Course Instructor:

Atique Ahmad
‫عتیق احمد‬
Contact:
atiq@pieas.edu.pk

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Pakistan Institute of Engineering

and Applied Sciences
2

Chapter – 2
Spring and Bar Elements
Introduction

●
The equation of finite element analysis is: [ K ] { u } = { f }
●
This is simply extended form of f = kx as applied over entire structure.
{ f } is column vector of externally applied forces,
{ u } is column vector of displacements in deformed structure,
[ K ] is the structure’s stiffness matrix.
●
The primary characteristics of single finite element are embodied in
the element stiffness matrix. [k(e)]
●
For a structural finite element, the stiffness matrix contains the
geometric and material behavior information indicating its resistance
to deform when subjected to loading.
●
For finite elements used in fluid flow and heat transfer, the term
stiffness matrix is also used, however a better term is characteristics
matrix, which represents the resistance of the element to change when
subjected to external influences.

03/01/21 | 08:48 ME-424 Finite Element Analysis 2/22

Spring and Bar / Spar / Link Elements

●
Simple 1D behavior
●
Linear elastic spring, F = k x, from EM-1 or Physics
●
Tension-compression member – bar, σ = E ε, MoM-1
●
Theories of FEM are not necessary at this stage.
●
Easy introduction of most FEM terminology.
●
Not much mathematics involved here.

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Linear Elastic Spring Element – Notation

●
Springs are characterized by their stiffness
f =k x
●
Spring supports only axial load,
●
Local (element) coordinate system – LCS –
comprises only x-axis, thus it is a 1D element.
●
LCS is oriented along the spring with its origin
at one end (node 1) of the element.
●
Global (system) coordinate system – GCS – is
for the entire structure containing many springs
and may be 2D (xy - plane) or even in 3D.
●
Element shown has two nodes – 1 and 2. Nodal
displacements: u1 and u2 ; if these are known
then net spring force can be calculated. In
FEM, forces are applied only at nodes, here
denoted by f1 and f2 . Note the positive sense.
03/01/21 | 08:48 ME-424 Finite Element Analysis 4/22
Linear Elastic Spring Element – Mathematics

● Net spring deformation is given by: δ = u2 – u1

● Resultant axial force in spring is: f = k δ = k ( u2 – u1 )
● For equilibrium, f1 + f2 = 0 or f1 = –f2
●
Thus, we can write:
● f1 = – k ( u2 – u1 )
● f2 = + k ( u2 – u1 ) k −k u1 f1
●
This is written in matrix form as: −k k u 2 [=
f2 ]{ } { }
⇒[k (e ) ]{u}={f }
●
[k(e)] is the stiffness matrix for the spring element.
●
{ u} is nodal displacement vector,
●
{ f } is nodal force vector.
– Note the notation: [ matrix ] , { column vector }
– Note also the similarity with spring equation: f = k x

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Linear Elastic Spring Element – Stiffness Matrix

●
Spring has 2 nodes and each node has one Dof: the displacement u.
● This is why the size of [k] is 2×2.
● Later we will see that for an element with N DoF, [k] will be N×N
●
[k] is symmetric.
●
To solve: (e ) (e) −1
[k ]{u}={f }⇒ {u}=[k ] {f }
●
But [k] is singular, i.e., [k]–1 does not exist. This is due to the physical
nature of the element where there is no constraint on any node; the
element is free to move in the direction of net applied force.
●
Thus, individual displacements cannot be determined, only their
difference can be found.
●
This is important; in the absence of proper boundary conditions, the
finite elements equation cannot be solved.
●
Remember: if software gives an error message ‘matrix is singular’
recheck your model for any unspecified support.

03/01/21 | 08:48 ME-424 Finite Element Analysis 6/22

Linear Elastic Spring Elements – Assembly in GCS

●
Consider a combination of two end-to-end connected springs.
●
Note the use of capital letters for nodal displacements and forces to
emphasize that these are described in Global Coordinate System.
● The springs have different stiffnesses, k1 and k2.
●
Nodes are numbered globally.
●
Draw free-body diagrams and write equations for both springs:

