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30 Nov.

Second: Dropwise Condensation

Dropwise condensation, characterized by countless droplets of varying diameters
on the condensing surface instead of a continuous liquid film, is one of the most

effective mechanisms of heat transfer, and extremely large heat transfer

coefficients can be achieved with this mechanism as shown in Figure (8).

Figure (8): Dropwise condensation of steam on a vertical surface (from Hampson

and Özi¸sik, Ref. 11).

In dropwise condensation, the small droplets that form at the nucleation

sites on the surface grow as a result of continued condensation, gather into
large droplets, and slide down when they reach a certain size, clearing the surface

and exposing it to vapor. There is no liquid film in this case to resist heat
transfer.

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As a result, with dropwise condensation, heat transfer coefficients can be

achieved that are more than 10 times larger than those associated with film

condensation.
Large heat transfer coefficients enable designers to achieve a specified heat
transfer rate with a smaller surface area, and thus a smaller (and less

expensive) condenser. Therefore, dropwise condensation is the preferred mode

of condensation in heat transfer applications.

Dropwise condensation has been studied experimentally for a number of

surface–fluid combinations.
Of these, the studies on the condensation of steam on copper surfaces has
attracted the most attention because of their widespread use in steam power plants.
P. Griffith (1983) recommends these simple correlations for dropwise
condensation of steam on copper surfaces:

…..(21)

where Tsat is in °C and the heat transfer coefficient h dropwise is in W/m2 · °C.
The very high heat transfer coefficients achievable with dropwise condensation

are of little significance if the material of the condensing surface is not

a good conductor like copper or if the thermal resistance on the other side of
the surface is too large.

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In steady operation, heat transfer from one medium to another depends on the

sum of the thermal resistances on the path of heat flow, and a large thermal
resistance may overshadow all others and dominate the heat transfer process.
In such cases, improving the accuracy of a small resistance (such as one due
to condensation or boiling) makes hardly any difference in overall heat transfer
calculations.

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 Heat Exchangers
The process of heat exchange between two fluids that are at different

temperatures and separated by a solid wall occurs in many engineering

applications. The device used to achieve this exchange is termed a heat

exchanger.

Heat exchangers are commonly used in practice in a wide range of applications,

such as:

- heating and air-conditioning,

- power production, and
- Chemical processing
- Car cooling

Heat transfer in a heat exchanger usually involves convection in each fluid

and conduction through the wall separating the two fluids.

The simplest type of heat exchanger consists of two concentric pipes of different

diameters, as shown in Figure below, called the double-pipe heat exchanger.

The double-pipe heat exchanger.

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One fluid in a double-pipe heat exchanger flows through the smaller pipe while

the other fluid flows through the annular space between the two pipes.

- Three types of flow arrangement are possible in a double-pipe:

1- The parallel-flow arrangement
2- The counter-flow arrangement
3- The cross-flow arrangement
In the parallel-flow arrangement of Figure 1, the hot and cold fluids enter at the
same end, flow in the same direction, and leave at the same end.

Figure 1: The parallel-flow arrangement

In the counter-flow arrangement as shown in Figure 2. The fluids enter at
opposite ends, flow in opposite directions, and leave at opposite ends.

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 Figure 2: The counter- flow arrangement
In the cross flow, the fluids may move in cross flow (perpendicular to each
other), as shown in Figures 3 and 4.

Figure 3: The cross flow arrangement.

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 Figure 4: Shell-and-tube heat exchanger with one shell pass and one
tube pass (cross counter-flow mode of operation).

Specific forms differ according to the number of shell-and-tube passes, and the
simplest form, which involves single tube and shell passes, is shown in Figure 4.
Baffles are usually installed to increase the convection coefficient of the shell-side
fluid by inducing turbulence and a cross-flow velocity component relative to the
tubes. In addition, the baffles physically support the tubes, reducing flow-induced
tube vibration. Baffled heat exchangers with one shell pass and two tube passes
and with two shell passes and four tube passes are shown in Figures 5 and 6
respectively.

Figure 5: Shell-and-tube heat exchangers, one shell pass and two tube passes

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Figure 6: Figure 5: Shell-and-tube heat exchangers, two shell passes and four tube
passes.
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Dec.2
Another type of heat exchanger, which is specifically designed to realize a
large heat transfer surface area per unit volume, is the compact heat exchanger.
The ratio of the heat transfer surface area of a heat exchanger to its volume is

called the area density( ).

A special and important class of heat exchangers (Compact) is used to achieve a
very large:
-  ≥ 400 m2/m3 for liquids and
-  ≥ 700 m2/m3 for gases
A heat exchanger with =700 m2/m3 is classified as being compact.
Examples of compact heat exchangers are:
- Car radiators ( = 1000 m2/m3),
- Glass ceramic gas turbine heat exchangers ( = 6000 m2/m3),
- Regenerator of engine ( = 15,000 m2/m3), and

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 - Human lung ( = 20,000 m2/m3).
Compact heat exchangers enable us to achieve high heat transfer rates between
two fluids in a small volume, and they are commonly used in applications with
strict limitations on the weight and volume of heat exchangers, Figure. 7.

Figure 7: Compact heat exchanger cores.

(a) Fin–tube (flat tubes, continuous plate fins).
(b) Fin–tube (circular tubes, continuous plate fins).
(c) Fin–tube (circular tubes, circular fins).
(d) Plate–fin (single pass). (e) Plate–fin (multi-pass).

Heat exchangers are often given specific names to reflect the specific application
for which they are used.

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For example,
- A condenser is a heat exchanger in which one of the fluids is cooled and
condenses as it flows through the heat exchanger.
- A boiler is another heat exchanger in which one of the fluids absorbs
heat and vaporizes.
- A space radiator is a heat exchanger that transfers heat from the hot fluid to
the surrounding space by radiation.

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