1

CHAPTER TWO

Performance and Operating Characteristics of IC Engine

 Geometric parameter of reciprocating engine
2

 The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) standard for engine rotation is

counterclockwise when viewed from the rear of the engine (flywheel side).
 All automotive engines rotate in this direction.
 Geometric Parameters of Reciprocating Engine
3

 The performance of an internal combustion engine is

characterized with several geometric and
thermodynamic parameters

 The following geometric parameters are of

particular interest: bore(B), connecting rod length (l),
crank radius (a), stroke (S) and crank angle (ө)

 Pressure, temprature, density are some of

thermodynamic parameter that characterized IC
Engine performance, and we wiil see ther effect in
chapter 3

 For any single cylinder, the cranks shaft, connecting

rod, piston, and head assembly can be represented
by the mechanism shown to the left
 Geometric parameter of reciprocating engine
4

 The top dead center TDC of an engine refers to

the crankshaft being in a position such that ө=00.

 The volume at TDC is minimum and is often called

the clearance volume Vc

 The bottom dead center (BDC) refers to the

crankshaft being at ө=1800, the volume at BDC
is maximum and often denoted by VT

 The difference between the VT and Vc is the

displacement volume Vd
 Geometric parameter of reciprocating engine
5
 Geometric parameter of reciprocating engine
6

 Engine Capacity (Ve)

TDC

Stroke VS VS VS VS
 B 2

Ve  Vd  n   nS   BDC
 4 
 Where n- is number of cylinders Bore

Vd - cylinder swept volume or displacement volume

 Displacement Rate

For 4-Stroke Engine

 Geometrical Properties of Reciprocating Engines
7

Compression ratio r,

o r = 8 to 12 for SI engines and

o r = 12 to 24 for CI engines;

10:1
 Geometrical Properties of Reciprocating Engines
8

Ratio of Connecting rod length to crank radius:

l
R
a

 R = 3 to 4 for small- and medium-size engines,

increasing to 5 to 9 for large slow-speed CI engines.

Ratio of Cylinder bore to piston Stroke:

 B/S = 0.8 to 1.2 for small- and medium-size

engines, about 0.5 for large slow-speed CI engines;

ω  The stroke and crank radius are related by

 Piston Speed
9

 The piston velocity changes during the strokes

 Piston speed is zero at the beginning , it reaches maximum at the middile
and zero at the ends

 Normalized speed (mean piston speed) is used for analysis purpose for
compelete round of the crankshaft
 ω = 2 N, where ω is the crankshaft angular velocity and N is the
crankshaft rotational speed in revolution per second

 One revolution of the crankshaft is taken as the displacement (twice the

stroke) and time taken for t=1/N
 fc =N/ , where fc frequency of the working cycle and = 2 for four
stroke and 1 for two stroke engine
 Piston Speed
10

 Mean piston speed is given by U p  2NS

 Mean piston speed for all engines will normally be in the range of 5 to 20
m/sec with large diesel engines on the low end and high-performance
automobile on the high end

 The mean piston speed is more appropraite to corollate most of the the
engine processes such as

 Gas flow velocities in intake and exhaust pipes at the cylinder entery,
they scale with U p
 Piston Speed
11

Heat losses through the walls of the combustion chamber, they scale
with 1/ U p

Inertia forces due to masses in receprocating movement such as

pistons and connecting rods etc ,they scale with U p

Piston displacement is given by


s  a cos  l  a sin 
2 2 2

1/ 2

ds
Instantaneous piston velocity: U p 
dt
Up   cos  
 sin  1  1/ 2 
Up 2  
l / a 2  sin 2   
 Piston Velocity vs Crank Angle
12

R = l/a

TC BC
 Piston Acceleration
13
1/ 2
  a 2 2 
Piston displacement is: s  a cos  l 1    sin  
 l 
For most modern engines (a/l)2 ~ 1/9 = 1/R

Using series expansion approximate (1-ε)1/2 ~ 1-(ε/2) and substitute  = ωt

 a 
2

So s  a cos t   l  sin 2 t 
 2l 

Substituting sin 2 t  (1  cos 2t ) / 2

 a 
2
yields s  a cos t   l  (1  cos 2t ) 
 4l 
d 2s 2 a 
differentiating   a  cos t  cos 2t 
dt 2  l 
 Piston Inertia Force
14

