1. What do you mean by Research?

Explain significance in modern Items

It is scientific and systematic search for pertinent information of specific topics. Research is defined
as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing knowledge in a new and creative way so
as to generate new concepts, methodologies and understandings. This could include synthesis and
analysis of previous research to the extent that it leads to new and creative outcomes.

This definition of research is consistent with a broad notion of research and experimental
development (R&D) as comprising of creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to
increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humanity, culture and society, and the use
of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications.

This definition of research encompasses pure and strategic basic research, applied research and
experimental development. Applied research is original investigation undertaken to acquire new
knowledge but directed towards a specific, practical aim or objective (including a client-driven
purpose).

Activities that support the conduct of research and therefore meet the definition of research include:

 professional, technical, administrative or clerical support staff directly engaged in activities

essential to the conduct of research
 management of staff who are either directly engaged in the conduct of research or are
providing professional, technical, administrative or clerical support or assistance to those staff
 the activities and training of HDR students enrolled at the HEP
 the development of HDR training and courses
 the supervision of students enrolled at the HEP and undertaking HDR training and courses
 research and experimental development into applications software, new programming
languages and new operating systems (such R&D would normally meet the definition of research)

Activities that do not support the conduct of research must be excluded, such as:

 scientific and technical information services

 general purpose or routine data collection
 standardization and routine testing
 feasibility studies (except into research and experimental development projects)
 specialized routine medical care
 commercial, legal and administrative aspects of patenting, copyright or licensing activities
 Routine computer programming, systems work or software maintenance.

Significance of Research
The main purpose of research is to information to prove theory and contribute to developing
knowledge in a field or study.
 All progress is born of inquiry. Increased amounts of research make progress possible. Research
inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical habits of
thinking and organization.
 The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or to the
economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times. Research, as an aid to economic
policy, has gained added importance, both for government and business.
 Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system. For
instance, government’s budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and desires of the people
and on the availability of revenues to meet these needs. Through research we can devise
alternative policies and can as well examine the consequences of each of these alternatives.
 Decision-making may not be a part of research, but research certainly facilitates the decisions of
the policy maker. Thus, research is considered necessary with regard to the allocation of nation’s
resources.
 Another area in government, where research is necessary, is collecting
information on the economic and social structure of the nation. Such information indicates
what is happening in the economy and what changes are taking place.

2. Briefly describe the different steps involved in a research process

Research Process: 10 Steps in Research Process

Step – 1:  Formulating the research problem:

It’s the key to research process problem formulation means converting the management problem to
research problem. The first and foremost task in the entire process of scientific research is to identify
a research problem. A well-identified problem will lead the researcher to accomplish all-important
phases of the research process, starting from setting objectives to the selection of the research
methodology. But the core question is: whether all problems require research. We have countless
problems around us, but all that we encounter do not qualify as research problems, and thus, these
do not need to be researched. Keeping this point in view, we must draw a line between a research
 problem and a non-research problem. Intuitively, researchable problems are those who have a
possibility of thorough verification investigation, which can be effected through the analysis and
collection of data, while the non-research problems do not need to go through these processes.

Step – 2: Extensive literature survey:

Once the problem is formulated brief summary of it should be written down. In this process it should
be remembered that one source will lead another.

A review of relevant literature is an integral part of the research process. It enables the researcher to
formulate his problem in terms of the specific aspects of the general area of his interest that has not
been so far researched. Such a review, not only provides him exposure to a larger body of knowledge
but also equips him with enhanced knowledge to efficiently follow the research process.

In sum, we enumerate the following arguments in favor of reviewing the literature:

 It avoids duplication of the work that has been done in the recent past.

 It helps the researcher to find out what others have learned and reported on the problem.

 It helps the researcher to become familiar with the types of methodology followed by others.

 It helps the researcher to understand what concepts and theories are relevant to his area of
investigation.

 It helps the researcher to understand if there are any significant controversies, contradictions,
and inconsistencies in findings.

 It allows the researcher to understand if there are any unanswered research questions.

 It might help the researcher to develop an analytical framework.

 It will help the researcher to consider the inclusion of variables in his research that he might
not otherwise have thought about.

Step – 3: Development of working hypotheses:

After extensive literature survey researcher should sated in clear terms the working hypothesis..
 An objective will precisely say what should be researched, to delineate the type of information that
should be collected, and provide a framework for the scope of the study. The best expression of a
research objective is a well-formulated, testable research hypothesis. The role of the hypothesis is to
guide the researcher by determining the area of research and to keep him on the right truck.

A hypothesis is an unproven statement or proposition that can be refuted or supported by empirical

data. Hypothetical statements assert a possible answer to a research question.

Step -4:  Preparing the research design:

The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms the researcher will be required to
prepare research design. That means he will be have to state the conceptual structure with in which
research would be conducted. The research design is the blueprint or framework for fulfilling
objectives and answering research questions. It is a master plan specifying the methods and
procedures for collecting, processing, and analyzing the collected data. There are four basic research
designs that a researcher can use to conduct his or her study;

1. survey,

2. experiment,

3. secondary data study, and

4. Observational study.

The type of research design to be chosen from among the above four designs depends primarily on
four factors:

 The type of problem

 The objectives of the study,

 The existing state of knowledge about the problem that is being studied, and

 The resources are available for the study.

Step – 5: Determining sample design:

Sampling is an important and separate step in the research process. The basic idea of sampling is that
it involves any procedure that uses a relatively small number of items or portions (called
a sample) of a universe (called population) to conclude the whole population. It contrasts with the
process of complete enumeration, in which every member of the population is included.

Such a complete enumeration is referred to as census.

A population is the total collection of elements about which we wish to make some inference or
generalization. A sample is a part of the population, carefully selected to represent that population.
If certain statistical procedures are followed in selecting the sample, it should have the same
characteristics as the population as a whole. These procedures are embedded in the sample design.

