such games.
The analysis was conducted by a step-by-step Thematic Analysis of
current interpretations that led them to extract the most relevant awareness
elements defined in existing interpretations. The developed awareness
interpretation was empirically evaluated by means of several surveys aimed
at assessing whether the implementation of the interpretation elements in a
game would improve the players’ enjoyment.
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As a result, the Thematic Synthesis Analysis concluded that none of

the current awareness interpretations can deal properly with collaborative
computer games, specifically due to collaboration and social and group
dynamics. This Thematic Synthesis Analysis led them to coin Gamespace
Awareness, a new awareness interpretation based on a combination of
the previously analyzed awareness interpretations, which is suitable for
collaborative computer games. The interpretation was positively evaluated
for two games, namely a first person shooter and a real-time strategy game.
Bloom Taxonomy Cognitive Domain and Convergence

Bloom’s taxonomy is a hierarchical model that classifies human cognitive
differences. The selection of this taxonomy model was based on several key
factors related to the thematic analysis. Based on the model, Higher Order
Thinking Skill (HOTS) consists of the action in analyzing, synthetizing
and evaluating. These action verbs are aligned with the process of thematic
analysis as illustrated in Figure 1. The idea of convergent thinking emerges
from HOTS as a thinking process or method to find an answer or particular
solution. According to Guilford (1967), convergent thinking allows individual
to use existing knowledge to the integration of logic and order to produce
a common idea or answer. Problem solving is made based on knowledge,
experience, rules, principles, theories, laws or existing formula. Chua Yan
Piaw (2004) stated that convergent thinking is focused to one answer,
simplifies various answers to a correct answer by logic. The implication of
Convergent Thinking is explained in the conceptual framework below.
Conceptual Model
The diagram explains the implementation concept of thematic analysis. The
proposed concept consists of integrated factors (constructs) as follows;
Braun and Clarke Model of Thematic Analysis Model

Braun and Clarke (2006) model is proposed as a guideline for a thematic
analysis procedure to support framework matrix activity. It is necessary for
both students and lecturers to familiarize with the process by comprehending
each and every attribute and its importance. This effort is to equip students
with a set of knowledge about thematic analysis procedure before it is mapped
in the framework matrix. Both (model and framework matrix) are practically
functioned as a problem solving tool. The model emphasizes on the instruction
while framework matrix emphasizes on the application. Braun and Clarke
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Figure 1:
Proposed Conceptual Model
(2006) proposed that the thematic analysis consists of six steps that should be
followed in sequent. The systematic steps begin with familiarization with the
data, coding, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming
themes and writing. These attributes are commonly used in the various
qualitative data analysis, especially for text interpretation. In this research,
the proposed data analysis is not related to observation or interview data. It
is just a large number of ideas (verbs and words) recorded from the previous
idea generation activities. Therefore, Braun and Clarke model is used after
idea generation stage.
Modification and Simplification of the Selected Attributes

The conceptual framework requires some modification and simplification
of the attributes as indicated in figure 1. From six attributes, there would be
four to be highlighted in order to suit the framework matrix approach. The
rationales of selecting only for four attributes are explained specifically as
follows;
i. Coding – Coding is a general approach to qualitative analysis that
involves in identifying and generating a pattern or important features
126
of the data. It is also a process of analysis rather than data reduction

as stated by Braun and Clarke (2013). For thematic analysis purpose,
coding would be conducted through identifying the same or similar
words or verbs from grouped brainstorming data. To make it more
focus, coding could be specified into structured elements such as colors,
shapes, forms, textures and lines. This process involves framework
matrix as a proposed tool to categorize the pattern.
ii. Searching for Themes – This step is a following process after coding
activities that involve synthesizing and analyzing the data. For thematic
analysis purpose, searching for themes implicate the effort of finding
coherent and meaningful pattern in the data (Braun and Clarke, 2013).
Analyzing pattern with framework matrix is expected to make the
analysis more focus and the outcomes should be classified accordingly
to the pre-determined structure.
iii. Reviewing Themes – This step involves reflection whether the theme
tells a convincing story about the data and defining of each individual
theme and the relationship between the themes (Braun and Clarke,
2013). It could be done by integrating two themes together or to
allocate it into two or more themes. This effort involves re-categorizing,
analyzing and synthesizing the data.
iv. Defining and Naming Themes – This step requires students to write
in detailed analysis about the final theme and re-defining the theme. At
this step, it also requires students to name the final theme accordingly
to the category.
FRAMEWORK MATRIX APPROACH

The method of framework matrix derives from qualitative data analysis
invented by Liz Spencer and Jane Ritchie (2002). The method is different
from other qualitative data analysis, as it does not rely on the coding and
indexing as main approach. The framework matrix approach is now available
in NVIVO version 9 onwards. Numerous qualitative researchers have gained
its benefit in helping them practically recognizing and analyzing the data.
For thematic analysis, this method focuses in organizing and managing
the data through summarization, flexible and unique matrix output, which
enable students to analyze data by case and theme. Instead of recognizing
the themes, this feature enables students to specifically segregate the case,
theme and sub-theme into structured components. The structure consists of
design elements that were used as pre-determined themes to be addressed.
Framework matrix is designed to make thematic analysis easier by cross-
127
referencing the theme from one to another. Secondly, to see how different
themes relate to each other for a particular individual by looking across a row
and thirdly, compare the experiences of different individuals by comparing
one row to another (Nvivo Framework Matrices, 2013).
Table 2:
Standard Framework Matrix from NVIVO 9
Theme 1 Theme 2 Theme 3
Case 1 Summary Summary Summary
Modification of the Standard Framework Matrix