The inertia force is simply the piston mass multiplied by the acceleration
d 2s  a 
Inertia Force   m 2   am 2  cos t  cos 2t 
dt  l 

Primary term Secondary term

• The maximum force occurs at TDC,  = ωt = 0  F ~ amw2

• The primary term varies at the same speed as the crank shaft and the secondary
term varies at twice the crank shaft speed

• For a very long connecting rod (a/l) << 1 secondary term vanishes and the force is
harmonic

• Complete cancellation of the forces is possible for in-line 6 and 8 as well as for V-
12 and V-16
 The cylinder volume V at any crank position 
15

 The volume of the cylinder can be determined as

function of crank angle ( ), from the compression
ratio, the stroke, bore and connecting rod length.

 At TDC the crank shaft is at crank angle of 0o.

(Clearance volume, Vc)

 At BDC the crank angle is at 180 o. (Maximum

cylinder volume, VT )
 The cylinder volume V at any crank position 
16

 Displacement volume = (Maximum -

minimum) cylinder volume

 The displacement volume can also be

represented as a function of the bore and
stroke

 At a given crank angle the volume is given by:

B 2
V  VC  x( )
4
 Note that x varies from 0 to S
 The cylinder volume V at any crank position 
17

 Again using geometry, a relationship for x(ө) can

be developed:



x( )  a  l   l 2  a 2 sin 2   1
2
 a cos  


 The compression ratio becomes

 Solving for Vc results in:

.
The cylinder volume V at any crank position 
18

 The cylinder volume at any crank angle becomes:

B 2
V 
VD
r 1

4  

a  l   l 2  a 2 sin 2   1
2
 a cos   
 

  1

B 2  l   l  
2 2

a 1      sin    cos   
VD
V   2

r 1 4  a   a  


   

l
 Since, a=S/2 and setting, R  , gives:
a
V V
V D  D
r 1 2 

1  R  cos   R 2  sin 2   1
2 


Non-dimensional form of the above

V

1
 1  R  cos  R 2  sin 2 
1
VD r  1 2 
  1
2 

equation becomes,
 The cylinder volume V at any crank position 
19

If crank angle is measured from BDC in CCW direction

 
V  r   1  cos    l   1  2l 
2

        sin  

2

VD  r  1   2  S 2  S  
 

a q

V
D
V V
TDC BDC
 Full throttle operation chemically correct mixture (Y=12.5)
Fuel C8H18 Speed 4000rpm
Tm 300k P1 1atm
.
The cylinder volume V at any crank position 
Friction and heat transfer neglected Fuel vaporization neglect

20
Crank angle Vdisp Pr Crank angle Vdisp Pr
(deg) (cc) (bar) (cc) (bar)
 The cylinder volume at any crank angle becomes:
360 636.6 1
0 636.6 1 375 629.8 1
15 629.8 1 390 609.4 1
120
30 609.4 1.1 405 575.3 1
B 2  1  100
45
60
575.3
528.1
1.2
1.3
420
V 
435
V D 528.1

469 a 1l  l  a sin 
4  1  80
2 2
 2
1
2
 a cos  
 
75 469 1.5 450 r  1 400.4

pressure (bar)
90 400.4 1.9 465 326.4 1
105 326.4 2.5 480 252.8  1  1

120 252.8 3.6 495 
186
2 
1   
60 2
 2

132.5 a 1  1     sin    cos   


V B l l
135 186 5.6 V 
510
D 2

r 1 4  a   a40 


150 132.5 9 525 98  1   
165 98 13.7 540 86 1 20
180 86 16.5 540 86 1
180 86 98.2 555 98 1 0
195 98 81.9 570 132.5 1 100 l200
210 132.5 53.6
 Since, a=S/2
585 186 1
and setting,
0
R 
300
, gives:
400
volume (cc)
500 600 700

225 186 33.4 600 252.8 1 a

 
240 252.8 21.7 615 326.5 1
255 326.5 15.2 630 V
V

400.4
D V D 1 1  R  cos   R  sin 
2 2
1
2 
270 400.4 11.4 645
r 1 2
469 1  
285 469 9.1 660 528.1 1
300 528.1 7.7 675 575.3 1
315 575.3 6.9
Non-dimensional form of the above
330 609.4 6.3
V
V

1
 1  R  cos  R  sin 
1
690
705
r  1 2 
609.4
629.8
1
1
2
 2
1
2 

345 629.8 6 720 D 636.6 1
equation
360 becomes,
636.6 6
 Engine Performance Parameters
21

 The performance of the engine depends on inter-relationship between

power developed, speed and the specific fuel consumption at each
operating condition within the useful range of speed and load.