Sample design refers to the methods to be followed in selecting a sample from the population and
the estimating technique, vis-a-vis formula for computing the sample statistics.

The basic question is, then, how to select a sample?

To answer this question, we must have acquaintance with the sampling methods. These methods are
basically of two types: probability sampling and non-probability sampling. Probability sampling
ensures every unit a known nonzero probability of selection within the target population. If there is
no feasible alternative, a non-probability sampling method may be employed. The basis of such
selection is entirely dependent on the researcher’s discretion. This approach is variously called
judgment sampling, convenience sampling, accidental sampling, and purposive sampling. The most
widely used probability sampling methods are simple random sampling, stratified random
sampling, cluster sampling, and systematic sampling. They have been classified by their
representation basis and unit selection techniques.

Step – 6: Collecting data

The gathering of data may range from simple observation to a large-scale survey in any defined
population. There are many ways to collect data. The approach selected depends on the objectives of
the study, the research design, and the availability of time, money, and personnel. With the variation
in the type of data (qualitative or quantitative) to be collected, the method of data collection also
varies. The most common means for collecting quantitative data is the structured interview.
Studies that obtain data by interviewing respondents are called surveys. Data can also be collected
by using self-administered questionnaires. Telephone interviewing is another way in which data
may be collected. Other means of data collection include the use of secondary sources, such as the
census, vital registration records, official documents, previous surveys, etc. Qualitative data are
collected mainly through in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, KII, and observational
studies.

The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking into consideration the
nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial resources, available time and the
desired degree of accuracy
Step-7:  Execution of the project

Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution of the project
proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable. The researcher
should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time. If the survey is to be conducted
by means of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed. In such a situation,
questions as well as the possible answers may be coded. If the data are to be collected through interviewers,
arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of the interviewers. The training may be
given with the help of instruction manuals which explain clearly the job of the interviewers at each step.
Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the interviewers are doing their assigned job
sincerely and efficiently. A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the
survey as much realistic as possible. This, in other words, means that steps should be taken to ensure that
the survey is under statistical control so that the collected information is in accordance with the pre-defined
standard of accuracy. If some of the respondents do not cooperate, some suitable methods should be
designed to tackle this problem. One method of dealing with the non-response problem is to make a list of
the non-respondents and take a small sub-sample of them, and then with the help of experts vigorous
efforts can be made for securing response.
Data processing generally begins with the editing and coding of data. Data are edited to ensure
consistency across respondents and to locate omissions, if any. In survey data, editing reduces errors
in the recording, improves legibility, and clarifies unclear and inappropriate responses. In addition to
editing, the data also need coding. Because it is impractical to place raw data into a report,
alphanumeric codes are used to reduce the responses to a more manageable form for storage and
future processing. This coding process facilitates processing the data. The personal computer offers
an excellent opportunity in data editing and coding processes. Data analysis usually involves
reducing accumulated data to a manageable size, developing summaries, searching for patterns, and
applying statistical techniques for understanding and interpreting the findings in the light of the
research questions. Further, the researcher, based on his analysis, determines if his findings are
consistent with the formulated hypotheses and theories. The techniques to be used in analyzing data
may range from simple graphical technique to very complex multivariate analysis depending on the
objectives of the study, research design employed, and the nature of data collected. As in the case of
methods of data collection, an analytical technique appropriate in one situation may not be
appropriate for another.

Step-8: Analysis of data:

After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing them. The analysis of data
requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the application of these
categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data
should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further analysis. Thus,
researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories. Coding operation is
usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be
tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With
coding the stage is ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the
classified data are put in the form of tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A
great deal of data, especially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save time
but also make it possible to study large number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously. Analysis
work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages, coefficients, etc., by
applying various well defined statistical formulae. In the process of analysis, relationships or differences
supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to
determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s). For instance, if there are two
samples of weekly wages, each sample being drawn from factories in different parts of the same city,
giving two different mean values, then our problem may be whether the two mean values are significantly
different or the difference is just a matter of chance. Through the use of statistical tests we can establish
whether such a difference is a real one or is the result of come from different universes and if the difference
is due to chance, the conclusion would be that the two samples belong to the same universe. Similarly, the
technique of analysis of variance can help us in analyzing whether three or more varieties of seeds grown
on certain fields yield significantly different results or not. In brief, the researcher can analyses the
collected data with the help of various statistical measures.
Step- 9 Hypothesis-testing:
After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if any, he
had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual
question which should be answered while testing hypotheses. Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test,
F-test, have been developed by statisticians for the purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use
of one or more of such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing
will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start
with, generalizations established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by
subsequent researches in times to come.
Step -10. Generalizations and interpretation:
If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at
generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to
arrive at certain generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain
his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may
quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further researches.
Step – 11 Preparation of the report or the thesis:
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be
done with great care keeping in view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows:
(i) The preliminary pages;
(ii) The main text, and
(iii) The end matter.
In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements and foreword.
Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any,
given in the report.
The main text of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an explanation of
the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with various
limitations should as well be stated in this part.
(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be summarized.
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and broken-down into
readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the results of his
research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography,
i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should also be
given specially in a published research report.
3. Distinguish between research method and research methodology

Research methods or techniques*, thus, refer to the methods the researchers *At times, a distinction is also
made between research techniques and research methods. Research techniques refer to the behavior and
instruments we use in performing research operations such as making observations, recording data,
techniques of processing data and the like. Research methods refer to the behavior and instruments used in
selecting and constructing research technique. From what has been stated above, we can say that methods
are more general. It is the methods that generate techniques. However, in practice, the two terms are taken
as interchangeable and when we talk of research methods we do, by implication, include research
techniques within their compass from what has been stated above, we can say that methods are more
general. It is the methods that generate techniques. However, in practice, the two terms are taken as
interchangeable and when we talk of research methods we do.

