Objectives

• Know the importance of air monitoring

Air Sampling and – Recognize limitations of various air monitoring methods
Monitoring • Understand basic types of direct-reading
instruments
– Operating principles
– When direct-reading instruments should be used
Hazardous Chemical Safety and
• Be familiar with sampling media and collecting
Handling devices for gases, vapors and particulates
– Which analytical methods are suitable for various
David Wallace, MSPH, CIH substances
• Understand need for proper instrument calibration
1 2

Introduction Introduction
• Airborne chemicals are monitored for safety • Why conduct air sampling?
and health – Safety
• Direct-reading instruments required for • Explosions, oxygen deficiency, acute toxicity
“safety” – Industrial hygiene
– Fires and explosions • Evaluate controls, specify PPE, exposure
– Oxygen deficiency evaluation, etc.
– Acute toxicity (Immediately Dangerous to Life or – Environmental
Health, IDLH) • Perimeter monitoring
• Laboratory analysis methods are used for • Site control
longer-term (chronic) risk • Decon effectiveness, etc
– also for less dangerous acute risks 3 4
– direct-reading instruments also may be available

Introduction Background
• Chemical monitoring at hazardous waste • Definitions
sites: – Gas
– Initial Site Characterization • Formless fluid that expands to fill its container
– Ongoing Air Monitoring – Vapor
• Selecting proper PPE type and level • Normally a liquid at room temperature
• Delineating areas where protection is needed – Particulate
• Assessing potential health effects of • Particles of solid or liquid matter
overexposure – Aerosol
• Determining the need for specific medical • Solid or liquid particles suspended in air
monitoring • Dusts, fume, mist, etc.
• Perimeter monitoring 5 6
 Background Monitoring approaches
• Definitions (cont.) • “Area” monitoring
– Respirable dust – Stationary samples
• Solid particulate matter that can penetrate the pulmonary • Work area, perimeter, etc.
region, generally particles < 5 µm in size – Assesses potential dose
– Oxygen deficient – Often uses large, AC-
• < 19.5 % O2 powered, air-pollution
– Flammable monitoring equipment
• Vapors generated at ignitable concentration At < 100 ºF
– Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH)
Area monitoring
• Atmosphere with immediate threat to life, may cause
irreversible health effects or impair the ability to escape.
7 8

Monitoring approaches Monitoring approaches

• “Personal” monitoring • Long-duration sampling
– “Breathing zone” samples
– For integrated exposure assessment, often for
• Portable devices, worn by the worker
• Samples air inhaled by the worker an entire workshift (or longer, for area samples)
– Assesses an individual’s actual • Short-term sampling
dose
– A quick sample to measure current conditions
– Small, battery powered devices
• In many cases, these can be used for – May be known as “grab” sampling
area monitoring, although they may
not meet EPA criteria
– This presentation emphasizes the
technology of personal monitoring

Personal monitoring 10

Air monitoring technology Direct-reading instruments

• There are two technologies for air • Used when immediate results are required
monitoring • Typical uses
– Direct-reading instruments – Confined space entry
• We will address the uses, limitations and types – “Hot Work”
of direct-reading equipment
– Screening for potential overexposure
– Collecting samples for laboratory analysis – Similar applications
• Samples of gases, vapors and particulate are
collected and subsequently analyzed
• We also will discuss sampling pumps and the
need for accurate airflow calibration
11 12
 Direct-reading instruments
• For short-tern or long-term sampling
– Short-duration “grab samples”
• “Safety” purposes, such as flammability, oxygen deficiency,
or acute toxicity (immediately dangerous to life or health,
IDLH)
• Usually pump-equipped (active sampling)
– Longer-duration monitors
• Usually diffusion based (passive sampling)
• For full-shift Time Weighted Average (TWA) assessment
• Often with data logging features
– Instruments may have both long- and short-duration
capabilities 13
Direct-reading Indicator Tubes
• Also known as “detector tubes”,
“length-of-stain” tubes, or “Draeger”
tubes (Draeger is a leading tube
manufacturer)
• Used for short-duration sampling
– Chemical reagents in a sealed glass tube
• Originally developed to measure CO
in coal mines (1915)
• Wide variety of tubes are now
available
– Airborne contaminants indicated by color
change
• Concentration is read directly from the tube
Detector tubes

Direct-reading Indicator Tubes Direct-reading Indicator Tubes

• Hand-operated bellows
or piston pumps
– Usual features include
end-of-stroke indicators,
stroke counters and tube
breakers
• Number of pump strokes
depends on tube and
contaminant level
– Refer to manufacturer’s
instructions
• Direct-reading tubes also are
available for long-duration
sampling
– Passive sampling tubes
• Worn in the “breathing zone”
• TWA indicted by color change
– ppm*hr reading
– Long-duration detector tubes Passive
Bellows pump • Motorized pumps sampling
tube
Piston pump Motorized detector tube pump

15 Hand-operated bellows pump 16

Direct-reading Indicator Tubes Direct-reading Indicator Tubes

• Draeger CMS • Advantages/Disadvantages
– Electronic Chip Measurement – Inexpensive, easy to use, and can measure a
System variety of contaminants, quick response.
– Specific tubes for specific contaminants and
– “Chips” contain reagents
concentration ranges
• 10 readings per chip
– Limited shelf life
– Color change is analyzed
– Atmospheric conditions can affect the result
automatically
• Temperature, humidity, air density
– May react with other compounds
Draeger CMS • False readings
and “chips” – Accuracy ±5% to ±25%
17 18
• Not usually a problem?
 Color Badges Combustible Gas Indicators
• Badges are passive • Combustible Gas Indicator (CGI)
dosimeters that change instruments, “Explosimeters”
color to indicate a chemical – Non-specific, react to any
exposure combustible gas
“Explosimeter”
– Originally lead acetate – Heat-of-combustion principle identifies presence of
treated paper for hydrogen combustible gases or vapors
sulfide exposure
• Combustible gases react with a heated catalytic
– Now available for a number element
of gases
• Instrument display shows Lower Explosive Limit
– Similar (LEL) or Lower Flammability Limit
advantages/disadvantages
as detector tubes – 100 %LEL is the lowest concentration of a
Color badges 19
gas or vapor that will support combustion 20