POWER

PERFORMANCE
OF ENGINE
 Engine performance
22

 Internal combustion engine should generally operate within a useful

range of speed
speed..

 Some engines are made to run at fixed speed by means of a speed

governor which is its rated speed

 At each speed within the useful range, the power output varies and it has
a maximum usable value.

 The specific fuel consumption varies with load and speed

 Engine performance definition
23

 Absolute Rated Power: The highest power which the engine could
develop at sea level with no arbitrary limitation on speed, fuel-air ratio
or throttle opening

 Maximum rated power: The highest power an engine is allowed to

develop for short periods of operation.

 Normal rated power: The highest power an engine is allowed to

develop in continuous operation.

 Rated speed: The crankshaft rotational speed at which rated power is

developed
 Engine Performance Parameters
24

 The performance an engine is judged by quantifying its

efficiencies
 Five important engine efficiencies are
 Indicated thermal efficiency (ηith) Indicated Power
 Brake thermal efficiency (ηbth) Brake Power
 Mechanical efficiency (ηm)
 Volumetric efficiency (ηv)
 Relative efficiency or Efficiency ratio (ηrel)
 Engine Performance Parameters
25

 Other Engine performance Parameters

 Mean effective pressure (MEP or Pm)
 Mean piston speed ( U p )
 Specific power output (Ps)
 Specific fuel consumption (sfc)
 Inlet-valve Mach Index (Z)
 Fuel-air or air-fuel ratio (F/A or AI F)
 Calorific value of the fuel (CV)
 The Energy Flow
26

 The energy flow through the engine is expressed in 3

distinct terms
 Indicated Power
 Brake Power
 Friction Power
 The Energy Flow
27

Expansion Force
 The Energy Flow
28
 Indicated work
29

 The Engine cycle on a P-V coordinates, is often called an indicator

diagram.

 The indicated work per cycle Wc,i is obtained by integrating around the
curve to obtain the area enclosed on the diagram

Wc,i   PdV
 Gross Indicated Work
30

 The upper loop of the engine cycle of the indicator diagram, the
compression and power strokes, where output work is generated is
called the gross indicated work per cycle.

Wc ,ig  A  C
 Pump work
31

 The lower loop, which includes the intake and exhaust is called Pump work
per cycle and absorbs work from the engine.

 Wide-Open Throttle (WOT) Engine operated with throttle valve fully open
when maximum power and/or speed is desired.

Net indicated work per cycle is

Wc , pump  B  C
Wc ,inet  Wc ,ig  Wc , Pump
 Indicated Work at Part Throttle
32

 At WOT the pressure at the intake valve is just below atmospheric

pressure, however at part throttle the pressure is much lower than
atmospheric

Therefore at part throttle the pump

work (area B+C) can be significant
compared to gross indicated work
(area A+C)
 Indicated Work with Supercharging/Turbocharged
33

 Engines with superchargers or turbochargers can have intake

pressures greater than the exhaust pressure, giving a positive pump
work

W net   Area A  Area B 

Supercharges increase the net indicated work but is a parasitic load since
they are driven by the crankshaft
 Indicated power per cylinder/ engine cycle
A (m2) F (N)

p = imep (N/m2)
a
c
L (m)

F= P.A (N)

b
Work (W) = F*L (N m)

Indicated power (Pi) cylinder/cycle = W/t = (F*L)*(Ne/ (n R . 60) [w]

(Pi) cylinder = (imep*A*L* Ne) / (n R . 60) [w] n R = 2 (four stroke)
n R = 1 (two stoke)
(Pi) engine = [imep* (A*L*n) * Ne] / (n R . 60) [w] n = number of cylinder

(Pi) engine = [imep*Ve* Ne)/ (n R . 60)] [w]

 Indicated work and power per cycle per cylinder /engine
35

(Pi) cylinder = (imep*A*L* Ne) / (n R . 60) [w]