Research method pertains to all those methods, which a researcher employs to undertake research
process, to solve the given problem. The techniques and procedure that are applied during the
course of studying research problem are known as the research method. It encompasses both
qualitative and quantitative method of performing research operations, such as survey, case study,
interview, questionnaire, observation, etc.

Definition of Research Methodology

Research Methodology, as its name suggest is the study of methods, so as to solve the research
problem. It is the science of learning the way research should be performed systematically. It refers
to the rigorous analysis of the methods applied in the stream of research, to ensure that the
conclusions drawn are valid, reliable and credible too.

Key Differences between Research Method and Research Methodology

The differences between research method and research methodology can be drawn clearly on the following
grounds:

 The research method is defined as the procedure or technique applied by the researcher to
undertake research. On the other hand, research methodology is a system of methods, used
scientifically for solving the research problem.
  The research method is nothing but the behavior or tool, employed in selecting and building
research technique. Conversely, research methodology implies the science of analyzing, the
manner in which research is conducted appropriately.
 The research method is concerned with carrying out experiment, test, surveys, interviews, etc.
As against this, research methodology is concerned with learning various techniques which
can be employed in the performance of experiment, test or survey.
 Research method covers various investigation techniques. Unlike, research methodology,
which consists of complete approach aligned towards the attainment of purpose.
 Research method intends to discover the solution to the problem at hand. In contrast,
research methodology aspires to apply appropriate procedures, with a view to ascertaining
solutions.
Comparison Chart

BASIS OF
COMPARISON
RESEARCH METHOD RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Method implies the methods Research methodology

Meaning employed by the researcher to conduct signifies way to efficiently
research. solving research problems.

Behavior and instrument used in the Science of understanding,

What is it? selection and construction of the how research is performed
research technique. methodically.

Study different techniques

Carrying out experiment, test, and which can be utilized in the
Encompasses
surveys and so on. performance of experiment,
test, surveys etc.

Entire strategy towards

Comprise of Different investigation techniques.
achievement of objective.

To discover solution to research To apply correct procedures

Objective
problem. so as to determine solutions.

4. Describe the different types of research, clearly pointing out the difference
between an experiment and survey
(I) Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different
kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.
In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive
research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the
variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects
are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example,
frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by
researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control the variables. The methods of research
utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational
methods. In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already
available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
(II) Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic
or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or
an industrial/business organization, whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations
and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or
‘basic’ research.”4 Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are
examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behavior carried on with
a view to make generalizations about human behavior, are also examples of fundamental research, but
research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an
example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a
particular institution or the copy research (research to find out whether certain communications will be read
and understood) or the marketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied research. Thus,
the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem, whereas
basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds
to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
(III) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is
applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is
concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when
we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behavior (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we
quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research. This type of research aims at
discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose . Other techniques of such
research are word association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective
techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a
particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research is especially important in the
behavioral sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behavior. Through such research
we can analyses the various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people
like practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one should seek guidance from
experimental psychologists or dislike a particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research
in
(IV) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is
generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. On the
other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for
system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being
verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a
research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things
to stimulate the production of desired information. In such a research, the researcher must first provide
himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts
(data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will
manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information. Such
research is thus characterized by the experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his
deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is
sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or
empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
(V) Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above
stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on
the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor. Form the point of
view of time, we can think of research either as one-time research or longitudinal research. In the former
case the research is confined to a single time-period, whereas in the latter case the research is carried on
over several time-periods. Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation
research, depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out. Research can as well be
understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follows case-study methods or in-depth
approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies usually go deep into the causes of things or
events that interest us, using very small samples and very deep probing data gathering devices. The
research may be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the
development of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research studies are those with
substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested. Historical research is that which utilizes
historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of the past, including the
philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time. Research can also be classified as
conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to
pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes.
Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is not
 free to embark upon research according to his own inclination. Operations research is an example of
decision oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing executive departments with a
quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under their control.

What is an Experiment?

From the Latin word, “experior” which means “to attempt” or “to experience”, experiment is defined
as testing a hypothesis by carrying out a procedure under highly controlled conditions.

What is a Survey?

From the Medieval Latin word, “supervidere” which means “to see”, survey is defined as having a
comprehensive view of certain topics. Survey studies are largely conducted to look into people’s
opinions, feelings, and thoughts. It is best suited for descriptive research which seeks to answer
“what” questions regarding the respondents..
Summary of Experiment Vs Survey

 Both experiment and survey methods are vital in collecting data.

 Experiment came from the Latin word “exterior” which means “to attempt” or “to experience”
while survey came from Latin word “supervisee” which means “to see”.
 Experiment mainly deals with primary data while surveys can cover both primary and
secondary data.
 While experiments are often done with smaller samples, surveys can be effective with larger
samples.
 Experiments are often concerned with laboratory research and causal analysis while surveys
are mostly associated with field research and correlational analysis.
 As compared to surveys, conducting experiments is usually costlier due to the equipment and
highly controlled conditions.
 Experiments cover more specific topics while surveys can assess a wider range of interests.

5. What is research problem? Define the main issues which should receive the attention of the
researcher in formulating the research problem. Give suitable examples elucidate your point

formulating your Research Problem: Simple Methods that Will Help

 What is a research problem?
 How to identify a research problem?
 What is a statement of a research problem?
 Basic characteristics of research problem
 Formulating your research problem with ease
 Specific research objectives
 Review the context of your research problem
 Why explore the nature of your research problem?
 Determine variable relationships
 What are the consequences of alternative approaches?
 Structuring your research problem
 Tips for defining your research problem
 The importance of revising
 Do you have a good research problem?
 What should a formal version be like?
 Expert assistance: benefits of hiring professional writers

Before you start any form of study, get a clear understanding of what a research problem is and learn
to formulate it properly. After defining it, you can start writing your paper. It means that research
problems or questions are the fuel driving the entire scientific process and they serve as the
foundation of any experimental design or method, from case studies to real experiments.