The concept needs simple modification from the standard framework matrix.
As Table 2, the columns of the theme will be replaced with elements of
design while the rows of the case will be replaced with the students’ group.
The summary is unchanged.
Structured Themes
Structured themes are designed to help students to focus on the specific
themes (elements of design) as pre-defined at the initial stage. The structured
themes ensure that the thematic analysis activity is applied within the context
or framework. Elements of design are an essential requirement in designing
textile as it literally involves with imageries, colours, textures, lines, shapes and
forms. The idea of having structured theme emerges from researcher’s research
finding that formulate that individual and group brainstorming activities should
have a specific structure in order to produce a large number of ideas within
the context. The concept of structuring the ideas accordingly to the specific
attributes are now can be applied to analyze design theme systematically.
Identity and Characteristic

Identity and characteristic of the subject matter is crucial part, as it needs to
be explicitly preserved. This theme category is designed to ensure that the
characteristic of the subject matter is well defined as a principle knowledge,
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therefore to avoid inappropriate design concept in a later stage of the design

process. For instance, there would be a question(s) such as “What are the
identities of the Chinese New Year Festival?” The answer may vary and
could be in a form of objects, symbols or signs such as lions dance, zodiac
animals sign, gods of prosperity, lanterns, mandarin oranges, red envelops,
temples, family values and etc.
Elements of Design
Elements of design are the structured categories that functioned as a guideline
in a thematic analysis. From the large number of ideas, students could easily
recognize and categorize the idea into these categories. Therefore, the ideas
are well organized into a specific themes and the process of thematic analysis
would be much easier by relating and synthesizing it to other ideas from
different groups. The characteristics of design elements are tabled as follows.
Table 3:
Characteristics of Design Elements
Design elements are commonly used in various design forms. For

this category, students are provided with the characteristics of five design
elements as their guideline. They have to match words or verbs from the set
of ideas and map it into the frame matrix. Therefore, the thematic analysis
process would be much organized within the specific context compared to
non-structured where the context is broad, scattered and ambiguous.
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Table 4:
A Proposed Framework Matrix
PROCEDURES
The proposed framework matrix is designed accordingly to the standard
of NVIVO 9 (2013) format with some adjustments. It is also fit for group
activities. Table 3 indicates themes are categorized into five design elements
which purposely for organizing words or verbs from the set of ideas. The
procedures are explained as follows;
Asking Questions
The questions are derived from the same questions used in group brainstorming
and mind mapping that also aligned with research question(s). Exploratory
types of questions are designed to stimulate thematic analysis process. In
mapping the ideas on the matrix, we can give an example of the questions
below;
i. What are the identities of Malaysian Batik?
ii. What are the most prominent motifs in Malaysian Block Batik?
iii. What types of lines are used in Royal Pahang Songket?
iv. What types of shapes are used in Telepuk Motif?
v. What types of techniques are used in Kelarai?
vi. Describe the characteristics of Terengganu Songket.
These types of questions would stimulate the idea especially in idea

mapping activity, therefore, it is important to have an appropriate question
for this purpose.
Mapping the Idea

According to table 3, the first left column consists of students’ group where
they have to map the ideas accordingly to the themes. The large paper format
is advised, as it is suitable for group activities. As working in a group,
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students should describe the characteristic of design elements based on their

accumulated ideas in the column matrix. There are five themes that need to
be mapped and described accordingly to the theme’s guidelines. At this stage,
we are expecting large numbers of descriptions from the matrix up to 50 to
100 descriptions per group.
Patterning the Matrix

After the idea mapping is done, the following process is to find similar verbs
or words from the provided themes and crosschecked with all groups for
identical connotations. This process is termed patterning the matrix. The
synthesized themes are then to be re-analyzed in order to identify should
any other emerging themes are formed during the process. In certain cases,
an additional theme emerges, known as a sub - theme (s). If this happens,
the framework matrix format would have and additional column for sub-
theme(s). Patterning the matrix also synchronizes themes and sub-themes
by integrating two themes together or to allocate it into two or more themes.
This effort involves re-categorizing, analyzing and synthesizing the themes.
Finalizing the Themes

