il

.{dequate drainage of the area is also of the greatest

importance in providing a sound formation on which to
build the road structure. Waterlogged ground allows
excessive movement of the structure leading to early
damage and destruction.
Flexible construction is'so-called because it allows a
small amount of vertical moveltent of the road structure
'under load.

5.2 The Structure of the Road

This usually consists of four layers of road construction
material, these being built-up on the formation as shown in
Figure 5.1
Flexible
Pavements Wmring Cowse
Borccours

-- Roodbo*

+ Sub-boe

5.1 The Purpose of the Road

The main purpose of the road structure is to provide a
means of reducing the stress or pressure due to a wheel
load to a value which the ground under that structure can
Figure 5.1 Section through pavement
;upport.
A vehicle standing on a road structure exerts a direct By definition, formation is the surface of the ground in
load (static stress) on the small area of contact between its its final shape after completion of the earthworks and of
tyres and the road surface. When the vehicle is moving,
consolidation, compaction, or stabilization in situ.
there is additional dynamic stressing due to the up and
down movements of the vehicle, caused by slight The four layers of the road structure are the:
unevenness of the surface, gusting wind, etc. This has the
effeit of 'hammering' the surface as the vehicle travels I sub-base
- (a) which assists in the load
spreading;
along the road.
(b) assists sub-soil drainage (if
The intensity of the static and dynamic stress is greatest
a free drainage material is
at the surface of the road and spreads in a pyramidal shape - used);
throughout the depth of the structure. As the spread of the
(c) acts as a temporary road
load increases, so the stress is reduced, until at the
formation level, the stress is low enough for the natural
for construction traffic.
ground to support it without distortion or damage. 2 roadbase which is the main load
spreading layer of the
For simplicity, the pyramidal spread of the load can be
structure.
considered to be at 45o to the horizontal and this gives an
,figure.In reality, the 3 basecourse which supports the wearing
approximately correct stressing - course and also assists in
spread is slightly greater in the upper layers of the road
protecting the road;
structure.
and 4 wearing course
Flexible construction carriageways are usually designed -which
(c) provides a skid resistant
to last 20 years, allowance being made in the design for
surface
traffic gro\ryth year by year (30/o growth per year is the (D) waterproofs the pavemen!
usual allowance). However, a road can only achieve its (c) withstands the direct
designed life period and carrying capacity if the actual job
loading of the traffic.
of construction is properly done, all the materials are of
the required standard, to the design specification and It is customary to shape the formation with a fall to the
always correctly used. side, or camber, in order to assist drainage of the surface.
 73
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

If it is being left an overfill of 150 rnm is needed to protect the area loaded at formation level
the formation.
: 400 + 800 + 400 mm square
The term subgrade is used to define the natural : 1 600 mm square (i.e. 64 times loaded
area at surface).
foundation or fill which directly receives th€ loads from
the pavement. Hence, the top surface of the subgrade is the Hence surface load of 4 920 kg on an area of
a
formation. 200 x will produce a loading of 12.3 kg on each
200 mm
square centimetre.rof that surface area. This, when
5.3 The Load-Carrying Requirements of a trinsmitted througA the road structure will produce a
loading of only 0.2 kg on each square centimetre of the
Flexible Pavement formation.
It is necessary to know something of the way in which
traffic loads are carried and spread through the various tyre c$iocl oreo
layers of the road structure. 200 x 200mn
{orm I unit)
5.J., Load Distribution ora 4 mits
Consider the case of a vehicle where the area of contact
between one tyre and the road surface is about 200 mm Surfocing'
square.
Roodboe
AU the wheel load must be supported over this contact
area and this is the part of the road which carries the
greatest intensitY of loading.
Sub-bqse

Wheel lood

Figure 5.3 Distribution of toad through ,oeri i"u""n

*Surfacing consists of both wearing course and

basecourse.
N.B. The sub-base is seldom more than 275 mm thick, but
this larger figure has been chosen to simplify the
calculations.