Combustible Gas Indicators Combustible Gas Indicators

• Wheatstone • CGI operation
bridge circuit – Adequate oxygen required for proper operations
– Resistance – Measure oxygen first!
change • False LEL measurements at low oxygen/high gas
caused by • Most modern instruments “latch” in alarm mode
heated under these conditions
element
– Catalyst “poisoning” by lead, silica
– Meter output
– LEL accuracy
– Modern
systems have • Calibrated for a specific gas
electronic • Accuracy depends on the particular compound
components • Generally, any indication over 10% is considered
Wheatstone bridge circuit hazardous
21 22

Combustible Gas Indicators Combustible Gas Indicators

• Caution: flammable levels often are
extremely toxic!

CGI meter reading 23 Range of toxic and flammable concentrations for Toluene 24
 Electrochemical Detectors
• Electrochemical cells
produce electrical current
when they are exposed to
specific compounds
• Instruments often include
multiple sensors
– O2, LEL, CO, H2S, and more
Electrochemical cell
Electrochemical Detectors
• Disadvantages
Multi-gas – Calibration is
monitor required for accuracy
– Limited cell life
• Oxygen cells generally
have the shortest life
– Interfering compounds
in the area may cause
a false indication
Cylinders of calibration gas
25 26

Other gas/vapor monitoring

Photo-Ionization Detectors
instruments
• Flame-ionization
Detector (FID)
• Mobile Infrared
“Modern” Analyzer (MIRAN)
hand-held PID • Portable Gas
instrument
Chromatograph
H-nu P-101 (GC)
• Photo-Ionization Detector (PID)
– Contaminants detected when ionized by UV light MIRAN SapphIRe portable IR analyzer
– Non-specific, respond to most ionizable compounds
– Commonly used on hazardous waste sites 27 Portable Gas Chromatograph 28

Aerosol Monitors Laboratory Analysis

• Nephelometer • Samples are collected in the field, then
– Photoelectric measure of analyzed in the lab
scattered light
• Common analytical methods
• Particle size counters
– Flame Atomic Absorption, FAA
• Condensation nuclei
counter – Inductively Coupled Plasma, ICP
– Gas Chromatography, GC
HAZ-DUST real time – High Performance Liquid Chromatography,
personal dust monitor HPLC

TSI P-TRAK Ultrafine Particle Counter

(condensation nuclei counter) 29 30
 Gas and Vapor Sampling Gas and Vapor Sampling
Sorbent tube
• Direct collection Gas • Sorbent tubes are
collection
– Gas collection bag
commonly used to
bags collect gasses and
– Evacuated vapors
Canisters – Wide variety of
• Impingers applications
– Contaminant is – Established methods
absorbed in – Used with sampling
liquid pumps

Evacuated canister Impingers 31 Sorbent tube sampling train 32

Gas and Vapor Sampling Gas and Vapor Sampling

Sorbent media Examples
• Passive monitors
Activated Hydrocarbons, alcohols, and many Passive monitor
charcoal other compounds may be used to
Silica gel Aromatic amines, alcohols, inorganic
capture gasses and
acids, etc vapors
– Diffusion process
Chromosorb Nitromethane, butyl mercaptan
• Simply clip the device
Tenax Phosphorus, nitroglycerine to the worker’s clothing
XAD Acetaldehyde, methyl methacrylate • Sampling starts when
the monitor is opened
Porapak Dimethyl sulfate, furfuryl alcohol
– Fewer applications
Coated sorbents Formaldehyde, ethylene oxide, etc. than sorbent tubes
33 34

Particulate Sampling Particulate Sampling

• Filters
– Used with sampling pumps • Particle-size
– Suitable for wide variety of sampling
compounds – Inhalable size
particles
Filter media Examples • For agents of
Mixed cellulose ester Metals, welding fumes, general toxicity
(MCE) asbestos, etc.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Total or nuisance dust, silica
Filter cassette
Teflon (PTFE) Paraquat, organic arsenic
Glass fiber Polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons, strychnine 35 Inhalable samplers
 Particulate Sampling Particulate Sampling
• Particle-size sampling • Particle-size
Personal PM monitor

– Respirable size, < 5 µm sampling

• Cyclones separate out larger
particles
– Impactors
• Single stage for
• For agents that damage lung
single sample size
– Used for silica, etc
• Cascade impactor
for multiple sizes

Cyclones

37 38
Cascade impactor

Sampling pumps Battery-powered

pumps for
Airflow calibration
personal • Accurate airflow calibration is essential for
• Personal pumps for monitoring
sampling
breathing-zone samples – Pre- and post calibration required
– Battery powered – Primary airflow standards measure volume directly
– Low flow for gas/vapor
sampling
– Medium flow for
particulates
• Area pumps
– High flow, AC power
AC powered
• Constant flow features pump for area
– Less affected by sampling
conditions Graphite cylinder airflow calibrator

Airflow calibration
• Accurate airflow calibration is
essential for sampling (cont.)
– Secondary airflow standards
• Calibrated with primary standards
• Affected by air density, etc.

Precision rotameter
41