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ABSTRACT
The maintenance of organic matter in the soil is crucial to assure its physical,
chemical and biological fertility. The continuous development of new processing
technologies, particularly for the treatment of industrial organic wastes, is
providing new potential to produce organic fertilizers. In this chapter we review
the production processes and the results of their field use of three groups of
products that are experiencing a new interest due to innovative processing
methods or application possibilities. Waste by-products of livestock, meat, leather
and other industries can be transformed in high value organic fertilizers,
particularly by enzymatic digestion. The presence of several bioactive molecules
in the extracts from seaweeds induce an increase of antioxidant amounts/
activities in the plant which are improving the nutritional value of fruit and
vegetables, thus enhancing the overall quality and marketable value of fresh
produce. On the other hand, their application improve the tolerance to both
biotic and abiotic stresses of the crops resulting in higher yield. By-products of
coal mining (lignite) or of the biogas production (biochar) applied as soil
amendments or fertilizers, after increasing their nutritional constituents,
positively affect the soil chemical physical and biological properties. These are
major example of the possibility of transforming key waste sources into resources
that can enhance soil fertility and fight against its degradation.
1. INTRODUCTION
The management of soil fertility and plant nutrition shall aim to fulfil the
global demand for food and feed minimizing the negative impact on the
environment (Hayati et al., 2011; Lal 2000). The maintenance of organic matter
in the soil is crucial in this respect, assuring its physical, chemical and biological
fertility, which allow the soil to perform the functions within the agricultural
production and the environment (Izaurralde et al., 2001). To this aim and to
combat the progressive reduction in organic carbon in soils policies have been
developed to reduce chemical inputs in agriculture (e.g., the European Union
Directive 91/676) and in the meantime to foster the recycling of organic matter
deriving from different sources into fertilizers.
Some constraints in the organic fertilizers sector derive from their legal
definitions and the establishment of clear quality standards, which are
particularly important for trade at global level. This holds true also for a specific
group of products that are defined as bio-stimulants or growth enhancers,
metabolic enhancers, etc. Nevertheless, the continuous development of new
processing technologies, particularly for the treatment of organic wastes, is
further opening new possibilities to produce new organic fertilizers. In this
chapter we review three groups of products that are experiencing a new interest
due to innovative processing methods or application possibilities: fertilizers
derived from animal livestock by-products, seaweeds-based products and
fertilizers derived from biochar or lignite.
Animal products, such as skin, wool, bristle, horns, feathers, hoofs, etc.,
are significant waste by-products of livestock, meat, leather and other
industries. If these waste by-products are not utilized or treated properly they
could pose serious environmental problems threatening the sustainability of
this production sector. However, they can be considered as possible raw
materials in the production of organic fertilizers (Tahiri and Guardia, 2009).
Nevertheless, in case of the European Union, all products of animal origin
must undergo specific treatments to exclude the risk of transmitting the prione
causing the bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) (Commission Decision,
2001/9). The materials shall be treated under alkaline condition (pH > 11) and
pressure > 0.36 MPa, with a temperature > 140oC; furthermore, the peptides
obtained from the following hydrolysis process shall have a molecular weight
< 10 kDa.
When applied to the soil, only about 5% of HPs are directly absorbed by
roots, with the rest being primarily metabolized by soil micro-organisms and
then made available to plants (Schiavon et al., 2008). It was demonstrated
that the plant can uptake without previous digestion by micro-organisms either
amino acids (Kielland, 1994) and proteins (Paungfoo-Lonhienne et al., 2008).
Furthermore, mycorrhizal fungi alre also able to uptake and transfer to the
plant these kind of compounds. Wheat colonized by G. mosseae absorbed organic
N in the form of N-glycine by 0.2% and 6% at low and high level of N-fertilization,
respectively (Hawkins et al., 2000). HP obtained by using chemical and
chemical-enzymatic hydrolysis proved to be effective as growth enhancers and
biostimulants of plant metabolism when applied to leaves in fruit and vegetable
crops (Ertani et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2006). Proline and hydoxyproline increase
resistance of plants to worst climatic conditions; alanine, valine, and leucine
improve the quality of fruits; several amino acids have a chelating effect on
micronutrients, which ease the absorption and transportation of micronutrients
inside the plant (Koksal et al., 1999).