Ftgure 5.2 Tyre contact area on road

5.3,2 Structure Design
As an initial approximation, it can be assumed that this The design of a road structure needs to take into account
load will spread throughout the pavement structure to the following:
form a load pyramid with the sides at 45o to the road I The number of commercial vehicles expected to use
surface. the road initially.
Consider a road structure having the following thickness 2 The estimated yearly rate of commercial traffic
of layers (see Figure 5.3): growth.
3 The designed life period for the road.
If the tyre contact area is 200 mm x 200 mm. Then 4 The type of soil on which the road structure is to be
with a pyramid spread of about 45o to the vertical: built.
the area loaded at the top of the roadbase 5 The level of the natural water fable in relation to the
: 100 + 200 + 100 square proposed formation level.
: 400 mm square (i.e. 4 times loaded ' 6 The type of road structure /which
,'
will be used in
area at surface). building the pavement.
the area loaded at the top of sub-base This is the basis of the infoir.nation required by the
= 200 + 400 + 200 square Engineer and which is used, tolether with the detailed
: 800 mm square (i.e. 16 times loaded charts, tables etc. in Road Note 29 (third Edition), to
area at surface). determine the design details for the new road.
 "q
1
74 1

ROADWORK THEORY AND PRACTICE

I

s.J.J Use of Road Note 29

TYPE OF SOIL C B R (PerCeni)
The Road Note 29 booklet, entitled A Guide to the
Structural Design of Pavements for New Roads gives a Well dmined
method of assessment of the effect of traffic on the design wcrter toble
of flexible roads (N.B. it also covdrs design of rigid of leost
600 mm belon
Poaly droined
pavements). This booklet and the following section may, formotion
however, give a more advanced study than the roadworker
requires. Heovy C loy 2 I
The method is based on the total number of commercial
vehicles using the nearside lane, in one direction only, over 2 1.5
a selected design life period. This is calculated from 2.5 2
existing traffic with an expected rate of growth (normally 3 2
taken as 390).
Silty Cloy 5
The damaging effect on the road structure of private 3
cars is insignificant; that of a commercial vehicle depends Sandy Cloy 6 4
on its axle loads, but the effect is not in direct proportion
7 5
to the axle weight. For example, while an axle load of
2 7AA kg has only one-hundredth the damaging effect of Silr 2 t
an 8 200 kg axle load, one of I I 800 kg has over four times
the damaging effect of the 8 200 kg axle load, which is the Sond Ooorly groded n l0
'standard axle'. Sond (!Vell sroded 4 ls
From a study of the distribution of commercial vehicles
across the width of a carriageway it has been possible to Well groded sondy gro vel A' n
convert 'total comrirercial vehicles in one direction' into
'number of commercial vehicles in nearside lane' for three
general categories of road. Also from an examination of Table 5.1 Estimated (aboratory) CBR values for British
Soils compacted at the natural moisture content
the number of axles per commercial vehicle and their
weights, together with information on the relative Note. The thickness of the sub-base is irrespective of the
damaging effects, factors have been calculated to convert type of base except where, however, the subgrade is frost
'number of commercial vehicles in nearside lane' to susceptiblg the thickness of sub-base must be sufficient to
'equivalent number of standard axles of 8 200 kg'. (The give a total thickness of construction of 450 mm over the
term standard axle is a term used to measure the damaging soil.
effect the pavement is likely to be subjected ro ouei iti Summarizing, the design procedure for normal
design life.) construction is to
The road note includes graphs giving total nearside lane
values of commercial vehicles for various design lives and I Determine the number of commercial vehicles in each
present traffic loadings for several rates of growth. direction each day.
The other main factor in the design of roads is the nature 2 Assume rate of growth of traffic (normally 390).
and type of the subgrade. This is assessed by a value from 3 Decide on design life (normally 20 years for a flexible
a test known as the California Bearing Ratio. Very simply pavement).
this value expressed as a percentage, is a guide to the load 4 Obtain number of commercial vehicles in nearside
carrying characteristics of the soil. The CBR test is lane (from graphs).
described in more detail in Chapter 10. 5 Convert to equivalent standard axles.
Experience has shown that on wet cohesive soils large 6 Determine or estimate CBR value of subgrade.
variations in CBR can be obtained with small changes in. 7 Determine thickness of sub-base (from graph).
moisture content, resulting in unrealistic values being 8 Select material for roadbase and obtain thickness
recorded. To meet this point, the Road Note contains a from appropriate graph, together with thickness of
table which relates soil type to the CBR value for two surfacing. For traffic over I I million standard axles, where
drainage conditions, firstly where the water table is the roadbase material selected is not bituminous, any
600 mm or more below foundation level, and secondly, surfacing thickness in excess of 100 mm may be of
where it is less than 6@ mm below. Associated with the bituminous roadbase material to form a composite
plasticity index of the soil, estimated values are given for roadbase.
each drainage condition, as shown in Table 5.1.
Knowing the CBR of the subgrade, and the number of 5.3.4 Amendments to Design Procedure
equivalent standard axles, the thickness of the sub-base Additional information has been provided by the
required may be obtained from the graphs in the Road Department of Transport (in the Specification for Road
 75
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

and Bridgeworks) giving guidance on the use of alternative Sub-bose

materials, such as capping layers (see Section 3.6)
Note: The following detailed description of the various
strata of the flexible construction of roads contains a
considerable amount of information about the rnaterials.
These materials and the way in which they are used are
so necessary to the flexible structure descriptions that it is
considered essential to include the materials information in
this section, rather than in Chapter l0 (Materials and
Testing), although additional data on materials can be
found in that section.