These themes are again to be sequentially arranged accordingly to the identity/
characteristic and design elements. Every group will now finalize the themes
by swapping their framework matrix to the other groups. This effort is to
provide inter-group idea exchange by giving additional descriptions to the
themes if necessary.
Interpretations
The last process of thematic analysis is an interpretation of the constructed
themes and sub-themes to the meaning. It is absolutely a challenging part of
all processes due to various interpretations and thoughts. At this point the
construct of identity and characteristic is functioning as a principle reference
for interpretation purpose. The interpretation could be done by connecting
identity or characteristics of the subject matter to the generated themes and
it ought to be mutually matched between identity and themes. If it does not,
the ‘meaning’ would be misinterpreted and could cause poor understandings
of the overall design concept.
The final themes should be described in a statement and then to be
translated into visual form using mood boards. Mood boards are finally
produced from a proper thematic analysis. This is a proposed chronological
131
approach that is believed to solve one of the critical issues in textile design
thematic understandings.
CONCLUSION
The proposed framework matrix is seen as an alternative approach to
the traditional thematic analysis. It covers the most practical analysis
to understand design theme by using structured framework matrix. The
researcher believes that this text interpretation tool used in NVIVO can also
be used to interpret textile design ideas. The critical issue that focuses on
building an understanding of the design theme has a potential to be solved by
applying this proposed tool. By connecting, categorizing and synchronizing
the ideas, students are expected to establish Higher Order Thinking Skill to
solve design theme issues.
The proposed framework matrix is expected to benefit lecturers and
students to solve design theme related issue. It is a practical tool that bridge
ideation and development of design theme. In ideation, we use divergent
thinking to find possible answers while framework matrix can do both
divergent and convergent at the same time. In terms of applicability, this
tool is not only to solve design related issue(s), but it can be applied in any
other qualitative analysis with some adjustments to the categorized themes.
This tool is also a user-friendly as its format and function is easily to
adapt and understand. The layout consists of the specific themes in columns
that need to be fulfilled with descriptions as the guideline is provided in
separate sheets. Working in a group is seen as an effective activity in terms
of communication. Students are encouraged to involve with group activity
to ensure maximum output from collective decisions among group members.
Last but not least, this tool is result-oriented format as it generates an
immediate result right after the activity.
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Taxonomy of educational
objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive
domain. New York, Toronto: Longmans, Green.
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University Putra Press.
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Clarke, V. & Braun, V. (2013). Successful qualitative research: A practical

guide for beginners. London: Sage. Buzan, T. (1974). Use your head.
London: BBC Books.
DeJarnette, A. F., & González, G. (2016). Thematic analysis of students’
talk while solving a real-world problem in geometry. Linguistics and
Education, 35, 37-49. DOI: 10.1016/j.linged.2016.05.002
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INTEGRATING EARLY ALGEBRAIC THINKING

IN THE MALAYSIAN PRIMARY SCHOOL
MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM
Piriya Somasundram*, Sharifah Norul Akmar Syed Zamri (PhD) &

Leong Kwan Eu (PhD)
piriya2k5@yahoo.com
Abstract
In recent years, there has been strong urge from mathematics
researchers to integrate algebra in primary school level.
Introducing algebra in primary school level does not mean
teaching abstract form of x and y in primary school. Researchers
have argued that algebra underpinned in arithmetic and relates
many fundamental principles in primary school mathematics.
Classroom discussions and appropriate selection of tasks may
foster algebraic thinking. Teaching students to think algebraically
in early years of education will build a strong foundation to solve
algebra problems in later grades with conceptual understanding.
Algebraic thinking should be infused while teaching arithmetic.
Early algebraic thinking then bridge the gap between arithmetic
and algebra. Thus, it is essential to discuss about algebraic
thinking in primary school level to create awareness to educators
and curriculum developers in Malaysia. In line with the recent
international trend that emphasise on introducing algebraic
thinking in primary school, this concept paper presents importance
and theoretical perspective of algebraic thinking. This paper also
discussed the integration of algebraic thinking in international
mathematics curricula, elements of algebraic thinking that can
be incorporated in primary school level while teaching arithmetic
and present Malaysian primary school curriculum state in
infusing algebraic thinking.
135
INTRODUCTION
Throughout the years algebra has been depicted as a major complicated
subject in school mathematics (Van Amerom, 2002). Poor performance of
Malaysian students in algebra was well reflected in results of TIMSS (Trends
in International Mathematics and Science Study). The results from TIMSS
study provides a comprehensive view of Malaysian students’ achievement
in algebra which can reflect the Malaysian education system and practice.
Performance of Malaysian students in TIMSS especially in the domain of
algebra has been always lower than outstanding Asian countries that have
highest ranking in TIMSS such as Singapore, Korea, and Japan (Mullis,
Martin, Foy, & Arora, 2012). Particularly, Table 1 shows that the Malaysian
students’ achievement in domain of algebra in TIMSS that has been decreasing
from 1999 to 2011.
Table 1
Achievement of Malaysian Students in Domain of Algebra in TIMSS 1999, 2003,
2007 an d 2011
Year 1999 2003 2007 2011