Why does it matter to researchers? It’s an important problem that you state in your research paper
to define your specific study area and provide a brief synopsis of how you develop a hypothesis.
The quality of a research problem defines your success.

What is a research problem?

It’s a clear and definite statement or expression about your chosen area of concern, a difficulty to
eliminate, a condition to improve, or a troubling problem that exists in theory, literature, and
practice. A research problem indicates a need for its meaningful investigation. It doesn’t state how to
do something and a researcher shouldn’t present a value question or offer a broad research proposal.
A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved, a difficulty
to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or in practice that
points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. In some social science
disciplines the research problem is typically posed in the form of a question. A research problem does
not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad proposition, or present a value question.

Basic characteristics of research problem

For your research problem to be effective, make sure that it has these basic characteristics:

 Reflecting on important issues or needs;

 Basing on factual evidence (it’s non-hypothetical);
 Being manageable and relevant;
 Suggesting a testable and meaningful hypothesis (avoiding useless answers).

Formulating your research problem with ease

Formulating your research problem enables you to make a purpose of your study clear to yourself
and target readers. Focus your paper on providing relevant data to address it. A problem statement
is an effective and essential tool to keep you on track with research and evaluate it. How can you
formulate a powerful research problem? Consider 5 ways to formulate the research problem:

 Specify your research objectives;

 Review its context or environment;
 Explore its nature;
 Determine variable relationships;
 Anticipate the possible consequences of alternative approaches.

Specific research objectives

A clear statement that defines all objectives can help you conduct and develop effective and
meaningful research. They should be manageable to bring you success. A few goals will help you
keep your study relevant. This statement also helps professors evaluation the questions your
research project answers and different methods that you use to address them.

Review the context of your research problem

It’s necessary to work hard to define and test all kinds of environmental variables to make your
project successful. Why do you need to do that? This step can help you define if the important
findings of your study will deliver enough data to be worth considering. Identify specific
environmental variables that may potentially affect your research and start formulating effective
methods to control all of them.

Why explore the nature of your research problem?

Research problems may range from simple to complex, and everything depends on a range of
variables and their relationships. Some of them can be directly relevant to specific research
questions, while others are completely unimportant for your project.

Why should you understand their nature? This knowledge enables you to develop effective solutions.
To get a deep understanding of all dimensions, think about focus groups and other relevant details to
provide the necessary insight into a particular question.

Determine variable relationships

Scientific, social, and other studies often focus on creating a certain sequence of repeating behaviors
over time. What does your project entail? Completing the entire process involves:

 Identifying the variables that affect possible solutions to your research problem;
 Deciding on the degree to which you can use and control all of them for study purposes;
 Determining functional relationships between existing variables;
 Choose the most critical variables for a solution of your research problem.

During the formulation stage, it’s necessary to consider and generate as many potential approaches
and variable relationships as you can.

What are the consequences of alternative approaches?

There are different consequences that each course of action or approach can bring, and that’s why
you need to anticipate them. Why communicate possible outcomes? It’s a primary goal of any
research process.
Structuring your research problem
Look at scientific papers to notice their research questions because they are crucial for determining
the quality of answers, methods, and findings. Quantitative designs use deductive reasoning to state
a testable hypothesis. Qualitative methods use inductive reasoning to make a strong statement of
your future thesis.

Tips for defining your research problem

You need to formulate it during the initial stage of a scientific process or study. For instance,
literature reviews, research, and studies of previous experiments are likely to provide you with
vague areas of interest. Look at the area that brings interesting results. Make sure that it has a
potential for exploring. Think about reviewing a successful experiment and try to disagree with its
results, methodology, and tests, define the entire process, and retest its hypothesis.

The importance of revising

Get useful feedback from teachers, students, and other people to successful revise your research
question. A final decision is always up to you. Feel free to decide which advice is helpful. Take the
following details into account to simplify this process:

 Agreement among readers that a research problem is very broad;

 Suggestions that you have a certain misunderstanding of the chosen matter;
 Advice for narrowing your subject down or thinking of a better way to focus it;
 Specifics about your misunderstanding;
 A consensus that your research question is very narrow and interesting ideas to make it more
general;
 Comments about its clarity and phrasing.

After revising your initial research problem, its possible solutions, and above-mentioned details,
you’re ready to write a formal version.

Do you have a good research problem?

Do a simple self-test to determine whether it’s good enough for your scientific project and make sure
that:

 Your question allows for a number of potential answers;

  It’s testable, flexible, and open-ended;
 You have the evidence necessary to address it;
 It’s possible to break it into resolvable parts;
 It’s precise and clear;
 You don’t use any vague terms that require definitions;
 It’s suitable for the length of your paper;
 You can explain why your solutions matter;
 You made premises explicit.

What should a formal version be like?

Any research starts with a problem that you derive from the topic that attracts your attention after
general reading, classroom discussions, etc. Most instructors prefer to set general topics. To
formulate a powerful research problem and impress them, it should be:

 Interesting;
 Relevant;
 Specific and focused;
 Researchable.

Your question should have enough bearing on a given topic and stay within the limits set by your
professors in advance. Pick an interesting subject to stimulate your motivation. It shouldn’t be very
vague or broad. If your research question is broad, you can make it more specific by specific aspects,
time periods, or events. There shouldn’t be more than a few possible answers.

Research Problem is the very first step in the Research Process. It necessarily will guide you
throughout the entire research work. The research problem functions as the base of a research study
in fact. If it is well formulated, you would expect better research results to implement in practice that
is the ultimate aim of a research study. If you want to solve a problem, you must know the problem
precisely. So, formulating a research problem is much more important. We will explain clearly the
nature of a research problem & steps of formulating a problem.

What Does Mean Research Problem?