03/01/21 | 08:48 ME-424 Finite Element Analysis 7/22

Linear Elastic Spring Elements – Assembly in GCS

●
For each spring, the matrix equation becomes:
(1) (1) (2) (2)
k 1 −k 1 u1 f1 k 2 −k 2 u1 f2
[ −k 1 k 1 ]{ } { }
(1)
u2
= (1)
f2 [
−k 2 k 2 ]{ } { }
(2)
u2
= (2)
f3
● Forces are denoted as, fi(j) is force on element j at node i.
●
Compatibility states that nodes remain connected:
(1) (1) (2) (2)
u1 =U 1 , u2 =U 2 , u1 =U 2 , u2 =U 3

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Linear Elastic Spring Elements – Assembly in GCS

● Expanding both matrices to size 3×3 to include the other node.

k 1 −k 1 0 U 1 f (1)
0 0 0 0 0

[ ]{ } { } [ ] { } { }
1
(2)
−k 1 k 1 0 U 2 = f 2 (1) 0 k 2 −k 2 U 2 = f 2

0 0 0 0 0 0 −k 2 k 2 U 3 f
(2)
3
●
Combine these equations to yield:
(1)
k1 0 U1 f

]{ } { }
−k 1

[
1
(1) (2)
−k 1 k 1 +k 2 −k 2 U 2 = f 2 + f 2
0 −k 2 k2 U 3 f (2)
3
●
Equilibrium of each node:
(1) (1) (2) (2)
f 1 =F 1 , f 2 +f 2 =F 2 , f 3 =F 3
●
Thus: k1 −k 1 0 U1 F1

03/01/21 | 08:48
[ −k 2 k2 U 3 ]{ } { }
−k 1 k 1 +k 2 −k 2 U 2 = F 2
0 F3
⇒ [ K ]{U }={F }

ME-424 Finite Element Analysis 9/22

Linear Elastic Spring Elements – Global Stiffness

● Size of [K] is 3×3, since the system has 3 DoF.

●
System stiffness matrix [K] is also symmetric.
●
It is singular as well; so far nothing about constraining the system.
●
[K] is simply a superposition of all [k] of individual elements, with
proper assignments of nodal displacements and forces in GCS.
●
We will formalize this superposition when developing finite element
model for two-dimensional trusses.
k1 −k 1 0

[
[ K ]= −k 1 k 1 +k 2 −k 2
0 −k 2 k2 ]
●
Solve examples 2.1, 2.2 & 2.3 from Hutton’s book; tonight!

03/01/21 | 08:48 ME-424 Finite Element Analysis 10/22

 End of Lecture

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Elastic Bar / Spar / Link / Truss Element

●
Behaves like a simple tensile test specimen.
●
Used to model tension & compression; axial loading only and no
bending, torsion or shearing; as in trusses.
●
Forces applied at ends of the bar, of length L, only.
●
Displacement function u(x) is continuous, such that: u1=u x=0 u2 =u x=L
● Assume interpolation functions N1(x) and N2(x) such that:
u(x)=N 1 (x )u1 + N 2 (x)u 2
● From end condition: N1(0) = 1, N1(L) = 0
N2(0) = 0, N2(L) = 1

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The Bar Element – Shape Functions

●
Simplest form for interpolation functions (from now on called shape
function) is polynomials.
●
Among polynomials, the linear function is the simplest.
●
Next comes the quadratic function, which is commonly used for most
2D and 3D elements.
●
Linear shape functions provide the exact solution for elastic bar
elements, there is no need to go for higher degrees.
N 1 (x)=a0 +a1 x , N 2 ( x)=b0 +b1 x
● Apply the end conditions to get: a0 = 1, b0 = 0, a1 = – 1/L, b1 = x/L
x x
N 1 (x)=1− , N 2 ( x)=
L L u1
x
( ) ()
⇒ u(x)= 1− u1 +
x
u2
u(x)=[ N 1 (x) N 2 (x) ]
u2 {}
=[N ]{u}
L L
●
In FEA, we always prefer using matrix form for all equations.
03/01/21 | 08:48 ME-424 Finite Element Analysis 13/22
The Bar Element – Stiffness Matrix

●
For bar element, stiffness k depends upon its material and geometry.
●
From mechanics of materials: σ=E ϵ
F ΔL
A
=E
L ( )
F AE
=
ΔL L
F AE
●
Thus, stiffness k = F/ΔL is given by: k= =
ΔL L
●
This is analogous to spring k. Thus:
k −k AE 1 −1
[
[k ]=
−k k
=
] [
L −1 1 ]
●
We will go into more mathematical depth when solving 2D trusses.