(Pi) engine = [imep* (A*L*n) * Ne] / (n R . 60) [w]

Where Wi  imep  A  L  n  imep  VD ,engine
The indicated power per engine per cycle can also be given in terms of
indicated work per cycle per cylinder:

Wi  N P n
Pi   Wi  i R (kJ cycle)(rev s )
nR N
rev cycle
Power can be increased by
Where N - Crankshaft speed in rev/s increasing:
nR - Number of crank revolutions for each
power stroke per cylinder • The engine size, Vd
= 2 for 4-stroke • Compression ratio, rc
= 1 for 2-stroke • Engine speed, N
 Mean effective pressure (mep)
36

 Torque is a valuable measure a particular engine ability to do work, however it

depends on engine size

 A more useful relative engine performance measure is the mean effective pressure
(an average pressure), which is obtained by dividing the work per cycle by cylinder
volume displaced per cycle

Wcycle Pcycle  nR Pcycle  nR

mep  ,Wcycle   mep 
VD ,cycle N VD ,cycle N

 The are different kind of mean effective pressure based on the type of work used in
the definition of mean effective pressure such as gross indicated work per cycle

 The gross indicated mean effective pressure (gimep) is defined as the work per unit
displacement volume done by the gas during the compression and expansion stroke.
gimep = Wi /VD
 Mean effective pressure
37

 Brake mean effective pressure is the pressure measured at the output shaft in terms
of engine torque and defined as brake work per unit displacement volume
bmep = Wb /VD

 Pumping Mean Effective Pressure (pmep) is the work per displacement volume
required to pump the working fluid into and out of the engine during the intake and
exhaust strokes is termed as the pumping work ( WP)

Pmep = WP, net/VD

 The net indicated mean effective pressure is definde work delivered to piston over the
entire four stroke per cycle,
imep net = gimep + pmep

 The indicated mean effective pressure is defined as indicted work per displaced
volume
Imep = Wi/Vd
bmep = imep - fmep
 Indicated power, brake power and gross indicated power
38

 Pi is the indicted power , the rate of work transfer from the gas within the cylinder
to the piston
 Pi differs from the brake power by the power absorbed in overcoming engine
friction, driving engine accessories.

 Pi differs from gross indicated power by pumping power, power taken during gas
exchange process in intake and exhaust process

 Pumping work is positive (pumping work transfer will be from cylinder gas to
piston) if intake pressure is larger than exhaust pressure for engine fitted with
pressure boosting system

 Pumping work is negative (pumping work transfer will be to cylinder gas), if the
intake pressure is less than the exhaust pressure, this is a case for naturally
aspirated engine)
 Brake and Indicated Mean effective pressure as a function of power
39

Wcycle Pcycle  nR Pcycle  nR

mep  , Wcycle   mep 
VD ,cycle N VD ,cycle N

Pi  nR Pi  nR
Wi  imep 
N VD  N

Pb  nR Pb  nR
Wb  bmep 
N VD  N
 Brake Mean effective Pressure
40

 Four stroke engines:

SI engines: bmep= 850-1050 kPa*

CI engines: bmep= 700 -900 kPa

Turbocharged SI engines: bmep= 1250 -1700 kPa

Turbocharged CI engines: bmep= 1000 - 1200 kPa

 *Values are at maximum brake torque and WOT

 Note, at the rated (maximum) brake power the bmep is 10 - 15% less
 Maximum BMEP
41

• The maximum bmep is obtained at WOT at a particular engine speed

• Closing the throttle decreases the bmep

• For a given displacement, a higher maximum bmep means more torque

• For a given torque, a higher maximum bmep means smaller engine

• Higher bmep means higher stresses and temperatures in the engine, hence
shorter engine life, or bulkier engine.

•
 Engine Brake Torque Te
42

Pb  Te    2N  Te

Pb  nR
bmep 
VD  N

Brake mean effective pressure can also be expressed in terms of torque

2  Te  nR bmep  VD
bmep  Te 
VD 2   nR
 Engine Torque Te
43

o There is a direct relationship

between BMEP and torque output.

o The torque curve with engine rpm is

identical to the bmep curve, with
different values.
 Power flows in an engine
44

 The power flow through the engine is expressed in 3

distinct terms
 Indicated Power
g
 Brake Power
 Friction Power

Pig  Pb  Pf
 Mechanical Efficiency
45

 The ratio of the brake (or useful) power delivered by the engine to
the indicated power is called the mechanical efficiency.