Research Problem means questions that researchers want to answer or any assumption or assertion
that we want to challenge or to investigate. These questions can become a research problem or
research topic for your study.
However, most importantly, keep in mind that not all questions can become a research problem.
Someone can find some research questions extremely difficult to study. Significant research
questions might happen frequently to us. But, the process of transforming them into a research
problem or research topic in an effective way is not easy work at all.

If you are a newbie in research it might seem easy to formulate a research problem. But, in fact, it
requires considerable knowledge about the study area and Research Methodology.

If you examine a question closely, you will instantly realize the complexity of formulation an idea into
a problem that is researchable.

For example- if the question is “What impact doe’s social media have on people’s minds?”

How do you transform this question into a research problem or research topic?

Well. First of all, you should specify this question. What type of social media do you like to study?
Specify people’s age. Then, what kind of effect? Is it social or psychological or economic?

But, if the question is “What impact does daily use of Facebook have on the study attention of
under-20s?

This question defines its concepts clearly. It is researchable through both qualitative and quantitative
research methods.

Objectives of the Research Problem

Objectives define specific goals we set out to achieve in our research study. The objective directs us
what we want to reach through our study. Therefore, it is inevitable to describe objectives as clearly
and specifically as possible.

Objectives should write down under two headings. (1) main objectives, (2) sub-objectives.

The main objective is the total statement of the main goal of the study. It also provides us with the
main associations and relationships that we intend to explore and establish.
On the other hand, sub-objectives are the specific contexts of the research topic that researchers
desire to investigate within the basic framework of the study.

Key Factors to Consider

When you formulate a research problem, you should take into account some key factors which will
help you to ensure that your research study would be measurable and that you will remain
motivated. These considerations are (a) Interest, (b) Magnitude, (c) Measurement of concepts, (d)
Depth of expertise, (e) Relevancy of the study, (f) Data source, (g) Ethical issues.

7 Basic Steps in Formulating a Research Problem

What is the most essential part of your research project? It is obviously the formulating of a research
problem or selecting your research topic. This is because of the quality & relevancy of your research
work completely depends on it. The process of formulating a research problem requires a series of
steps. Look at 7 basic steps in formulating a research problem. 

1. Identify the Broad Study Area

This is a great idea to thinking about the subject area of your interest. You should identify the field in
which you would like to work a long time after your academic study or graduation. It will help you
tremendously to get an interesting research topic. For example- if you do graduation in sociology,
you must decide your research study area in sociology. You might choose social problems like
unemployment, road accident, community health, HIV/AIDS, etc. 

2. Dissect the Broad Study Area into Subareas

In this stage, you need to dissect and specify your research broad study area into some subareas. You
would consult with your supervisor in this regard. Write down subareas. For example- if you select
unemployment as your broad study area, then dissect it into unemployment & social stability,
unemployment & crime, unemployment & individual frustration, etc. In this case, your research title
maybe how unemployment produces criminal activities. Or how it creates frustration in mind
among unemployed people.

3. Mark-up your Interest

It is almost impossible to study all subareas. That’s why you must identify your area of interest. You
should select issues in which you are passionate about. Your interest must be the most important
determinant of your research study. Once you selected your research study of interest, you should
delete other subareas in which you do not feel interested. Keep in mind that if you lose your interest
in your research study it won’t bring any results eventually.

4. Study Research Questions

In this step in formulating a research problem, you would point out your research questions under
the area of interest as you decided in the previous stage. If you select unemployment as your study
area, your questions might be “how unemployment impacts on individual social status?” “How it
affects social stability?” “How it creates frustration on individuals?” Define what research problem or
question you are going to study? The more you study the research problem it will be just as relevant
and fruitful to solve the problem indeed.

5. Set out Objectives

Set out conspicuously your research root objectives and sub-objectives. Research objectives
essentially come from research questions. If you do study “Impact of unemployment on individual
social status” as your research problem or research question. Then, set out what would you like to
explore to address. For Example- your main objective might be to examine the unemployment status
in a particular society or state. And sub-objectives would be its effects on individuals’ social life.
Setting out specific main and sub-objectives are so crucial. 

6. Assess your Objectives

Now, you should evaluate your objectives to make sure the possibility of attaining them through your
research study. Assess your objectives in terms of time, budget, resources, and technical expertise at
your hand. You should also assess your research questions in light of reality. Determine what
outcome will bring your study. If you can assess accurately the purpose of the research study it will
bring significant results in the long run. In fact, research objectives determine the value of the study
you are going to work out.

7. Check Back
Before you go on research work you should review all steps in formulating a research problem and
all the things that you have done till now for the purpose of your research study. Then, ask yourself
about your enthusiasm. Do you have enough resources to step up? If you are quite satisfied, then you
forward to undertake your research work. You can change any of your plans in the light of reality if it
requires.

6. How do you define research problems? Give three example to illustrate your answer
why is the research problem important?

Your topic is interesting and you have lots to say about it, but this isn’t a strong enough basis for
academic research. Without a well-defined research problem, you are likely to end up with an
unfocused and unmanageable project.

You might end up repeating what other people have already said, trying to say too much, or doing
research without a clear purpose and justification. You need a problem in order to do research that
contributes new and relevant insights.

Whether you’re planning your thesis, starting a research paper or writing a research proposal, the
research problem is the first step towards knowing exactly what you’ll do and why.

Step 1: Identify a broad problem area

As you discuss and read about your topic, look for under-explored aspects and areas of concern,
conflict or controversy. Your goal is to find a gap that your research project can fill.

Practical research problems

If you are doing practical research, you can identify a problem by reading reports, following up on
previous research, and talking to people who work in the relevant field or organization. You might
look for:

 Issues with performance or efficiency in an organization

 Processes that could be improved in an institution
 Areas of concern among practitioners in a field
 Difficulties faced by specific groups of people in society

If your research is connected to a job or internship, you will need to find a research problem that has
practical relevance for the organization.
Examples of practical research problems

Voter turnout in region X has been decreasing, in contrast to the rest of the country.