Average Scale Score 505 495 455 430
In Malaysia, formal algebra only begins in Form one (grade seven),

secondary school (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia [KPM], 2011). From
standard one to standard six in primary school the students were only exposed
to arithmetic. Chapter seven of Form one mathematics text book introduces
variables in the form of algebraic expressions. This case supports the claim
made by Cai & Moyer (2008) that most of mathematics curricula separate
arithmetic and algebra. The two topics are being treated as two distinct
chapters. There is no connection between topic of arithmetic in primary
school and formal algebra in secondary school.
However, National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) in
United States of America has been giving high priority for algebra beginning
from pre-school level. NCTM asserted that from pre-school to grade 12,
algebra is underpinned in arithmetic. The concept of function, for instance,
can be taught through classroom discussions using numerical patterns in
primary school level (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics [NCTM],
2000). Consequently, studies exploring the ability of primary school students
to think algebraically begun to increase (English & Warren, 1998; Gan &
Munirah, 2014; Warren, Cooper, & Lamb, 2006). In addition, studies have
been conducted to explore kinds of instructional tasks which can develop
136
students’ ability to think algebraically in earlier grades together with

evaluation of algebraic thinking skills that currently posed by primary school
students (Haldar, 2014; Jacobs, Franke, Carpenter, Levi, & Battey, 2007;
Rittle-Johnson & Alibali, 1999; Warren, 2003). International mathematics
education field has recognised the importance of thinking algebraically in
early years of school. Knowing the importance of algebraic thinking, this
paper takes a step forward to present an overview of early algebraic thinking
which acts as a bridge to connect arithmetic and algebra. This paper will create
an awareness of algebraic thinking in early years to mathematics educators
and curriculum developers in Malaysia.
Importance of Early Algebraic Thinking

Generally, in many countries mathematics curricula have separated arithmetic
and algebra (Cai & Moyer, 2008; Carraher, Schliemann, Brizuela, & Earnest,
2006). Arithmetic always gets focus in primary school while algebra will
be focused in middle and high schools. To be precise, primary school
mathematics curriculum focuses on numeracy and calculation skills. Even
though students excel in arithmetic, yet they find progression from arithmetic
to algebra is tough because it needs a lot of complex adjustments (Kieran,
2004). Transition from arithmetic to algebra indicates “ending” of arithmetic”
and “beginning” of algebra. This is where early algebraic thinking comes
into play. It helps to improve the struggle established by strict separation of
arithmetic and algebra (Carraher et al., 2006). Body of literature has identified
in many mathematics curricula, arithmetic always has been separated
from algebra. Thus, early algebraic thinking has been proposed to connect
arithmetic and algebra.
Early algebraic thinking focused on conceptual understanding.
Conceptual knowledge of arithmetic is important to build better understanding
in later year of studies (Rittle-Johnson & Alibali, 1999). Relational thinking,
for instance, should be emphasised when teaching arithmetic (Carpenter,
Levi, Berman, & Pligge, 2005; Jacobs et al., 2007). 67 + 83 = __ + 82, for
example, students can solve this problem by only computation. However,
relational thinking may assist the students to identify that 82 is one less than
83 thus, adding one to 67 will solve this problem. Possessing such algebraic
thinking skills to identify the relations to simplify problems are necessary
for more complex problems in later grades of school. This kind of strategy
described as relational thinking (Stephens, 2008). Relational thinking helps
children to carry out computation in easier and efficient way rather than
calculating in step-by-step sequence (Jacobs et al., 2007).
137
Generalisation is another important element of early algebraic thinking.

It refers to the capability of identifying the basic number properties and
generate a general statement (Hunter, 2013). Basic number properties are
such as commutative, associative, distributive, zeroes and ones properties.
Mathematics researchers have shown evidence that integrating generalisation
in primary school can provide greater support for understanding of equations
and variables which are two main aspects of algebra (Jacobs et al., 2007;
Kaput, 2008). Generalisation in arithmetic context is focusing to relations
between numbers and operations (Haldar, 2014). 10 - 5 + 5 = 10, for instance,
is one of many ways to represent number 10. It underpins the generalisation
that there will be no effect on a number when add and subtract the same
number. Generalisation also provides opportunities to develop more efficient
strategies that embedded in conceptual knowledge (Jacobs et al., 2007).
Jacobs and colleagues (2007) have proven, grade four and five students could
demonstrate distributive property to solve (9 x 57) + 57 = o by just calculating
10 x 57. This scenario demonstrates how understanding of general relationship
of addition and multiplication supports generalisation development using
conceptual understanding of number facts, addition and multiplication.
Warren (2003) has identified four central aspects to describe
understanding of early algebraic thinking; “i) relationships between quantities,
ii) group properties of operations, iii) relationships between the operations,
iv) relationships across the quantities” (pp. 123-124). These aspects obviously
show the relation of algebraic concepts and topics at middle and high school
level. In middle and high schools teaching and learning, there is a common
assumption that students are equipped with basic aspects based on previous
experience in arithmetic. Therefore studies on early algebraic thinking
suggesting that learning algebraic thinking in conjunction with arithmetic
would benefit students to build stronger foundation for formal algebra
learning.
Early algebraic thinking not only limited to aspects of arithmetic
structures as explained by Warren (2003). It is also extends to patterns
(Warren & Cooper, 2005; Warren, Cooper, & Lamb, 2006). Recognizing,
extending and generalising patterns inevitable process of algebraic thinking.
Symbolic and verbal generalisation required in order work with patterns.
These skills prepare the students to see the connection between arithmetic
(unique situation) and algebra (general situation).
Theoretical Perspectives of Algebraic Thinking