5.4 The Sub-base

The sub-base should be laid as soon as possible after final Figure 5.4
stripping to formation level. This is done in order to
o

prevent deterioration of the formation due either to:
(a) rain (which causes the exposed ground to become
soggy and may even cause erosion); or
(D) sunshine whieh can dry out the surface and cause
cracking in the subgrade.
If the subgrade is not going to have the sub-base laid over
it immediately, it should be protected from the weather as
described in Section 3.2.4. 'Both rain and sun on the
exposed subgrade result in a loss of bearing strength of the
ground.
The depth of the sub-base required in the road structure
is largely dependent uPon:
(a) the volume of commercial traffic which is estimated
to use it during its planned life period of 20 - 40 years;
(D) the bearing capacity of the subgrade - that is, the
stability and load-carrying ability of the ground on which
is to be constructed;
(c) whether the subgrade is composed of frost-suscept-
ible material or not;
(d) The strength of the material used for the sub-base.
This normally should have a CBR of at least 3090. To
determine this, samples of the ground or material are taken
usually with an earth auger or'special drill. This sample is
then tested by the California Bearing Ratio apparatus (see
Chapter 10, Materials and Testing).
In pavement construction, it is good practice to extend
the sub-base beyond the kerb line and as far as the side
drains. This helps to remove surface water during
coustruction and for it to run-off well clear of the main
road structure and to support the kerb race.
The functions of the sub-base are to:
(a) assist in load spreading as part of the structural
design;
(b) make up the pavement to 450 mm thickness on frost
susceptible soils;
(c) provide some protection to the sub-grade as soon as
it is exposed;
(d) provide a platform on which to lay the road base.
The sub-base is usually constructed of pervious material,
but impervious may be used in exceptional cases.
An impervious sub-base needs land drains or no fines
aggregate under the kerb base in order to allow for
drainage. Surface water will drain through pervious sub-
base material.
5.5 Sub-base Materials
The overall requirement in Road Note 29 for the sub-base
on roads designed to carry more than 0.5 million standard
axles is that is should have a CBR of not less than 3090,
while for the less heavily trafficked roads the value should
not be less than 2090. This includes the following materials
in the Specification for Road and Bridge Works (fourth
edition) for use in the sub-base.
Materials suitable for use in the sub-base include:
I type I stone
2 type 2 stone
3 soil cement.
4 cement-bound granular material
5 quarry waste or scalPings
6 hardcore
7 hoggin
8 clinker
9 shale
l0 cement stabilized pulverized fuel ash (PFA).
Descriptions of these materials and their use are given in
sections 5.5.1to 5.5'10.
5.5.1 Type I Granulff Materials (DOT Clause 803)
This must be crushed rock, slag or other hard material
graded as shown in Table 5.2.
5.5.2 Type 2 Granular Material (DOT Clause 804)
This is a much smaller sized material than type 1, therefore
natural sand and gravels may be used as this material.
Table 5.2 shows the grading requirements and variations
between type I and tpe 2 stone.
 T:i
76
l
ROADWORK THEORY AND PRACTICE I