Department A of Company B has a high staff turnover rate, affecting productivity and team cohesion.

Non-profit organization Y faces a funding gap that means some of its programs will have to be cut.

Theoretical research problems

Theoretical research focuses on expanding knowledge and understanding rather than directly
contributing to change. You can identify a research problem by reading recent research, theory and
debates on your topic to find a gap in what is currently known about it. You might look for:

 A phenomenon or context that has not been closely studied

 A contradiction between two or more perspectives
 A situation or relationship that is not well understood
 A troubling question that has yet to be resolved

Theoretical problems often have practical consequences, but they are not focused on solving an
immediate issue in a specific place (though you might take a case study approach to the research).

Examples of theoretical research problems

The effects of long-term Vitamin D deficiency on cardiovascular health are not well understood.

The relationship between gender, race and income inequality has yet to be closely studied in the
context of the millennial gig economy.

Historians of Scottish nationalism disagree about the role of the British Empire in the development of
Scotland’s national identity.

Step 2: Learn more about the problem

Next, you have to find out what is already known about the problem, and pinpoint the exact aspect
that your research will address.

Context and background

 Who does the problem affect?

  Has it been an issue for a long time, or is it a newly discovered problem?
 What research has already been done?
 Have any solutions been proposed?
 What are the current debates about the problem, and what do you think is missing from
them?

Specificity and relevance

 What particular place, time and/or people will you focus on?
 What aspects will you not be able to tackle?
 What will be the consequences if the problem is not resolved?
 Whose will benefit from resolving the problem (e.g. the management of an organization or
future researchers)?

Example of a specific research problem

Non-profit organization X has been focused on retaining its existing support base, but lacks
understanding of how best to target potential new donors. To be able to continue its work, the
organization requires research into more effective fundraising strategies.

When you have narrowed down your problem, the next step is to formulate a problem statement and
research questions or hypotheses.

The research problem.

Educational research starts with the selection of a problem. Following are the fields in which one
may look for problems for research:
a. The classroom, school, home, community and other agencies are the obvious sources.
b. Social developments and technological changes are constantly bringing forth new opportunities
for research.
c. Records of previous research should also be consulted. This includes cyclopedia of educational
research, dissertations and similar publications.
d. Classroom discussions, seminars and exchange of ideas with the faculty members and fellow
scholars and students will suggest many stimulating problems to be solved.
e. Consultation with an expert, researcher supervisor, researcher guide or a senior scholar will also
be helpful.
Criteria for good Research problem.
a. Novelty. The problem should be sufficiently original so that it does not involve duplication.
b. Interesting. The problem should be interesting for the investigator himself. If the problem seems
to him dull and boring, there is little hope that he would do justice to it.
c. Importance. It should be significant enough. If it is not worthwhile, it would be in vain. It should
add to the development of education as a discipline.
d. Feasibility. The problem should be feasible or suitable for the researcher. He should possess the
necessary competence, knowledge and understanding. He should be skillful enough to develop,
administer and interpret the necessary data gathering devices and procedures. He should have good
knowledge of necessary statistical techniques.
e. Availability of data. The researcher should ensure the availability of valid and reliable data
gathering devices and procedures. Only then will be he able to arrive at dependable conclusions.
f. Availability of cooperation. Researcher must be sure that he will get all possible cooperation from
spheres he is going to collect data.
g. Availability of guidance. Researcher should select a problem where he could get guidance.

7. What the necessity of define the research problem? Explain

Necessity of defining a research problem is important to formulate a research problem
properly .Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. This
statement signifies the need for defining a research problem. The problem to be investigated
must be defined unambiguously for that will help to discriminate relevant data from the
irrelevant ones. A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on
the track whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles. Questions like: What data are to
be collected? What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied? What relations
are to be explored? What techniques are to be used for the purpose? And similar other
questions crop up in the mind of the researcher who can well plan his strategy and find
answers to all such questions only when the research problem has been well defined. Thus,
defining a research problem properly is a prerequisite for any study and is a step of the
highest importance. In fact, formulation of a problem is often more essential than its solution.
It is only on careful detailing the research problem that we can work out the research design
and can smoothly carry on all the consequential steps involved while doing research.
8. The task of defining the research problem often follows sequential pattern
Explain

Let us start with the question: What does one mean when he/ she wants to define a research
problem? The answer may be that one wants to state the problem along with the bounds within
which it is to be studied. In other words, defining a problem involves the task of laying down
boundaries within which a researcher shall study the problem with a pre-determined objective in
view. How to define a research problem is undoubtedly a herculean task. However, it is a task that
must be tackled intelligently to avoid the perplexity encountered in a research operation. The usual
approach is that the researcher should himself pose a question (or in case someone else wants the
researcher to carry on research, the concerned individual, organization or an authority should pose
the question to the researcher) and set-up techniques and procedures for throwing light on the
question concerned for formulating or defining the research problem
The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of the following steps generally one after the
other:
(i) statement of the problem in a general way;
(ii) understanding the nature of the problem;
(iii) surveying the available literature;
(iv) developing the ideas through discussions; and
(v) rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.

A brief description of all these points

1. Statement of the problem in a general way:

First of all the problem should be stated in a broad general way, keeping in view either
some practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interest. For this purpose, the researcher
must immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter concerning which he wishes to pose a
problem. In case of social research, it is considered advisable to do some field observation and as
such the researcher may undertake some sort of preliminary survey or what is often called pilot
survey. Then the researcher can himself state the problem or he can seek the guidance of the
guide or the subject expert in accomplishing this task. Often, the guide puts forth the problem in
general terms, and it is then up to the researcher to narrow it down and phrase the problem in
operational terms. In case there is some directive from an organisational authority, the problem
then can be stated accordingly. The problem stated in a broad general way may contain various
ambiguities which must be resolved by cool thinking and rethinking over the problem. At the
same time the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered and the same should be
kept in view while stating the problem.