One of the theories that supports development of early algebraic thinking
is Anderson’s (1983) ACT-R framework. This is based on bigger picture
138
of information processing theory supports development of early algebraic

thinking. ACT-R abbreviation of adaptive control of thought-rational
framework of cognitive development concerns on how human cognition
works. He asserted that learning takes place in three stages in memory. First
stage is known as declarative then followed by knowledge compilation and
final stage is procedural. Facts about a task such as knowledge about doing a
subtraction is referred as declarative knowledge. Second stage is knowledge
compilation which focuses on making information retrieval more efficient.
Third stage, involves condition-action pairs which are called as productions
(Anderson, 1983).
Figure 1.
A general framework for the ACT production system, identifying the major structural
components and their interlinking processes. (Anderson, 1983, p. 19)

Besides this, three types of memories are involved too as shown in
Figure 1. They are working, declarative and procedural memory. Short term
memory which holds volatile elements known as working memory while
long term memory which stores information permanently are declarative and
procedural memories. Basic facts are stored in declarative memory. In the
development of early algebraic thinking, for instance, basic facts are facts
that related to arithmetic operations such as addition and multiplication (i.e.,
139
2 + 4 = 6, 3 × 5 = 15). In production memory, on the contrary, productions

will take place. Productions are “condition-action pairs that specify that if a
certain state occurs in working memory, then particular…actions should take
place” (Anderson, 1987, p. 193). In the domain of early algebraic thinking,
productions could be basic facts of arithmetic while the declarative knowledge
would be actions related to conceptual understanding of arithmetic structure.
According to Anderson’s model, the environment produces the
information and then goes into cognitive system through perception. Then
it will be encoded and working memory will keeps it. This model implies
as the student recognised the arithmetic operations which actually encoded
in working memory. However merely doing this will be meaningless.
Hence, the information in perception transmits to the declarative memory,
where operations will become a signal for arithmetical activities. Due to
limited storage capacity of working memory it leads to temporary storage
of perception and enables faster retrieval. At the end, perceptions will be
stored in declarative memory for longer time of duration. This is where
other objects and events will be linked. This connection is the foundation to
retrieve complex information from declarative memory.
Like in the case of figural pattern generalisation, first two or three figural
patterns will be given and students will be required to find the subsequent or
nth pattern. When first three terms of patterns were given and required to find
the subsequent pattern, firstly working memory will receive this information
and then will transmit to production memory. The production memory initiates
the action of figuring out the subsequent pattern in the working memory
when conditions for the pattern match with the subsequent pattern. Finally,
as a result of cognitive activity the student will able to draw the subsequent
pattern on the paper. On the other hand, more information about sequence
of the pattern will be retrieved from the declarative memory and transmit
to production memory through working memory if the conditions failed to
meet the criteria of given pattern sequence. This information retrieval and
matching condition-action pair process will loop until reaching a solution.
Declarative knowledge can have a negative effect on behavior
(Anderson, 1983). If a learner obtained knowledge incorrectly or not
processed correctly, an incorrect procedure can be performed. Children’s
equal sign interpretation would be a good example to explain this because
conceptual understanding of equal sign plays an important role as foundation
for formal algebra (Jacobs et al., 2007; Kieran, 1981; Knuth, Alibali, McNeil,
Weinberg, & Stephens, 2011). According to Kieran (1981), a relational
symbol which indicates the sameness of both sides is referred as equal sign.
In most cases, students often has operational understanding about equal sign,
140
like “add up the numbers” or “the answer” (McNeil & Alibali, 2005, p. 70).
Operational understanding only enable students to compute and find correct
answer (i.e., 5 + 3 = __), but this skill won’t lead to solve more complex
problems in future. Lack of relational thinking hinder students to see the
algebraic element of equality and they struggle to memorise algorithms to
transform equations (Jacobs et al., 2007). Therefore it is important to ensure
learner obtained knowledge correctly.
Early Algebraic Thinking in International Mathematics Curricula

Algebra not only been an obstacle for Malaysian students. It also has
gained attention as an area to be improved internationally. Therefore, many
countries have proposed and implemented early algebraic thinking in their
mathematics curriculum. In Canada, patterning activities are included in
the mathematics syllabus (Ministry of Education, 2005). Patterning activity
begins from grade one. Students are required to identify, describe, extend,
and create repeating patterns. The syllabus emphasise on exposing young
children to repeating patterns and growing and shrinking patterns with
concrete materials and pictorial displays. Students should be able to identify
the properties of pattern and recognise relationships. Then students are
exposed to equality and variables introduced as unknowns in grade five. The
curriculum ensures students able to develop making generalisation ability
and in-depth understanding of patterns and algebra. It is apparent that the
curriculum introduces patterns from grade one and gradually introduces
important concepts of algebra such as equality and variables in the later stages.
Same goes to mathematics curriculum in Australia. Patterns and algebra
begin from stage 3 in New South Wales (NSW Department of Education and
Training, 2012). It focuses on patterns and relationship in the early stage of
primary school. The curriculum beliefs that to yield better understanding of
algebra, students should be exposed to concepts of patterns, relationships,
and unknowns in variety of contexts starting from primary school level.
Functions gradually introduced to students by providing activities like “guess
my rule”. It requires one student to develop own rule about numbers and
another student should guess the rule. These kinds of class activities will
foster algebraic thinking by developing conceptual understanding of number
properties and arithmetic.
Likewise, in New Zealand, numbers and algebra begins from year one
(Ministry of Education, 2007). The curriculum focuses on ability of students
to create and continue sequential patterns based on ones, twos, fives and so
on so forth. Later in year five the students were required to develop rule in
141
number patterns and work on unknowns. The tasks selection emphasised