Other products or by-products of animal origin that are utilized for the
production of organic fertilizers include blood meal and fish meal. The former
is a dried slaughterhouse waste containing about 12% nitrogen. Fish meal
contains about 10% nitrogen, along with about 6% phosphate. The content of
nutrient elements depends on the production process utilized: acid-digested
fish emulsions usually have a NPK content around 4-4-1, while enzyme-digested
fish emulsions usually have a title for NPK of 4-1-1.
Marine algae have traditionally formed part of the oriental diet, but their major
use in Western countries has traditionally concentrated on the extraction of
compounds, many of which found to be useful functional ingredients with
numerous health benefits (Wijesinghe, Jeon, 2012), used by pharmaceutical,
cosmetics, and food industries (Løvstad Holdt and Kraan, 2011). However,
seaweeds have been since long time exploited also as organic fertilizers either
directly or after composting with straw or other organic wastes to improve the
productivity of crops (Craig, 2010). Studies on the fertilization properties of
seaweeds are dating back to the 60’s (Caiozzi et al., 1968; Francki, 1960a, b).
However, the development of extracts from different seaweed species has
increased the role of this organic fertilizer, also exploiting the ability of liquid
extracts to maintain in a soluble form the microelments mixtures (Cu, Co, Zn,
Mn, Fe, Ni as well as Mo and B) (Davis et al., 2003).
Most seaweed fertilizers are produced using kelp as raw material that is
dried and grounded. Kelp meal is suitable for application directly to the soil; it
contains about 1% N and 2% K, along with minimal amounts of P, Mg, S and
numerous microelements, and is most commonly used only on high-value crops
at a rate of 25–50 kg/ha.
The seaweed extracts (SWE) are aqueous preparations characterized by
different colour, odour, viscosity, and particulate matter contents, depending
on the production process. Extract preparation can be carried out by different
methods which are normally covered by patent. An alkaline seaweed extraction
method was already patented at the beginning of the XX century (Penkala,
1912). However, the current most common method of extraction is performed
with alkaline solutions at ambient or high temperatures (hot pressurized
alkaline process, Milton, 1952), obtaining a dark coloured product of pH 7–10.
The process generates compounds that were not present in the original
seaweeds, which nature and quantities depend on the composition of the raw
material and on the processing conditions.
The disruption of the seaweed structure can also be obtained by high
pressure collecting the soluble cytosolic components in the filtered liquid (Hervé
and Percehais, 1983). An alternative method allows to physically disrupting
the seaweed by low temperature milling to give a “micronized” suspension of
fine particles (Hervé and Rouillier, 1977), which are characterized by a greenish
to greenish-brown colour and acid pH. The different methods that can be utilized
in the production process, together with the possibility to add in the extract
micronutrients to take advantage of the chelating properties, provide for a
range of commercial products that can perform differently when applied to
agricultural crop species.
The effect on plant growth and yield of SWE has been demonstrated on
different crops (Craigie, 2010; Khan et al., 2009). Just to mention few examples,
tomato plants treated with low concentration (0.4%) of Ecklonia maxima extract
as a soil drench showed an increase in plant height (Crouch and van Staden,
1992). An increase in yield (about 60%) was achieved in grape treated with
SWE from A. nodosum consistently over a 3-year period in comparison to regular
crop management, due to increase in berry size and weight (Norrie and
Keathley, 2006). Increased plant growth as well as yield and berry quality was
shown in strawberry (Masny et al., 2004; Spinelli et al., 2010). SWE reduced
the yield oscillation on apple trees showing a biennial bearing behaviour
(Spinelli et al., 2009).
SWE induce an increase in the concentration of bioactive molecules,
including antioxidants, in the cells of treated plants. These feature has a double
positive effect: from one side the high antioxidant amounts/activities following
their application are improving the nutritional value of fruit and vegetables as
well as prolonging their shelf life, thus enhancing the overall quality and
marketable value of fresh produce. On the other hand, such effect has been
proved to improve the tolerance to both biotic and abiotic stresses.