2. Understanding the nature of the problem:

 The next step in defining the problem is to understand its origin and nature clearly. The
best way of understanding the problem is to discuss’ it with those who first raised it in order to
find out how the problem originally came about and with what objectives in view. If the
researcher has stated the problem himself, he should consider once again all those points that
induced him to make a general statement concerning the problem. For a better understanding of
the nature of the problem involved, he can enter into discussion with those who have a good
knowledge of the problem concerned or similar other problems. The researcher should also keep
in view the environment within which the problem is to be studied and understood.

3. Surveying the available literature:

All available literature concerning the problem at hand must necessarily be surveyed and
examined before a definition of the research problem is given. This means that the researcher
must be well-conversant with relevant theories in the field, reports and records as also all other
relevant literature. He must devote sufficient time in reviewing of research already undertaken
on related problems. This is done to find out what data and other materials, if any, are available
for operational purposes. “Knowing what data are available often serves to narrow the problem
itself as well as the technique that might be used.”2 This would also help a researcher to know if
there are certain gaps in the theories, or whether the existing theories applicable to the problem
under study are inconsistent with each other, or whether the findings of the different studies do
not follow a pattern consistent with the theoretical expectations and so on.

4. Developing the ideas through discussions:

Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful information. Various new ideas
can be developed through such an exercise. Hence, a researcher must discuss his problem with
his colleagues and others who have enough experience in the same area or in working on similar
problems. This is quite often known as an experience survey. People with rich experience are in a
position to enlighten the researcher on different aspects of his proposed study and their advice
and comments are usually invaluable to the researcher. They help him sharpen his focus of
attention on specific aspects within the field. Discussions with such persons should not only be
confined to the formulation of the specific problem at hand, but should also be concerned with
the general approach to the given problem, techniques that might be used, possible solutions, etc.

5. Rephrasing the research problem:

 Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research problem into a working
proposition. Once the nature of the problem has been clearly understood, the environment
(within which the problem has got to be studied) has been defined, discussions over the problem
have taken place and the available literature has been surveyed and examined, rephrasing the
problem into analytical or operational terms is not a difficult task. Through rephrasing, the
researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms as possible so that it may become
operationally viable and may help in the development of working hypotheses.

9. Explain the meaning and significance or research design

A research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting the marketing research project. It
details the procedures necessary for obtaining the information needed to structure or solve
marketing research problems. In simple words it is the general plan of how you will go about your
research.

Definitions of Research Design

Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers
to research questions and to control variance. A research is the specification of methods and
procedures for acquiring the information needed. It is the overall operational pattern or framework
of the project that stipulates what information is to be collected from which sources by what
procedures.

The function of a research design is to ensure that requisite data in accordance with the problem at
hand is collected accurately and economically. Simply stated, it is the framework, a blueprint for the
research study which guides the collection and analysis of data.

Significance of research design

1. Consumes less time.

2. Ensures project time schedule.
3. Helps researcher to prepare himself to carry out research in a proper and a systematic way.
4. Better documentation of the various activities while the project work is going on.
5. Helps in proper planning of the resources and their procurement in right time.
6. Provides satisfaction and confidence, accompanied with a sense of success from the beginning
of the work of the research project.

10. Explain the meaning of the following in context of research design. (A) Extraneous
variable (B) Confounded Variables (C) Research Hypothesis (D) Experimental and
control group (E) Treatments

Extraneous variable

 Extraneous variables are all variables, which are not the independent variable, but could
affect the results of the experiment.
 The researcher wants to make sure that it is the manipulation of the independent variable
that has an effect on the dependent variable.
 Hence, all the other variables that could affect the dependent variable to change must be
controlled. These other variables are called extraneous or confounding variables.
 Extraneous variables should be controlled were possible, as they might be important enough
to provide alternative explanations for the effects.

There are four types of extraneous variables:

 Situational Variables

 These are aspects of the environment that might affect the participant’s behavior, e.g. noise,
temperature, lighting conditions, etc. Situational variables should be controlled so they are
the same for all participants.
 Standardized procedures are used to ensure that conditions are the same for all participants.
This includes the use of standardized instructions
 Participant / Person Variable

 This refers to the ways in which each participant varies from the other, and how this could
affect the results e.g. mood, intelligence, anxiety, nerves, concentration etc.
 For example, if a participant that has performed a memory test was tired, dyslexic or had poor
eyesight, this could affect their performance and the results of the experiment.
 on participant variables.
 Situational variables also include order effects that can be controlled using counterbalancing,
such as giving half the participants condition 'A' first, while the other half get condition 'B'
first. This prevents improvement due to practice, or poorer performance due to boredom.
 Participant variables can be controlled using random allocation to the conditions of the
independent variable.
 Experimenter / Investigator Effects

 The experimenter unconsciously conveys to participants how they should behave - this is
called experimenter bias.
 The experiment might do this by giving unintentional clues to the participants about what the
experiment is about and how they expect them to behave. This affects the participants’
behavior.
 The experimenter is often totally unaware of the influence which s/he is exerting and the cues
may be very subtle but they may have an influence nevertheless.
 Also, the personal attributes (e.g. age, gender, accent, manner etc.) of the experiment can
affect the behavior of the participants.
 Demand Characteristics

 Demand characteristics are all the clues in an experiment which convey to the participant the
purpose of the research. Demand characteristics can change the results of an experiment if
participants change their behavior to conform to expectations.
 Participants will be affected by: (i) their surroundings; (ii) the researcher’s characteristics;
(iii) the researcher’s behavior (e.g. non-verbal communication), and (iv) their interpretation
of what is going on in the situation.
 Experimenters should attempt to minimize these factors by keeping the environment as
natural as possible, carefully following standardized procedures. Finally, perhaps different
experimenters should be used to see if they obtain similar results.
 Suppose we wanted to measure the effects of Alcohol (IV) on driving ability (DV) we would
have to try to ensure that extraneous variables did not affect the results. These variables
could include:
 Familiarity with the car: Some people may drive better because they have driven this make of
car before.
 Familiarity with the test: Some people may do better than others because they know what to
expect on the test.
 Used to drinking. The effects of alcohol on some people may be less than on others because
they are used to drinking.
 Full stomach. The effect of alcohol on some subjects may be less than on others because they
have just had a big meal.
 If these extraneous variables are not controlled they may become confounding variables,
because they could go on to affect the results of the experiment.