As can be seen from the Table 5.2, type I sub-base has a after the water has been added to the soil/cement dry mix,
far greater proportion of coarse aggregate, consequently it to allow the complete reaction between the soil and the
is stronger due to its interlocking qualities. ' cement to take place.
A light bituminous spray is used to seal the surface for
curing. This helps to retain the moisture within the layer by
Proportion possing sieve preventing evaporation from the surface. If traffic is to
Sieve eize run on the surface, it is tar,/bitumen or bitumen emulsion
Type I Type 2 sprayed and chipped.
Note: Oil bitumen and bitumen emulsion have also been
75 mm I I00
"/o I IO0 % used as binders instead of the cement in similar
37.5 mm I es-roo I es-roo stabilization processes. In hot climates, lime is often used
I0 mm | +o-zo I +s-roo in place of cement in the soil stabilization process.
5mm I zs-ts I zs-s5
600 pm e-zz I
i 0-t0 a+s 5.5.4 Cement-bound Granular Material (DOT
V5 pm '
rl I 0-10 Clause 806)
pm =micrometre=one millionth of o metre This is ndturally occuring gravel sand, rock, slag or
processed material to satisfy the grading clause.
It is mixed with cement and water and laid in a trial area
Table 5.2 at least l0 days before the main work is carried out and
tests should give a crushing strength of not less than
3.35 N/mmz.
5.5.J Soil Cement (DOT Clause 805)
As the name suggests, this is a mixture of soil and cement. 5.5.5 Quany Waste or Scalpings
It is most appropriate where the natural subgrade material The stone should be naturally graded, not over 100 mm
is suitable for stabilization when mix-in-place methods maximum size and not include more binding material than
could be used. Alternatively, ready mixed material can be
is required to help hold the stone together.
imported. It is not a common process, but the rising cost of
materials could bring it back into favour.
The main requirements of the specification for this
5.5.6 Hardcore
material consists of limits on the sulphate content of the This should consist of reasonably clean broken bricks,
aggregate, coarseness of the aggregate grading and a stone, concrete etc. not over 150 mm in size. Unbroken
minimum crushing strength value. The strength is bricks do not interlock but tend to ride on one another.
determined by trials with mixes and site performance, Care should be taken with hardcore from demolished
where the cement and water content is determined to meet building sites, as with rhechanical loading much debris, i.e.
the requirements of the specification. timber, metal or plaster, may be picked up and make the
material unsuitable.
The Soil - Cement Process
I The sub-base is formed by utilizing the existing ground
5.5.7 Hoggin (or similar self-binding gravel)
material as its main constituent. The clay content should not be more than sufficient to
2 This ground is rotovated until the soil is reduced to bind the material together. A careful check should be made
fine powdery nature. 4-70/o of cement is then added,
distributed evenly over the surface and the cement is then
rotovated into this fine material. 5.5.8 Clinker
3 After the addition and mixing-in of the cement, the This should behard and well burnt, and graded down from
sub-base is watered, compacted and left to set. The 50 mm. Care should be taken to differentiate between
amount of water must be carefully controlled, as in any clinker and ash; the latter is not suitable.
concrete mix.
4 Due to 3, the method is depepdent upon the vagaries 5.5.9 Shale
of the weather. Shale is usually obtained from colliery tips and has been
5 To produce good results, laboratory facilities for burnt as a result of spontaneous combustion. It should be
carrying out checks and controlling the soil,/cement mix, used only from sources known to be low in sulphur,
are necessary. reliable and stable, as exposure can in some instances result
in breakdown of the material.
Single Psss Method Where provision of a definite thickness of frost resistant
An alternative is by the single pass method in which the material is appropriate and the sub-base forms part of it,
cement is spread, rotovated into the soil, watered and the material should be examined in accordance with the
rolled all in one pass. Road Research Laboratory Frost Heave Test if there is any
In soil stabilization, the completed layer must be cured, doubt about its suitability.
 77
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

5.5.10 PFA: Cement'stabilized works, local materials are often used, economically and
successfully.
Extensive laboratory and field tests have been carried out The main rnaterials have different binding character-
into the use of cement-stabilized PFA for road base and istics, the binding together of the material being by:
sub-base; hard shoulders, site roads, footways, bridge
abutments, and many similar constructions. 1 natural interlock as with dry bound macadam;
Tests have confirmed that suitable and economic 2 water bound -- as with wet mix;
proportions for a cement-stabilized PFA mixture are 1090 3 cement bound as with CBGB (cement-bound
and 9090 PFA. Moisture content is important and
- granular base) lean concret€
""-ent
must be not less than the optimum moisture content of the and soil cemenu
PFA. 4 bituminous bound as with dense macadam and
Seven day compresSive str€ngth tests at approximately - hot rolled asphalt.
9090 compaction frequently show figures in excess of
2 750 kN/mz. The age-hardening characteristics of PFA Roodbose
are particularly useful in this instance, and contribute to a
coniiderable increase in the bearing strength when the
material is used as a road base.
Cement-stabilized PFA can overcome the frost heave
problem. Properly mixed and compacted, it shows
ionsiderable resistance to softening during the
freeze-thaw cycle.
Various methods of mixing are in use, including both
mix-on-site and mix-off-site methods. When the latter
method is used the prepared mixture is laid by a road
paving machine which produces an evenly controlled layer
wittr iuUsequent advantages in compacting and final
dressing. Following compaction, the surface is dressed
with a special sealant.
Figure 5.5