03/01/21 | 08:48 ME-424 Finite Element Analysis 14/22

The Bar Element – Derived Results

●
Once displacement u(x) is calculated, strain is given by:
Δ L u2−u1
εx = =
L L
●
And then stress is calculated as:
u2−u1
σ x = E ε x =E
L
●
Finally, axial force is:
AE
P=σ x A= ( u2−u1 )
L
●
Knowledge gained so far is applicable to the analysis of tension /
compression in tapered bars.
●
See example 2.4.

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 Some important concepts …

03/01/21 | 08:48 ME-424 Finite Element Analysis 16/22

Strain Energy

2
●
Just recall …
⃗
●
Work done by external force is: W =∫ F⋅d ⃗r
1
●
For linear elastic deformation, F = k δ , work required to deform a
spring by an arbitrary amount δ0 is given by:
δ0 δ0
1 2
W =∫ F x d δ =∫ k δ d δ = k δ0 =U e
0 0 2
1 2 1 AE 2
●
Extending this to elastic bar: U e = k δ0 = δ0
2 2 L
●
Generalizing this:
2
1 2 1 AE 2 1 AE PL 1 P P 1
U e = k δ0 =
2 2 L
δ0=
2 L AE ( ) ( )( )
=
2 A AE
( AL)= σ ε V
2
●
V is deformed volume, thus ½σε is strain energy per unit volume or
strain energy density. ε
●
In general strain energy density for bar: ue =∫ σ d ε
0
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Castigliano’s First Theorem

●
For an elastic system in equilibrium, the partial derivative of total
strain energy with respect to deflection at a point is equal to the
applied force in the direction of the deflection at that point.
● For elastic body subject to N forces Fj the total strain energy is:
N δj

U e =W =∑ ∫ F j d δ j
j=0 0
● Fixing all points except i, which displaces Δδi by ΔFi the change in
strain energy is: Δδ i

Δ U e =Δ W =F i Δ δi + ∫ Δ F i d δi
0 ΔUe
●
The integral involves product of infinitesimal terms: =F i
Δ δi
∂Ue
● As Δδi → 0 =F i
∂ δi
●
This is Castigliano’s Theorem, very useful in finite element method.
03/01/21 | 08:48 ME-424 Finite Element Analysis 18/22
Castigliano’s First Theorem in FEA

●
From previous lecture:
u2−u1 2
εx = ε
1 1 u2−u1
σ x= E
L
u2−u1
ue =∫ σ d ε
0
⇒ U e= σ x εx V = E
2 2 L (
AL )
L
●
Apply the theorem ∂ U AE
e
= (u2−u1 )=f 1
∂Ue ∂ u1 L
=F i
∂ δi ∂ U e AE
= (u2−u1 )=f 2
∂ u2 L

●
As before, however, now we have a general tool.
●
This procedure is also applicable to torsional deformation.

03/01/21 | 08:48 ME-424 Finite Element Analysis 19/22

Principle of Minimum Potential Energy

●
Of all displacement states of a body or structure, subjected to external
loading, that satisfy the geometric boundary conditions (imposed
displacements), the displacement state that also satisfies the
equilibrium equations is such that the total potential energy is a
minimum for stable equilibrium.
●
Total potential energy includes strain energy and potential energy of
applied loads: Π = Ue + UF
●
External forces include torques and moments as well
● We will deal with conservative forces only; no friction: Π = Ue – W
● For N displacements: Π = Π (U1, U2, … UN)
●
Minimization of potential energy requires: ∂ Π =0 , i=1 , 2 , ... , N
∂ Ui
– For rigorous math, this needs variational calculus, which is very important
for finite element analysis, solid mechanics and advanced dynamics; here
we just pass!
●
See example 2.7
03/01/21 | 08:48 ME-424 Finite Element Analysis 20/22
Summary of Chapter – 1

●
Two linear mechanical elements, the idealized elastic spring and an
elastic tension-compression member (bar) have been used to introduce
the basic concepts involved in formulating the equations governing a
finite element.
●
The element equations are obtained by both a straightforward
equilibrium approach and a strain energy method using the first
theorem of Castigliano.
●
The principle of minimum potential is introduced as well.

●
The next chapter shows how the one-dimensional bar element can be
used to demonstrate the finite element model assembly procedures in
the context of some simple two- and three-dimensional structures.

●
Go through all these derivations and associated examples over the
weekend, we will advance significantly in the next class.
03/01/21 | 08:48 ME-424 Finite Element Analysis 21/22
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