Confounded relationship:
When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variable(s), the relationship
between the dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).
Research hypothesis:
When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested by scientific methods, it is termed as
research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent
variable to a dependent variable. Usually a research hypothesis must contain, at least, one independent
and one dependent variable. Predictive statements which are not to be objectively verified or the
relationships that are assumed but not to be tested are not termed research hypotheses.
Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research:
When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-testing
research. It can be of the experimental design or of the non-experimental design. Research in which the
independent variable is manipulated is termed ‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’ and a research
in which an independent variable is not manipulated is called ‘non-experimental hypothesis-testing
research’. For instance, suppose a researcher wants to study whether intelligence affects reading ability
for a group
11. Give your understanding of a good research design. Is single research design suitable
in all research studies? If not why?
A good design is often characterized by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient, and economical and so on.
Generally, the design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed is
considered a good design. The design which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the best
design in many investigations. Similarly, a design which yields maximal information and provides an
opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is considered most appropriate and efficient
design in respect of many research problems. Thus, the question of good design is related to the purpose or
objective of the research problem and also with the nature of the problem to be studied. A design may be quite
suitable in one case, but may be found wanting in one respect or the other in the context of some other research
problem. One single design cannot serve the purpose of all types of research problems.

12. What do you mean by sample design? What point should be taken in to consideration
by a researcher in developing a sample design for the research project?
 13. Why probability sampling is generally preferred in comparison to non-probability
sampling? Explain the procedure of selecting a sample random sample.

14. Under what circumstances would you recommend: (a) a probability sample? (b) Non-
probability sample? (c) Stratified sample? (d) a cluster sample?
(a) Probability sample: Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance
sampling’. Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the
sample. It is, so to say, a lottery method in which individual units are picked up from the whole group not
deliberately but by some mechanical process. Here it is blind chance alone that determines whether one
item or the other is selected. The results obtained from probability or random sampling can be assured in
terms of probability i.e., we can measure the errors of estimation or the significance of results obtained
from a random sample, and this fact brings out the superiority of random sampling design over the
deliberate sampling design. Random sampling ensures the law of Statistical Regularity which states that if
on an average the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will have the same composition and
characteristics as the universe. This is the reason why random sampling is considered as the best technique
of selecting a representative sample. Random sampling from a finite population refers to that method of
sample selection which gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being picked up
and each item in the entire population to have an equal chance of being included in the sample. This
applies to sampling without replacement i.e., once an item is selected for the sample, it cannot appear in
the sample again (Sampling with replacement is used less frequently in which procedure the element
selected for the sample is returned to the population before the next element is selected. In such a situation
the same element could appear twice in the same sample before the second element is chosen).
(b) Non-probability sampling: Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure which does not
afford any basis for estimating the probability that each item in the population has of being included in the
sample. Non-probability sampling is also known by different names such as deliberate sampling,
purposive sampling and judgement sampling. In this type of sampling, items for the sample are selected
deliberately by the researcher; his choice concerning the items remains supreme. In other words, under
non-probability sampling the organizers of the inquiry purposively choose the particular units of the
universe for constituting a sample on the basis that the small mass that they so select out of a huge one
will be typical or representative of the whole. For instance, if economic conditions of people living in a
state are to be studied, a few towns and villages may be purposively selected for intensive study on the
principle that they can be representative of the entire state. Thus, the judgement of the organizers of the
study plays an important part in this sampling design. In such a design, personal element has a great
chance of entering into the selection of the sample. The investigator may select a sample which shall yield
results favorable to his point of view and if that happens, the entire inquiry may get vitiated. Thus, there is
always the danger of bias entering into this type of sampling technique. But in the investigators are
impartial, work without bias and have the necessary experience so as to take sound judgement, the results
obtained from an analysis of deliberately selected sample may be tolerably reliable. However, in such a
sampling, there is no assurance that every element has some specifiable chance of being included.
Sampling error in this type of sampling cannot be estimated and the element of bias, great or small, is
always there. As such this sampling design in rarely adopted in large inquires of importance. However, in
small inquiries and researches by individuals, this design may be adopted because of the relative
advantage of time and money inherent in this method of sampling.

(c) Stratified sample: If a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a
homogeneous group, stratified sampling technique is generally applied in order to obtain a representative
sample. Under stratified sampling the population is divided into several sub-populations that are
individually more homogeneous than the total population (the different sub-populations are called ‘strata’)
and then we select items from each stratum to constitute a sample. Since each stratum is more
homogeneous than the total population, we are able to get more precise estimates for each stratum and by
estimating more accurately each of the component parts; we get a better estimate of the whole. In brief,
stratified sampling results in more reliable and detailed information

(d) Cluster sample: Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and then selecting the groups or
the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the sample. Suppose some departmental store
wishes to sample its credit card holders. It has issued its cards to 15,000 customers. The sample size is to be
kept say 450. For cluster sampling this list of 15,000 card holders could be formed into 100 clusters of 150
card holders each. Three clusters might then be selected for the sample randomly. The sample size must
often be larger than the simple random sample to ensure the same level of accuracy because is cluster
sampling procedural potential for order bias and other sources of error are usually accentuated. The
clustering approach can, however, make the sampling procedure relatively easier and increase the
efficiency of field work, especially in the case of personal interviews.
15. A systematic bias result from errors in the sample procedure. What do you mean by
such systematic bias? Describe the important causes responsible such bias.