5.5.11 Spreading and Levelling the Sub'base

On small-scale roadworks, a bulldozer or loading shovel is
normally used to spread and level the sub-base material.'
For larger jobs, it is preferable to use a grader. This is only
e"ottomical where the area of work exceeds 5 000,m2.
Graders can be fitted with the Sperry electronic control
system which can be pre-set to the gradient required and
which will then automatically adjust the blades of the
machine to achieve this grade, regardless of the movements
of the grader's wheels due to the unevenness of the surface
on which it is running.
On small jobs, the sub-base is checked using a traveller
betweefi profiles (or sight rails). For dual carriageways'
four profiles are required, one each side and two in the
centre. In straightforward cases three ptofiles (one only in
the centre) can be sufficient.
Wires are often used on the larger jobs, being pulled taut
over the surface betvreen level pegs. It is usual for the wire
to be at a convenient height aboye the required surface
level and the distance from the wire to the surface is then
checked by measurement.
Compaction must be carefully controlled and a guide to
the type of roller required is given in Section 5.16.
5.6 Roadbase Materials
Due to the roadbase being the main load spreading layer,
the materials used must be carefully chosen. On very minor
The type and thickness of the layer depends upon the
numbli of standard axles expected to travel on the road
during its designed life period. The following are examples
of materials used:
I Dry bound macadam;
2 Wet mix macadam;
3 Cement bodnd granular base
4 Soil cement;
5 Lean concrete base.
6 Dense bituminous roadbase
7 Hot rolled asphalt
Descriptions of these materials are given in the Sections
following (5.6.1 to 5.6.7).
5.6,1 Dry Bound Macadam (DOT Clause 809)
In this method of roadbase construction 50 or 37.5 mm
single size crushed rock or slag to BS 63 is spread in layers
75 - 100 mm thick and rolled, normally with a 2.5 tonne
roller. A 25 mm thickness of 4.7 mm down similar
material is then spread on the layer and vibrated into the
coarse aggregate, the process being repeated until no more
fines can be worked in. Any excess fine material rnust be
removed by sweeping and the layer rolled with an 8 tonne
minimum weight roller. Additional layers are then con-
structed to make up the total thickness of roadbase
required.
78
ROADWORK THEORY AND PRACTICE
It is essential that the aggr€gate must be dry, otherwise
the fines will not flow into the voids in the coarse
aggregate, and the layer must not be over-vibrated as this
can cause the fines to return to the top, leaving the coarse
aggregate unbound at the bottom.
It is also important that the finished surface of the base
consists mainly of the coarse aggregate without any excess
of fine material. In no circumstances should the fine
material be used for regulating the surface.
5.6.2 Wet Mix Macadarn (DOT Clause E08)
This is a'plant manufactured' material using crushed rock
or slag accurately graded and batched, and mixed with
2- 6s/o water according to the nature of the aggregate. The
purpose of the water is not so much to make a'wet' mix as
a 'damp' mix, with the result that segregation during
transport and laying is minimized, while at the same time
the material is more easily compacted. The material is
usually laid in compacted layers not exceeding 150 mm,
fi16 aggregate grading being within the stated limits. Care
should be taken to keep the moistrle content within the
optimum limits; drying out, or excess moisture will have a
serious detrimental effect.
5.6.3 Cement-bound Granular Base @AT Cbuse
806)
This is used where the traffic load is less than 5 million
standard axles. It consists of aggregate (gravel, sand, rock,
slag, etc.) mixed with cement to produce a strength not less
than 3.35 MN/mz, the mix being established from site
trials.
5.6.4 Soil Cement (DOT Clause 805)
This can also be used as a roadbase, when the traffb load
is below 2.5 million standard axles (see notes on sub-base).
5.6.5 Lean Concrete Base (DOT Clause 807)
This material, as its name implies, is a 'Concrete', formed
by mixing suitable clean downgraded aggregate from
40 mm to dust, with a proportion of Portland cement and
water to comply with the Engineer's specification. Mixing
is usually carried out at a central manufacturing plant
generally located at the source of the aggregate, and
delivered to the site ready for spreading. For very large
jobs, however, it may be advisable to set up a mixing plant
on site.
N.B. Mention must be made of the construction
requirement for the above materials which is covered in
detail in Clause 802 of the Specification for Road and
Bridge Works. The main items covered by this Clause are,
in brief:
1 transporting materials must be protected
- from the weather;
2layine these materials must be spread
- evenly and every effort must be
made to avoid laying against
I
:l
il
hardened longitudinal joints; ,l
3 compacting - use the correct type of roller I
and the right number of passes;
4 protection and cover with next layer within two
curing - hours of laying, or cure by
spraying or sheeting over
cement treated material for 7
days.
5.6.6 Dense Roadbase Macadwn to BS 4987 (DOT
Clauses 810/811)
The need for strong but truly flexible bases which will not
crack has led to the examination and use of these dense
bituminous materials for roadbase construction.
The main requirements in the composition of the dense
macadam for use in roadbases are that the materials have a
fines content (aggregate passing 3.35 mm BS sieve) of 3Ego
and are made with high viscosity binders i.e. 54" C evt tar,
100 pen or 200 pen bitumen. The more viscous.of the
alternative binders, namely 54" C evt tar and 100 pen
bitumen, are the appropriate ones to use on roads designed
for more than 2.5 million standard axles, while the less
viscous, 50" C evt tar and 200 pen bitumen, are suitable
for the less heavily trafficked roads.
'Evt' is the abbreviation for 'equi-viscous temperature'
which is the temperature in degrees Celsius at which a tar
has a viscosity of 50 seconds as determined by the British
Standard Test (see Section 10.21). 'Pen' is the abbreviation
for 'penetration grade' and is a measure of the hardness of
a bitumen binder. It is obtained from the standard
penetration test which is described in Section 10.20.
5.6.7 Hot Rolled Asphalt to BS 5g4 (DOT Clause
812)
Rolled asphalt is the oldest established bituminous
material used for roadbase construction and has superior
load spreading properties over other flexible roadbases.
The composition of rolled asphalt for roadbase con-
struction is a mixture to BS 594, containing 65% of coarse
aggregate and normally made with 50 or 70 pen bitumen.
5.7 Characteristics of Dense Bituminous and
Hot Rolled Asphalt Roadbases
The use of bituminous roadbase materials results in many
advantages from both the design and constructional stand-
points, including the following.
5.7.1 Load Spreading Properties
Rolled asphalt and dense coated bitumen roadbases have
better load-spreading properties than those of materials
hitherto normallly used for roadbase construction. This
feature is recognized in Road Note 29 which permits a
reduction in the thickness of surfacing required for all
types of roadbase material over a range of standard axles
where these materials are used.