Pb Pf
m   1
Pig Pig

 Mechanical efficiency depends on throttle position as well as engine

design and engine speed.

 Typical values for a modern automotive engine at wide open or full

throttle are 90 percent at speeds below about 30 to 40 rev/s (1800
to 2400 rev/min), decreasing to 75 percent at maximum rated
speed.
 Power Speed Curve
46

Pig  Pb  Pf

Where:
Pig = indicated power
Pb= brake power
Pf = friction power

Pb Pf
m   1
Pig Pig
 Power and Torque versus Engine Speed at WOT
47

There is a maximum in the brake power versus

Rated brake power engine speed called the rated brake power
(RBP).

1 kW = 1.341 hp At higher speeds brake power decreases as

friction power becomes significant compared
to the indicated power
Pb  Pig  Pf
Max brake torque
There is a maximum in the torque versus
speed called maximum brake torque
(MBT).

Brake torque drops off:

• at lower speeds do to heat losses
• at higher speeds it becomes more difficult
to ingest a full charge of air.
 Typical 1998 Passenger Car Engine Characteristics
48

Vehicle Engine Displ. Max Power Max Torque BMEP at BMEP at

type (L) (hp@rpm) (lb-ft@rpm) Max BT Rated BP
(bar) (bar)
Mazda I4 1.84 122@6000 117@4000 10.8 9.9
Protégé LX
Honda I4 2.25 150@5700 152@4900 11.4 10.4
Accord EX
Mazda I4 2.26 210@5300 210@3500 15.9 15.7
Millenia S Turbo
BMW I6 2.80 190@5300 206@3950 12.6 11.5
328i
Ferrari V8 3.50 375@8250 268@6000 13.1 11.6
F355 GTS
Ferrari V12 5.47 436@6250 398@4500 12.4 11.4
456 GT
Lamborghini V12 5.71 492@7000 427@5200 12.7 11.0
Diablo VT
 Ho to measure Brake Torque and Power ?
49

 Dynamometers are used to measure torque and power over

the engine operating ranges of speed and load.

 Dynamometers use various methods to absorb the energy

output of the engine, all of which eventually ends up as
heat.

 Some dynamometers absorb energy in a mechanical friction

brake, hydraulic fluid and magnetic field
 Dynamometer vs. Engine Setup
50

 The Engine is clamped on a test bed and the shaft is connected to the
dynamometer rotor.

 The rotor is coupled electromagnetically, hydraulically or by

mechanical friction to a stator

 The torque exerted on the stator with the rotor turning is measured
by balancing the stator with weights, springs or pneumatic means.

Stator Force F

Rotor

N
Load cell
 Brake Torque and Power
51

 Work is defined as the product of a force and the distance through which
the point of application of the force moves

 When the drive shaft of the engine turns through one revolution, any
point on the periphery of the rigidly attached roter moves through a
distance of equal to

 During this movement a friction force, f, is acting on the stator.

 The friction force, f, is thus acting through the distance and

producing a work
 Brake Torque and Power
52

 Work during one revolution = Distance * f

= *f

The torque , r*f , produced by the drive shaft is opposed by a turning

moment equal to the product of the length of the moment arm b and
the force F measured by the scale

T = r*f = F*b

Work during one revolution = Fb

Power = Work/Time = Fb N/60
 Road--Load Power
Road
53

• The road-load power, Pr , is the  Where

engine power needed to
overcome rolling resistance and
the aerodynamic drag of the
vehicle.
• The road-load power, used for
testing engines (fuel economy,
emissions) when a vehicle
assumed to be driven a level
road at a steady speed.
Pr  (C R M v g  1  a C D Av Sv2 )  Sv
2
• CR = coefficient of rolling
resistance (0.012 - 0.015)
• Mv = mass of vehicle
• g = gravitational
acceleration
• a = ambient air density
• CD = drag coefficient (for
cars: 0.3 - 0.5)
• Av = frontal area of the
vehicle
Sv = vehicle speed
•
 Drag Force Parameters
54

 Auto manufacturers can improve the drag force by reducing Vehicle frontal area:
• 2005 Corvette is 0.57 m2
• Most cars around 0.8 m2
• 2006 Hummer H3 is 1.56 m2