on the properties of operations. For example, the students requires to use
multiplication facts to work with addition and multiplication (i.e., 42 ÷ 3 is
the same as 30 ÷ 3 = 10 plus 12 ÷ 3 = 4, so 42 ÷ 3 = 14; or 42 ÷ 6 = 7 (known
fact), so 42 ÷ 3 = 14).
Common Core State Standards in United States of America also has
given very high priority for early algebraic thinking (National Governors
Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School
Officers [NGA], 2010). Students are being exposed to elements of algebraic
thinking right from kindergarten to grade five. It focuses on pattern and
numbers and operations properties. Students are expected to analyse the
property of numbers and interpret numerical expression without computation.
They also get exposed to functions informally by doing activities involving
patterns and rules.
Preceding section discussed about the awareness and integration
of algebraic thinking in primary school level mathematics curriculum
internationally. In Malaysia, mathematics curriculum for year four for
instance, has four strands namely; i) numbers and operations, ii) measurement
and geometry, iii) relationships and algebra, and iv) statistics and probability
(KPM, 2013). However, there is no any elements of early algebraic thinking.
Introduction of ratio and proportion in year 4, 5, and 6 categorised into
relationships and algebra strand. There is no any progressive introduction to
algebra involving patterns, relationship, unknowns and properties of operations
and numbers. Therefore, it is time to look at incorporating early algebraic
thinking elements into Mathematics curriculum in primary school level.
What is Algebraic Thinking?

According to Kaput (2008), many agreed that strong symbolization and
generalisation skills are essence of algebraic thinking. He classified these
two distinct aspects into three strands namely; generalised arithmetic,
modeling and functions. He defined symbolising aspect as “systematically
symbolising generalisations of regularities and constraints” (p. 11), while
he defined generalisation as “syntactically guided reasoning and actions on
generalisations expressed in conventional symbol systems” (p. 11). Kaput’s
categories comprised all aspects of algebraic thinking skills described in the
literature of early algebraic thinking.
Generalised Arithmetic. Arithmetic proceeds from known to unknown
while algebraic thinking is identifying the unknown and involves working
with unknown quantities (Van Amerom, 2002). Algebraic thinking only
can be developed through conceptual understanding of operations on
142
mathematical objects in place of procedural understanding which focuses