Hydrogels for the Release of Fertilizers 265
For what concern the quality of produce, application of SWE was found to
increase endogenous antioxidant activity in plants due to non-enzymatic
antioxidant compounds (a-tocopherol, ascorbate, b-carotene and phenolics) and
enhanced the activities of antioxidant enzymes such as ascorbate peroxidase,
glutathione reductase and superoxide dismutase (Allen et al., 2001; Fan et al.,
2011).
The bio-stimulatory effect is supported by the fact that SWE they are
bioactive at concentrations even lower than 1 × 10–3 (Crouch and van Staden,
1993) and that their effect can vary depending on the concentration applied
(Vinoth et al., 2012). Results obtained on seed germination are also underlining
such activity: extracts from Gracilaria gracilis, Cystoseira barbata and Codium
tamentorum improved germination of tomato, pepper and aubergine (Demir
et al., 2006). SWE of Gracilaria edulis and Sargassum wightii enhanced seed
germination and induction of rooting and development of multiple shoots from
in vitro cultures of tomato particularly at low concentration, giving better results
than synthetic hormones (Vinoth et al., 2012).
the acidification of rizosphere (Luthje and Bottger, 1995) which can result in
positive effects on the solubilisation of insoluble nutrients. Alginic acid can
form cross-linked polymers, which increase the soil water-holding capacity
(Moore, 2004) and significantly stimulates hyphal growth (Kuwada et al., 2006)
and the colonization of roots by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (Kuwada et al.,
1999). Betaines function mainly as omoprotectants, thus enhancing the plant
resistance to drought and salinity stress (Huang et al., 2000) which can account
for the positive effects observed after application of SWE under abiotic stresses
conditions. Organic materials reach in betaines were found to enhance the
root colonization by fluorescent Pesudomonads (Urashima et al., 2005), a finding
observed also after soil application of SWE (Spinelli et al., 2010). Bacteria
belonging to the Pseudomonas genus are known to be plant growth promoting
rhizobacteria (Bardi and Malusà, 2012), which could further widen the effect
of SWE soil application.
The increased growth and yield observed after the application of SWE
could also be indirectly accounted for to the several mechanisms that seem to
be triggered by these products, which increase plant tolerance to pathogens.
Two algal polysaccharides, laminarin and carragenan, were shown to trigger
signalling pathways mediated by ethylene, jasmonic acid and salicylic acid
and to induce locally the expression of defence-related genes encoding chitinases
and proteinase inhibitor in tobacco leaves (Mercier et al., 2001). Up-regulation
of various PR protein genes as well as enhanced activities of different defence
enzymes (chitinase, glucanase, polyphenol oxidase, fenyl-alanin ammoniolyase
and lipoxygenase enzymes) were also observed in carrots following SWE
application. As a result, the carrot plants showed a lower occurrence of disease
symptoms due to Alternaria radicina and Botrytis cinerea in comparison to
plants treated with salicylic acid or untreated (Jayaraj et al., 2008). The disease
control observed in SWE-treated carrot plants was attributed to the elicitor
activity of oligosaccharides present in the seaweed extract. The treatment of
plants with an extract of Ulva sp. reduced the infection of Medicago truncatula
by Colletotrichum trifolii, which was paralleled by enhanced expression of a
broad range of genes involved in phytoalexin, PR protein and cell wall protein
production (Cluzet et al., 2004). Pepper plants treated with an extract of
A. nodosum accumulated the highest capsidiol concentrations in leaves
(a phytoalexin with fungistatic action on the development of Phytophthora
capsici), when compared to the control and showed enhanced foliar resistance
to this pathogen (Lizzi et al., 1998). When an extract of the same seaweed was
incorporated into the planting medium, it delayed and reduced the incidence
of Verticillium wilt in pepper plants (Garcia-Mina et al., 2004).
The treatment of lignite with alkali allows to extract humic acids and to
produce humates (Quigley et al., 1988). The extraction with a 1M KOH solution
268 Fertilizer Technology Vol. 1: Syntheis
allowed to extract about 20% of humic acids from raw lignite, an amount that
was increased up to 80% when adding to the process a pre-treatment with 10%
nitric acid (Fong et al., 2006).