 Drag coefficient CD:

• 2004 Toyota Prius – 0.26

• 2005 Porsche Boxster – 0.29
• 1983 Audi 100 – 0.3
• 2006 Dodge Challanger – 0.33
• 2003 Hummer – 0.57
• Formula 1 car – 0.7 to 1.1
 Automobile transmission
55

 Engine operates between 600 – 7000 rpm whereas car wheels rotate at 0-1800 rpm
 There is speed reduction between engine rpm and wheels rpm

• Highest torque is obtained in the mid engine speed range while the greatest torque is
often required at the lowest wheel speed

• Transmission produces high torque at low car speeds and also operates at highway
speeds with the engine operating in the same speed range
•

• Automatic transmission – gears change automatically based on input data from the
sensors on the engine and the transmission (e.g., engine speed, vehicle speed, throttle
position, brake pedal position)

• Manual transmission – gears are changed based on operator input

 Automobile transmission
56

Differential provides
Further gear ratio (3:1)

Planetary gear system

 Gears
Gears change the speed of rotation and torque transmitted between shafts

Consider a simple gear set consisting of two gears:

ωo
ωi
Ro Gear ratio (GR) is the
Ro GR  number of turns of the input
Ri Ri shaft required to give one
revolution of the output shaft
V c, F c

Vc  i Ri  o Ro Fc  Ti / Ri  To / Ro
R    Ro 
o   i i  i To   Ti  GR  Ti
 Ro  GR  Ri 
 Automobile Transmission
58

 An automobile is more complicated because you need several gear ratios so the car
can accelerate smoothly (shift for power or fuel economy)

 Automatic transmission uses two sets of planetary gears to give three or four
forward gear ratios and one reverse

 Manual transmission typically has five forward gears and a reverse

Gear GR ωo/ωi To/Ti

1 3:1 1/3 3
2 2.5:1 2/5 5/2
3 1.5:1 2/3 3/2
4 1:1 1 1
5 0.75:1 4/3 3/4
59
500
1999 Neon DOHC
Engine
450
1st gear (GR=3.54)
2nd gear (GR=2.13)
400 3rd gear (GR=1.36)
4th gear (GR=1.03)
350 5th gear (GR=0.72)

300
Torque (Ft-lb)

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
Engine speed (RPM)
 A 2004 Chevrolet Corvette C5 ZO6 with a six-
six -speed manual transmission
60

 A 2004 Chevrolet Corvette C5 ZO6 with a six-speed manual transmission

has the following gear ratios in the transmission:

 In1st gear, the engine makes 2.97 revolutions for every revolution of the
transmission’s output.

 In 4th gear, the gear ratio of 1:1 means that the engine and the transmission's
output rotate at the same speed.
Gear Ratio
1st gear 2.97:1
2nd gear 2.07:1
3rd gear 1.43:1
4th gear 1.00:1
5th gear 0.84:1
6th gear 0.56:1
reverse 3.38:
 A 2004 Chevrolet Corvette C5 ZO6 with a six-
six -speed manual transmission
61

 5th and 6th gears are known as overdrive gears, in which the output
of the transmission is revolving faster than the engine's output.

 The Corvette above has an axle ratio of 3.42:1, meaning that for
every 3.42 revolutions of the transmission’s output, the wheels make
one revolution.

 The differential ratio multiplies with the transmission ratio, so in 1st

gear, the engine makes 10.16 revolutions for every revolution of the
wheels.
 Specific Power
62

 Specific power output of an engine is defined as the power output per

unit piston area.

 It is a measure of the engine designer’s success in using the available

piston area regardless of cylinder size.