5.7.2 Speed of Construction
The materials can be quickly and accurately laid by
machine and are strong as soon as they are cool' Due to the
dense nature of the material the application of the first
layer of the base early in construction'affords protection to
thl sub-base and formation in bad weather' Another layer
of a hot laid wearing course may then be superimposed or'
if desired, the material may be used by traffic (when it has
cooled), a feature particularly important in the recon-
struction of existing roads.
5.7.3 Imperviousness and Frost Resistance
The compacted material provides excellent \ileather
protecdo;and resistance [o water passing through it, and
is not itself affected bY frost.
5.7.4 General Comment
Due to the higher cost of bituminous over uncoated
materials their uses are usually restricted to sites which
;ustrfV their qualities, for example, strengthening gxisting
ioads where tiaffic has to be allowed on as soon as flossible
after laying.
5.8 Surfacing
Both the wearing course and basecourse are included in the
part of the road structure which is known as surfacing'
These upper layers of the road have to carry the greatest
intensity of loadings as they come directly under the wheels
of the iraffic. In other words, the top layers of the road
have the greatest work to do.
In comlaratively few cases single course surfacing may
be laid. fhe normal structure, however, requires the two
course structure.
The upper layers of the structure, therefore, have the job
of: l
1 carrying the direct load from the traffic and spreading
it to reduce the stress on the lower parts of the road
structure;
2 providing a safe, skid-resistant surface; ,,i
3 providing a good and well-shaped runninf surface;
4 providing good drainage from an impervious surface,
thus protecting the road structure from the weather;
S giving a 'confidence inspiring' surface on which the
vehicle driver'feels' safe.
From the'safe surface' aspect, the resistance to skidding is
obviously the most important feature. The camber and
degree of super-elevation on corners is also very
important.
the skid resistance of a surfacing material is defined
under one of four headings.
. 1 rough harsh;
2 rough polished;
3 smooth harsh;
4 smooth polished.
79
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
These are usually represented by figures obtained by using
the skid resistanie measuring equipment. ln this case a
good resiitance gives a reading of 65 + and a poor surface
would have a reading of about 40.
Road surfacing material is tested for skid resistance and
gives'polished stone values'. This test is an artificial wear
6ne, normally carried out in the laboratory, though there
are portable skid testers for use on the actual road (see
Chapter 10 Materials and Testing).
T[e polished stone values are. such that the higher the
reading the greater is the resistance of the material to
polishing and having its edge worn smooth and rounded'
I
5.9 Basecourse Materials
The obiects of the basecourse are to:
I distribute the traffic loads over the roadbase, which is
usually of somewhat weaker material;
2 piovide a good shaped and regular surface 9n which
to lay the relatively thin wearing course.
Bosecourse
Figure 5.6
ln new construction, the thickness of the basecourse is
usually between 35 mm and 80 mm. Where a basecourse is
laid as a regulating course, however, to strengthen an
existing road structure, the thickness may vary consider-
ably.
The type of material used for a basecourse is selected
according to the intensity of traffic loading expected,
whilst thi nominal size of the stone (20, 28 or 40 mm)
depends on the thickness of the layer. The thicker the
basecourse, the larger the stone size.
On new roads being designed to carry over 2.5 million
standard axles, a basecourse of rolled asphalt or dense-
coated macadam should be used. These materials are
similar to those for roadbase construction and provide the
same benefits, particularly the excellent load spreading
properties and the ability to carry the heaviest traffic as
soon as the material is cool.
80
ROADWORK THEORY AND PRACTiCE
Materials suitable for use in the basecourse include:
I 4O mm nominal size open textured macadam;
2 20 mm nominal size open textured macadam;
3 40 mm nominal size dense macadam;
4 28 mm nominal size dense macadam;
5 20 mm nominal size dense macadam;
6 Hot rolled asphalt basecourse;
7 40 mm nominal size single course macadam.
Details of the use of these materials is given below:
5.9.1 Open Textured Macadam
The open textured compositions are coarsely graded with
little or no fine material passing the 3.35 mm mesh. The
materials produced can be laid easily at low temperatures,
being low viscosity mixes, and become stable and durable