on operations on numbers and producing an answer (Haldar, 2014; Hunter,
2013; Van Amerom, 2002). Generalised arithmetic can provide a space for
in depth understanding of algebraic equations (Haldar, 2014). Generalised
arithmetic involves generalisation about the arithmetic operations properties
that hold true for all numbers. Kaput (2008) divided generalised arithmetic
further into i) efficient numerical manipulation which involves simplifying
calculations using number relations with compensation strategies and ii)
generalisation which is utilising number properties like the commutative
property, associative property and properties of ones, zero.
Modeling. Kaput (2008) defined modeling as “the application of a
cluster of modeling languages both inside and outside of mathematics” (p.
11). It comprises tasks involving equivalence, open number sentences, and
working with variables. According to Rittle-Johnson and colleagues (1999),
many primary school students find 3 + 4 = 5 + 2 does not make sense. They
had tough time to solve the equation presented in the form where operand was
on the right side of equal sign (i.e., 5 + 4 + 7 = 5 +__). Relational thinking
provides a conceptual understanding of equivalence that “the same as” while
operational symbol only provides procedural understanding of equivalence
that “do something”. Students should have the conceptual understanding of
equal sign by seeing it as a symbol for relation not as an indicator to perform
certain operations. Viewing equal sign as denoting to perform computation
might be a hindrance for students to master algebraic thinking in later years of
education. In algebra students will encounter algebraic equations which have
operations on left and right of equal sign (i.e., 6x - 10 = 4x + 2). Therefore,
viewing equal sign as relational symbol is very important.
Open number sentences are not new to primary school students. They
are always exposed to solving number sentences like “15 + __ = 20”, “__ + 8
= 12”, and “ 24 - __ = 13. Solving open number sentences are young students’
first exposure to algebra in early years (Carraher et al., 2006). These type
of number sentences are algebraic in nature and expose students to develop
their conceptual understanding of arithmetic operations.
Variable is very crucial aspect of algebra (English & Warren, 1998).
Various researches have been carried out to investigate students reasoning
about variables (Knuth et al., 2011). For young students’ understanding and
relational view of equivalence also lead to better understanding of variables.
They can readily solve the variable problems by thinking how many are
needed to make the quantities same or the situation fair.
Stephens (2008) investigated year six and seven students’ progression
from arithmetic to algebra in variable context using samples from Australia
143
and China. He used number sentences with one or two missing numbers
to identify contingency of relational view on equality and the ability to
work with equality with literal symbols. He used a questionnaire with three
different types of questions. First type was number sentences with one
missing unknown (i.e., 104 – 45 = o – 46). Second type was arithmetical
sentence with two unknowns (i.e., 72 – o = 75 – o) and then the last type
was similar to this except includes literal symbols (i.e., c – 7 = d – 10). The
results showed students who were used computational strategies in solving
first type number sentences were unable to solve second and third type of
number sentence. In contrast, students who were solved first type number
sentences using relational strategies successfully solved second and third type
questions. This shows a clear evidence that relational thinking is essential in
dealing with unknowns. Students with relational view able to solve unknowns
even before experie ncing formal algebra.
Function. According to Kaput (2008), function is “the study of
functions, relations, and joint variation” (p. 11). Functions often referred as
middle and high school topics in algebra (NCTM, 2000; Warren & Cooper,
2005). Functions play an important role in most mathematical investigations
and it also has been noted as difficult for many students in all grade levels
(Warren, Cooper, & Lamb, 2006). However, researches have shown evidence
that young students are able to demonstrate functional thinking (Warren &
Cooper, 2005; Warren, Cooper, & Lamb, 2006).
Functional thinking can be introduced to young students using
patterning activities. Patterns could be in figural or number form. Working
with patterns is the student’s first experience with algebraic thinking (NCTM,
2000). Working with patterns is fostering the ability to recognise, describe,
extend and create patterns (Warren & Cooper, 2005). Patterns are some series
of figures or numbers that can be predicted some form of regularity. A “rule”
could be constructed to define the series of figures or numbers.
Generally, students are exposed to repeating patterns right from pre-
school. Repeating pattern activities usually will be in the form of numerical
(i.e., 2, 4, 7, 2, 4, 7, 2, 4, 7) or figural (i.e., ¯, o, ¡, ¯, o, ¡). Hence, these activities
would be appropriate to introduce generalisation by asking them what would
10th or 20th figure or number would be (Warren & Cooper, 2008). The next
level of patterning activities would be linear patterns where by it grow or
shrink in predictable way. Often linear patterns presented in the form of input
and output tables (Warren, Cooper, & Lamb, 2006). According to Warren and
Cooper (2005), functional thinking also enables students to understand the
operations and inverse relationship. When students are required to find the
144
input by using given “rule” and output, they will begin to explore further to
look arithmetic as change and make link between operations.
The Integration of Algebraic Thinking in Malaysian Primary School

Curriculum
In Malaysia, formal algebra only begins from first year of secondary school
(i.e., Form one) (KPM, 2011). Not to deny Malaysian primary school text
books do comprise some elements of algebraic thinking. The text books do
provide open number sentences and numerical pattern exercises. For example,
number patterns (pola nombor) sub topic included in chapter one of year
four text book (KPM, 2013). Though comprise patterns activities, there is no
emphasis given for development of algebraic thinking. These activities were
limited to find subsequent or preceding one or two terms. While to infuse
algebraic thinking, number patterns activities should provoke students to think
of ‘rule’ involved and generalise it to find any arbitrary terms. The pattern
activities should encourage students to perform near and far generalisation.
A case study conducted by Gan and Munirah (2014) in Sarawak using
sample of five year five pupils, showed that they are able to exhibit some
characteristics of algebraic thinking in patterns activities. They were able
to look, recognise and extend the patterns but not beyond that. The results
showed that they are yet to demonstrate generalisation skills which is the most
important element of algebraic thinking. (Gan & Munirah, 2014). Hence, it
is not surprising if the middle school students’ poor performance in TIMSS
might be caused from of lack of algebraic thinking since primary school.
Malaysian primary school mathematics text books also have number
sentences with missing numbers and introduce unknowns as anu. However,
it is questionable how students solve those questions; by using mere
memorisation of inverse operations or with conceptual understanding of
operations and relation al thinking. There is no evidence to show how
Malaysian primary school students attempt these questions and how their
teachers conduct discussion on these exercises. Therefore, it is difficult to
say to what extent the primary school teachers in Malaysia currently infusing
algebraic thinking in arithmetic.
To date very limited studies have been conducted in Malaysia in the area
of early algebraic thinking. A study by Gan (2008) investigated 13 year five
pupils’ ability to work with algebraic elements related problems and identified
the evidence of the algebraic thinking capability in Sarawak. He conducted
clinical interview by presenting the students with pattern generalisation and
word problems involving unknown quantities. The findings showed that
145
Malaysian students are able to think algebraically. However, their ability to