Pb Pb  nR
specific power, SP  bmep 
VD  N
AP

bmep  U p
specific power , SP 
nR
 Specific Fuel Consumption (sfc
sfc))
63

 sfc shows how much fuel is consumed by an engine to do a certain amount

of work.
 Specific fuel consumption represents the mass or volume of fuel an engine
consumes per hour while it produces 1 kW of power.
 It depends on
 Engine size
 Operation load
 Engine design

 Specific fuel consumption is given in kilograms of fuel per

kilowatt-hour.
 For transportation vehicles fuel economy is generally given as mpg, or
L/100 km.
 Specific fuel consumption and efficiency
64

 Specific fuel consumption (sfc) is fuel flow rate per unit power output.
 It measures how efficiently an engine is using the fuel supplied to
produce work:

m f m f ( g / s) m f ( g / h)
sfc  sfc(mg / J )  sfc( g / kW .h) 
P(kW ) P(kW )
P
 Brake power gives brake specific fuel consumption:
m f
bsfc 
Pb

 Indicated power gives indicated specific fuel consumption:

m f
isfc 
Pi
 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption vs Engine Size
65

 Brake specific fuel consumption generally decreases with engine size,

being best (lowest) for very large engines.

One reason for this is less heat loss

due to the higher volume to surface
area ratio of the combustion
chamber in large engines.

Also large engines operate at

lower speeds which reduce friction
losses.

cylinder surface area BL 1

 2 
cylinder volume B L B
 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption vs Engine Speed
66

 Brake specific fuel consumption decreases as engine speed

increases, reaches a minimum, and then increases at high
speeds.

Fuel consumption increases at

high speeds because of greater
friction losses.

At low engine speed, the longer

time per cycle allows more heat
loss and fuel consumption goes
up.
 Performance Maps

Using a dynamometer to measure the torque and fuel mass flow rate for different throttle
positions you can calculate:

2  T  nR m f Pb  (2  N )  T
bmep  bsfc 
Vd Wb
Performance map is used to
display the bsfc over the engines
bmep@WOT
full load and speed range.

Constant bsfc contours from a

two-liter four cylinder SI engine
 Examples on IC Engine performance
68
 Engine Performance Map
69
 Engine Thermal Efficiencies
70

 The time for combustion in the cylinder is very short so not all the fuel
may be consumed or local temperatures may not favor combustion

 A small fraction of the fuel may not react and exits with the exhaust
gas

 The combustion efficiency is defined as:

actual heat input Qin

C  
theoretical heat input m f QHV

Where Qin = heat added by combustion per cycle

mf = mass of fuel added to cylinder per cycle
QHV = heating value of the fuel (chemical energy per unit mass)
 Energy flow
71
 Indicated thermal efficiency (ηith)
72

 Indicated thermal efficiency (ηith)

 is the ratio of energy in the indicated power, Pi, to the

input fuel energy in appropriate units

Pi Pi Pi
ith   

rate of heat input per cycle Qin m f QHVC

 Indicated thermal efficiencies are typically 50% to 60%

and brake thermal efficiencies are usually about 30%
 Efficiency(ηbth)
Brake Thermal Efficiency(η
73

 Is the ratio of energy in the brake power Pb to the input fuel

energy in appropriate units
Pb Pb Pb
bth   

rate of heat input per cycle Qin m f QHVC
 Thermal efficiency
74

From specific fuel consumption

m f ith 
Pi P
 i 
Pi
sfc  rate of heat input per cycle Q in m f QHVC
P

1
ith 
isfc QHVC
or

1
bth 
bsfc QHVC
 Fuel conversion efficiency
75

 Fuel conversion efficiency is defined as:

Work per cycle WC P 1
f    
Theortical Heat input per cycle m f QHV m f QHV sfc QHV

 Thus thermal efficiency may be defined as:

f
t 
C
 Air--Fuel Ratio and Fuel-
Air Fuel-Air Ratio
76

 The relative proportions of the fuel and air in the engine cylinder are very
important from the standpoint of combustion and the efficiency of the engine.

 Air-Fuel ratio (AF) or Fuel-Air ratio (FA) are used to describe the mixture
ratio of the charge.
 Air--Fuel Ratio and Fuel-
Air Fuel-Air Ratio
77

 For SI engine hydrocarbon fuel:

 Ideal or Stoichiometric AF is about 15:1 (14.7:1)

 Combustion possible in the range of 6:1 to 25:1

 For CI engine hydrocarbon fuel:

 Ideal or Stoichiometric AF is also about 15 (14.7:1)

 Combustion possible in the range of 18:1 to 70:1
 Fuel--Air (F/A) or Air-
Fuel Air-Fuel Ratio (A/F)
78

 In the SI engine the fuel-air ratio practically remains a constant

over a wide range of operation.

 In CI engines at a given speed the air flow does not vary with
load; it is the fuel flow that varies directly with load.