Biochar is the solid residual resulting from the low temperature pyrolysis
of renewable biomass feed stocks during bioenergy extraction (Lehmann et al.,
2006; Lehmann 2007). Biochars can be produced from an array of cellulose-
containing feedstocks such as biomass (Özçimen and Ersoy-Meriçboyu, 2010;
Spokas and Reicosky, 2009) and municipal wastes (Ryu et al., 2007), and by a
variety of processes yielding bioenergy and chemical co-products such as bio-
oil and syngas (Bridgwater and Peacocke, 2000). The chemical and physical
characteristics of biochars vary depending on the conditions of the thermal-
chemical conversion applied to the biomass: indeed, biochars created from the
same biomass under similar pyrolysis conditions but in different units can
result in a different final products (Spokas et al., 2012b). The final product can
be formed of a material (named soot) that contains no residual relic structures
of the original feedstock material or of char and charcoal, materials that contain
relic structures as combustion residues (Spokas, 2010). These materials are
characterized by a different oxygen to carbon ratio (from 0 to 0.6) (Hedges
et al., 2000). The physical structure is affecting the organic and inorganic
composition: the pH can vary from 5.6 to 13.0, the C content from 33.0% to
82.7%, N content ranges from 0.1 to 6.0%, and the C : N ratio varies from 19 to
221 (Jha et al., 2010; Spokas et al., 2012a). Biochar can contain also appreciable
quantities of P, K, Ca, Mg, and micronutrients (Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn) with ashes
accounting to 5–60% of the weight, depending on the source of the biomass and
pyrolysis conditions (Cheng et al., 2008; Enders et al., 2012).
It was shown that biochar influences the soil nitrogen cycle and availability
(Clough and Condron, 2010), affecting the soil microbial nitrification and
denitrification reactions (Ball et al., 2010; Spokas et al., 2010). The application
of biochar in different doses modified biological N fixation rates in bean (Rondon
et al., 2007): the proportion of BNF increased of about 50% with 90 g kg–1
biochar added to the soil. However, the total N derived from the atmosphere
was much increased with doses of 30 and 60 g kg–1 biochar (by 49% and 78%,
respectively) than with the highest one (only 30% increase). As a consequence,
bean yield increased by 46% and biomass production by 39% in comparison to
the control at 30 and 60 g kg–1 biochar respectively, while biomass production
decreased with the 90 g kg–1 dose.
2007; Brewer et al., 2009) and to understand the mechanisms behind the
interactions between biochar and the fertilizers derived from it, from one side,
and plant and soil microorganisms on the other (Brewer et al., 2011). This
needs resemble those occurred for quality composts in the 90’s, when these
materials began to be produced and traded. The simple chemical or physical
characteristics were, in that case, considered not sufficient to assess the quality
of the compost, obtaining also important information from simple bio-essays.
This could also be the case for biochars, since polyaromatic hydrocarbons and
growth-inhibiting organic compounds were detected in water extracts of
gasification biochars (Rogovska et al., 2012). Furthermore, there are significant
differences in stability between biochars (Spokas, 2010) and its properties
change over time in soil, changes which may also be affected by the initial
properties of the biochars (Joseph et al., 2010). Therefore, a combination of
analytical methods, including elemental contents, thermal degradation and
physical parameters, might be more explanatory to assess and predict the
behaviour of biochar after the application to soil (Joseph et al., 2009).
5. CONCLUSIONS
Besides the three groups of products described, other wastes can be utilized to
produce organic fertilizers. For example, stillage, the main residue from the
starch-to-ethanol fermentation process of cereal grains, as well as fruit pomace,
the residues of fruit processing industry, can be an important source of raw
materials to produce organic fertilizers. In both cases the chemical composition
of these raw materials, as well as of the fertilizers produced thereof, is influenced
by the type and cultivar transformed and, in case of the stillage, by the efficiency
by which starch is converted to alcohol.
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work has been supported by a grant from the EU Regional Development
Fund through the Polish Innovation Economy Operational Program, contract
N. UDA-POIG.01.03.01-10-109/08-00.
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