make generalisation, make use of various representation and symbol sense
seemed to be confined and restricted to develop their algebraic thinking.
CONCLUSION
Preceding discussion explained introduction of algebraic thinking in primary
school level plays an important role as determinant of success in later learning
of formal algebra. Learning to view equal sign relationally, functional thinking
by able to work with functions and in-depth understanding of operations
properties build strong foundation for formal algebra. Based on Gan’s (2008)
findings, Malaysian primary school students yet to develop intensive ability
to think algebraically. This inability might be resultant from traditional
curriculum design and teaching and learning process which are only focuses
on algorithms and computation with the ultimate aim being is to find answer.
Hence, this paper has reviewed and highlighted the urgency of
algebraic thinking development in Malaysian primary school level. It has
further provided essential strands and theoretical framework that could be
integrated in Malaysian context. This review has shed some light on what is
thinking algebraically in primary school level and how it can be integrated
into curriculum. For an example, teaching compensation strategy in solving
number sentences involving operations on both sides of equation (i.e., 5 + 2
= 4 + ___) will help the children to think relationally and simplify complex
problems in formal algebra in future. It is time for local curriculum developers
and educators to look into infusing algebraic thinking in curriculum and
instructional strategies at primary school level.
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Dicetak oleh Penerbit Universiti Malaya
50603 Kuala Lumpur

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JURNAL ISU DALAM FAKULTI PENDIDIKAN

ISSN 0126-5024 Jilid 40, 2016

Cabaran Keberkesanan Sekolah: Perspektif Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama 1-30

Pembentukan Akhlak Awal Kanak-Kanak Menerusi Teladan Ibu Bapa 31-42

Keperluan Nilai Etika Dan Akhlak: Perspektif Pendidikan Kemahiran 43-60

Art Appreciation Teaching Model For Undergraduate Level 85-96

Assessment For Learning: Why Promoting Learner Autonomy Is Difficult 97-110

Demonstration And Mental Imagery On The Acquisition 111-118

Framework Matrix: A Structured Thematic Analysis In Initial Stage Of Malay Textile

Integrating Early Algebraic Thinking In The Malaysian 135-150

FAKULTI PENDIDIKAN JURNAL ISU DALAM

Profesor Madya Dr. Mariani Md Nor

TIM. DEKAN (PEMBANGUNAN & PENYELIDIKAN) /

Dr. Ahmad Zabidi Abdul Razak

KETUA EDITOR / EDITOR IN CHIEF

Profesor Dr. Nik Azis Nik Pa

SIDANG EDITOR / ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Dr. Umi Kalsum Mohd Salleh

EDITOR TEKNIKAL / TECHNICAL EDITORS

En. Mohd Norazlin Mansor

SENARAI PENILAI/LIST OF REVIEWERS

YBhg. Datuk Dr. Sufean Hussin

ISSN 0126-5024 Jilid 40, 2016

Pembentukan Akhlak Awal Kanak-Kanak Menerusi Teladan Ibu Bapa 31-42

Keperluan Nilai Etika Dan Akhlak: Perspektif Pendidikan Kemahiran 43-60

Problem Solving In Culinary Arts: Pedagogical Issues Faced By Culinary Instructors At

Assessment For Learning: Why Promoting Learner Autonomy Is Difficult 97-110

Integrating Early Algebraic Thinking In The Malaysian Primary School Mathematics

CABARAN KEBERKESANAN SEKOLAH: PERSPEKTIF

Muhammad Faizal A. Ghani* (PhD)

Ainoor Mahfuzah Ahmad

Begitu juga dalam konteks Malaysia untuk tumpuan subjek kajian

SOROTAN KAJIAN LAMPAU

Definisi Keberkesanan Sekolah

Namun, kebanyakan kajian mengenai sekolah berkesan telah menolak

Perkembangan Pendidikan Islam di Malaysia

Namun, Mohd Roslan Mohd Nor (2011) menjelaskan ketika awal

Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama

kerajaan. Misalnya, dalam aspek kurikulum, penawaran mata pelajaran

Objektif Penubuhan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama

Keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama

(a) Penawaran dan pelaksanaan

Antara faktor penyebab ibu bapa menyekolahkan anak mereka di SMKA

(b) Pencapaian dalam peperiksaan

(c) Penghayatan dan amalan

Reka Bentuk Kajian

Sampel dan Lokasi Kajian

Pengalaman Dalam Pendidikan tahun

Seramai 180 orang peserta kajian dalam kalangan guru di 6 buah

1 – Sangat Tidak Setuju

Instrumen ini juga telah menjalani kajian rintis pada skor

Kebangsaan Agama, tahap pengukuran seperti mana Jadual 2 telah digunakan

Cabaran Keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama

Jadual 3 menunjukkan dimensi konteks adalah disetujui oleh peserta

cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama apabila skor

1.Program kementerian lain selain

2.Perubahan dasar pendidikan yang 180 3.32 1.19 Sederhana Setuju

3.Peruntukan kewangan dari KPM 180 3.51 1.22 Sederhana Setuju

4.Kurang sokongan dari pihak 180 3.07 1.27 Sederhana Setuju

Berdasarkan Jadual 4, warga Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama

Jadual 5 menunjukkan sikap ketidakprihatinan murid Sekolah

Cabaran Dimensi Guru N Min SP Tahap Cabaran

1.Guru mengajar bukan berdasarkan