 Therefore, the term fuel-air ratio is generally used instead of

air-fuel ratio.
 Fuel--Air (F/A) or Air-
Fuel Air-Fuel Ratio (A/F)
79

 A mixture that contains just enough air for complete combustion of all the fuel in the
mixture is called a chemically correct or stoichiometric fuel-air ratio.

 A mixture having more fuel than that in a chemically correct mixture is termed as rich
mixture and a mixture that contains less fuel (or excess air) is called a lean mixture.

 The ratio of actual fuel-air ratio to stoichiometric fuel-air ratio is called equivalence
ratio and is denoted by
 Φ=1 Stoichiometric
 Actual fuel  Air ratio 
 Φ>1 Rich Mixture    
 Stoichiometric fuel  air ratio 
 Φ<1 Lean Mixture
 Equivalent ratio & Relative A/F ratio
80
 Volumetric efficiency CI (V )
81

 The volumetric efficiency is used to measure the effectiveness of an engine's

induction process.

 Volumetric efficiency is usually used with four-stroke cycle engines which have a
distinct induction process.

 It is defined as the volume flow rate of air into the intake system divided by the
rate at which volume is displaced by the piston:

  

V ,CI 
V

2 m a

ma 2(ma  m f )
N  a ,i VD N  a ,iVD  v , SI 
VD  a,i Vd N
2
Where: ma is the mass of air inducted into the cylinder per cycle.

 where ρa is the density of air at atmospheric conditions Po, To and for an ideal gas ra =Po / RaTo
and Ra = 0.287 kJ/kg-K (at standard conditions ρa= 1.181 kg/m3
 Volumetric efficiency
82

 Can be measured:
 At the inlet port
 Intake of the engine
 Any suitable location in the intake manifold

 If measured at the intake of the engine, it is also called the overall

volumetric efficiency.
 (ηv)
Volumetric Efficiency (η
83

 High volumetric efficiency increases engine power.

 Volumetric Efficiency can be greater than one where Super charger or
turbocharger fitted
 Turbo charging is capable of increasing volumetric efficiency up to 50%.
 Typical values of volumetric efficiency for SI engine at wide-open throttle (WOT)
are in the range 75% to 90%, going down to much lower values as the throttle is
closed.
 Volumetric efficiency depends upon
 Induction and Exhaust system flow friction
 Induction system heat transfer
 Valve timing effect
 Valve flow friction
 Choking in the inlet valve and port
 In cylinder heat transfer
 (ηv)
Volumetric Efficiency (η
84
 (ηv)
Volumetric Efficiency (η
85
 Volumetric Efficiency
86

Air Entering the Engine

ηV 
Engine Displacement
 Engine Specific Weight and Specific Volume
87

 Engine weight and bulk volume for a given rated power are
important in many applications. Two parameters useful for
comparing these attributes form one engine to another are:

engineWeight engine volume

Specific Weight  Specific volume 
rated power rated power

 These parameters indicate the effectiveness with which the engine

designer has used the engine materials and packaged the engine
components.
 Calorific Value (CV)
88

 Calorific value of a fuel is the thermal energy released per unit

quantity of the fuel when the fuel is burned completely and the
products of combustion are cooled back to the initial temperature of
the combustible mixture

 Other terms used for the calorific value are heating value and heat of
Combustion.

 When the products of combustion are cooled to 25 °C practically all

the water vapour resulting from the combustion process is condensed.
 Calorific Value (CV)
89

 When H2O is in products is condensed to liquid additional

heat is realized and the total heat liberated is called Higher
Calorific Value (HCV)

 When H2O in the products is in the vapor form heat is not

removed this calorific value is called is called Lower calorific
Values (LCV)

 L.C.V. = H.C.V. –(Mass of H2O * 2454.1 ) in kJ

 Relationships Between Performance Parameters

By combining equations presented in this section the following additional

90
working equations are obtained:

 f  v  N  Vd  QHV   a  (1 / AF )
P
nR

 f  v  Vd  QHV   a  (1 / AF )
T
2  nR

mep   f  v  QHV   a  (1 / AF )
 Engine Performance Curves
91
1. Imep
2. Bmep and torque
3. Indicated power
4. Brake power
5. Indicated thermal efficiency
6. Brake thermal efficiency
7. Specific fuel consumption