under traffic. The average thickness of a compacted course
should be 60 - 80 mm for 40 mm basecourse and
35 - 50 mm for 20 mm basecourse. The use of these
materials is restricted to the less heavily trafficked roads
for general repair work and in fact their general use is
declining.
5.9.2 Dense Basecourse
There are tlree nominal sizes of dense-coated macadam
for basecourses, 40 mm, 28 mm and 20 mm. The three
nominal sizes enable the correct type to be used to suit the 5.9.4 Single Course
thickness required. The 40 rnm should be laid 60- 80 mm
thick; the 28 mm, 50-60 mm thick; and the 20 mm, Where say a 75 mm surfacing is required for new con-
, struction or a heavily trafficked road, a two-course job,
35 - 50 mm thick. All the materials have a fines content of
about 3890. The binders used are 100 pen or 200 pen grade
bitumen or 54 evt tar, all binders which set hard'as soon as
they are cooled and hence from the constructional stand-
point the materials have to be treated as 'hot-laidn trafficked roads which require re-shaping or strengthening
otherwise adequate compaction and strength will nog be
achieved. The viscosity of the selected binder should
depend on the intensity of traffic, the higher viscosity, i.e.
100 pen bitumen and 54 evt tar being appropriate for use
under the heavier categories of traffic.
These materials have a number of particularly good depends upon the surface treatment it receives early in its
features such as flexibility, stability, and frost resistance
and excellent load spreading properties.
The use of dense basecourse materials can add consider-
able strength to an existing road, their use is particularly
appropriate for strengthening a road which may be
required to carry heavy traffic at short notice. From the
constructional standpoint the main advantage is that as
soon as the material is cooled to atmospheric temperature,
traffic can be switched on to it if required. This can be
particularly useful in the reconstruction of a city street or
congested area, such as a junction or roundabout where
obstruction can cause considerable traffic delay.
5.9.3 Rolled Asphalt Basecourse
This has a coarse aggregate content graded to BS 594, the
asphaltic content being petroleum bitumen. It should be
laid in 50 - 75 mm layers and has qualities very similar to
the dense basecourses mentioned previously. The thickness
of the layer determines the size and gradrng of the coarse
aggregate content of the course. Asphalt regulating courses
are basecourse mixtures with small sized (10 mm)
aggregate to enable the layers to be laid thinly.
A further point to be considered in the selection of the
basecourse material is the type of wearing course with
which it is to be covered. If the wearing course is to be
made with a high viscosity binder necessitating laying while
still at a high temperature, the basecourse must be made
with a binder of similar viscosity to avoid any softening or
movement in the basecourse due to the laying temperature
of the wearing course material. Alternatively, there should
be an interval of some months between the two operations.
On roads designed for less than 0.5 million standard axles
the thickness of surfacing in Road Note 29 (third edition) is
50 - 60 mm and this may be laid in one course. This thick-
ness will be possible only if the top of the roadbase
complies with the stringent regularity requirementb, and,
in practice, these are not likely to be met unless the
roadbase is of bituminous construction. Where the road-
base is other than bituminous it is advisable to incorporate
a basecourse as a separate layer and to have a total
thickness of surfacing of about 75 mm. A typical
basecourse would then be of 60 mm thickness using 40 mm
,nominal size coated macadam.
i.e. basecourse and wearing course is to be preferred
because it allows more re-shaping to be done, and gives a
better riding surface. However, many of the less heavily
can be dealt with quite satisfactorily at a lower cost by
5ingle course surfacing.
The medium textured material provides for this in a
40 mm nqminal size down graded aggregate laid
60-80 mm thick; the durability of a single course job
life.
The best method is to surface dress as soon as possible
after laying and preferably before the first winter. Altern-
atively the materials can be lightly dressed with fine cold
asphalt just to fill the voids and surface dressed after not
more than twelve months.
5.10 Wearing Courses
The job of the wearing course is to:
I provide a durable skid resistant surface;
2 protect the pavement from the effects of the weather;
3 withstand the effects of abrasion and stresses from the
traffic;
4 provide a good regular shaped running surface.
 81
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

Weoring course 8 6 mm nominal size medium texturd wearing course

macadam (used for light traffic, footways, patching etc.);
9 l0 mm nominal size open textured wearing course
macadam;
10 14 mm nominal size open textured wearing course
macadam;
11 Friction cours€s.
Further information on bituminous materials ls
provided in Chapter 10 although a brief description of
wearing courses and their uses follows here.

5.10.1 Hot Rowed Asphalt BS 594

This is the strongest and most durable wearing course- It is
very dense, made with a high fines and asphaltic cement
trigure 5.7 content with crushed rock slag or gravel added, to provide
additional stability and reduce the cost. Hot rolled asphalt
A wide variety of bituminous materials are used for is the only wearing course recommended for use on the
more heavily trafficked roads.
wearing courses, laid in thicknesses ranging normally from
20-40 mfh. Important points in new construction are the It is normally laid 40 mm thick with 20 mm coated chip-
pings rolled into the surface to provide better skid
additional strength which the wearing course may add to
r€sistance.
the pavement and the extent to which it forms an imper-
vious layer over the construction -/
N.B. When the wearing course does not itself provide an 5rW5 Dense Bitumen Macadam
impervious layer (for example, in the case of open-textured /These materials are used mainly as wearing courses in new
material) it is important in new construction, if the lower construction and for re-surfacing when 14 mm or l0 mm
layers of material and the subgrade would be weakened by nominal size dense wearing course is ofte4 used very
the ingress of water, that the wearing course be surface successfully using crushed rock (except limestone which
dressed or an impervious membrane incorporated in the can become slippery by polishing under traffic) with a 2p0
conStruction. The top of the roadbase or the basecourse or 300 pen bitumen or a 100 pen bitumen for the more
could be surface dressed and outlets provided at this level heavily-trafficked road-s. They are also used on exidting
to drain off any water which may collect. The use of dense- roads'*hich have been widened and have a sotind base.
coated macadam or rolled asphalt for the basecourse or They are often uSed to provide the road with additional
roadbase meets this requirement as the materials are strength, using the more viscous and harder binder. They
sufficiently dense to provide adequate protection to the are closely graded, are dense and virtually impervious, are
underlying construction. produced at a very high temperature and are consequently
The type of material for the wearing course is selected more difficult to lay than open or medium textured
according to the anticipated traffic intensity and, for new materials.
construction, recommendations are given in Table 4 of
Road Note 29.
For maintenance and resurfacing work, the require- 5.10.3 Dmse Tar Surfacing
ments for strength and waterproofing may not be so Dense tar surfacing is normally used on the less heavily
important as in new construction, hence a wide variety of trafficked roads in l0 mm or 14 mm nominal sizes with
materials can be suitable. Fine cold asphalt and bitumen coarse aggregate contents of 3590 or 50Vo and laid to a
macadam often give a very satisfactory performance even thickness of 30 or 40 mm respectively. [f desired, coated
on heavily trafficked roads, if of adequate strength of chippings may be rolled into the surface of the 35q0 coarse
structure. aggregate content mixtures.
Materials suitable for use as a wearing iourse are: For motorway service areas and similar purposes, where
1 Hot rolled asphalt: its excellent resistance to softening by oil droppings is
2 10 mm nominal size dense bitumen wearing course; especially valuable, the material should be of 14 mrn
3 14 mm nominal size dense bitumen wearing course; nominal size with coarse aggregate content of 5090, using
4 Dense tar surfacing; crushed rock or slag aggregate.
5 Fine cold asphalt (6 mm nominal size fine textured
bitumen macadam);
Cotd Asphalt BS 4897
6 Coarse cold asphalt (10 mm nominal size medium The term cold asphalt is used because early materials of
textured bitumen macadam); this sort were laid in a cold state. Nowadays most 'cold'
7 6 mm nominal size fine textured tar macadam; asphalts are laid tevarm.