Using In-text Citation

Include an in-text citation when you refer to, summarize, paraphrase, or quote from another
source. For every in-text citation in your paper, there must be a corresponding entry in your reference
list.
APA in-text citation style uses the author's last name and the year of publication, for example:
(Field, 2005). For direct quotations, include the page number as well, for example: (Field, 2005, p.
14). For sources such as websites and e-books that have no page numbers, use a paragraph
number.

Example paragraph with in-text citation:

A few researchers in the linguistics field have developed training programs designed to
improve native speakers' ability to understand accented speech (Derwing, Rossiter, & Munro, 2002;
Thomas, 2004). Their training techniques are based on the research described above indicating that
comprehension improves with exposure to non-native speech. Derwing et al. (2002) conducted their
training with students preparing to be social workers, but note that other professionals who work with
non-native speakers could benefit from a similar program.

References
Derwing, T. M., Rossiter, M. J., & Munro, M. J. (2002). Teaching native speakers to listen to foreign-
accented speech. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 23(4), 245-259.
Thomas, H. K. (2004). Training strategies for improving listeners' comprehension of foreign-accented
speech (Doctoral dissertation). University of Colorado, Boulder.

Citing Web Pages In Text

Cite web pages in text as you would any other source, using the author and date if known. If
the author is not known, use the title and the date as the in-text citation (for long titles just use the
first few words). Your in-text citation should lead your reader to the corresponding entry in the
reference list. For sources with no date use n.d. (for no date) in place of the year: (Smith, n.d.).
Below are examples of using in-text citation with web pages.
Web page with author:
In-text citation
Role-play can help children learn techniques for coping with bullying (Kraiser, 2011).
Reference entry
Kraizer, S. (2011). Preventing bullying. Retrieved from http://safechild.org/categoryparents/preventing-
bullying/

Web page with no author:

In-text citation
The term Nittany Lion was coined by Penn State football player Joe Mason in 1904 ("All things
Nittany," 2006).
Reference entry
All things Nittany. (2006). Retrieved from http://www.psu.edu/ur/about/nittanymascot.html

Web page with no date:

In-text citation
Establishing regular routines, such as exercise, can help survivors of disasters recover from trauma
(American Psychological Association [APA], n.d.).
Reference entry
American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Recovering emotionally from disaster. Retrieved from
http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/recovering-disasters.aspx

General Guidelines

In-text references should immediately follow the title, word, or phrase to which they are directly
relevant, rather than appearing at the end of long clauses or sentences. In-text references should
always precede punctuation marks. Below are examples of using in-text citation.
Author's name in parentheses:
One study found that the most important element in comprehending non-native speech is familiarity
with the topic (Gass& Varonis, 1984).
Author's name part of narrative:
Gass and Varonis (1984) found that the most important element in comprehending non-native speech
is familiarity with the topic.
Group as author:
First citation: (American Psychological Association [APA], 2015)
Subsequent citation: (APA, 2015)
Multiple works: (separate each work with semi-colons)
Research shows that listening to a particular accent improves comprehension of accented speech in
general (Gass& Varonis, 1984; Krech Thomas, 2004).
Direct quote: (include page number and place quotation marks around the direct quote)
One study found that “the listener's familiarity with the topic of discourse greatly facilitates the
interpretation of the entire message” (Gass& Varonis, 1984, p. 85).
Gass and Varonis (1984) found that “the listener’s familiarity with the topic of discourse greatly
facilitates the interpretation of the entire message” (p. 85).
Note: For direct quotations of more than 40 words, display the quote as an indented block of text
without quotation marks and include the authors’ names, year, and page number in parentheses at
the end of the quote. For example:

This suggests that familiarity with nonnative speech in general, although it is clearly not as
important a variable as topic familiarity, may indeed have some effect. That is, prior experience
with nonnative speech, such as that gained by listening to the reading, facilitates
comprehension. (Gass& Varonis, 1984, p. 77)

Works by Multiple Authors

APA style has specific rules for citing works by multiple authors. Use the following guidelines to
determine how to correctly cite works by multiple authors in text.
Note: When using multiple authors' names as part of your narrative, rather than in parentheses,
always spell out the word and. For multiple authors' names within a parenthetic citation, use &.

One author: (Field, 2005)

Two authors: (Gass& Varonis, 1984)
Three to five authors:

First citation: (Tremblay, Richer, Lachance, & Cote, 2010)

Subsequent citations: (Tremblay et al., 2010)
Six or more authors: (Norris-Shortle et al., 2006)
 RATIONALE

According to Merriam-Webster, a rationale is:

1. : an explanation of controlling principles of opinion, belief, practice, or phenomena
2. : an underlying reason : basis
To find the simple rationale definition, you first must understand why you are writing a rationale. A
rationale states the problem, defines key terms and notes objectives. It also clearly points to the
importance of the subject, program or event. It lays out what you are attempting to establish, the point
of what you intend to propose, how you will do it, and what needs to be completed in order for you to
succeed.
It does all of this in a small amount of space in a concise manner. It may sound like a lot, but once
you have sat down with your subject and know where you are going, a rationale is a breeze to begin
and end. Begin with a thesis and end with a conclusion that can also include a call to action.
A rationale serves as a strategic compass for a project, and it typically involves resolving the following
questions:
1. What is the goal of this project?
2. What is the message we want to communicate?
3. Who are we trying to communicate with?
4. How does our proposed solution help achieve the project goal, send the desired message, and
reach the desired audience?
It is important for you to be able to explain the importance of the research you are conducting by
providing valid arguments. Rationale for the study needs to be specific and ideally, it should relate to
the following points:

1. The research needs to contribute to the elimination of a gap in the literature.

Elimination of gap in existing pool of literature is one of the compulsory requirements for your study.
In other words, you don’t need to ‘re-invent the wheel’ in a way that your research aims and
objectives need to be totally new, or at least they have to offer fresh perspectives on existing
management and business issues.
For example, thousands of studies have been previously conducted to study various aspects of
leadership, this topic as far from being exhausted as a research area. Specifically, new studies can
be conducted in the area of leadership to analyze the impacts of innovative communication mediums
such as Twitter, and other social networking sites on leadership practices.
Alternatively, the impacts of the global economic and financial crisis of 2007-2010 on leadership can
be studied in an in-depth manner. The same principle is true to almost all areas in business studies
i.e. gaps in the literature can be found in relation to almost all areas of business and economics.
2. The research can be conducted to solve a specific problem.
You have to explain the essence of the problem in a detailed manner and highlight practical benefits
associated with the solution of the problem. Suppose, your dissertation topic is “A study into
advantages and disadvantages of various entry strategies to Chinese market,” in this case, you can
say that practical implications of your research relates to assisting businesses aiming to enter
Chinese market to do more informed decision making.
Alternatively, if your research is devoted to the analysis of impacts of CSR programs and initiatives on
brand image, practical contributions of your study would relate to contributing to the level of
effectiveness of CSR programs of businesses.
Additional examples of studies that can assist to address specific practical problems may include the
following:
 A study into the reasons of high employee turnover at Hanson Brick
 A critical analysis of employee motivation problems at Esporta, Finchley Road, London
 A research into effective succession planning at Microsoft
 A study into major differences between private and public primary education in the USA and
implications of these differences on the quality of education
At the same time, it is important to note that it is not a compulsory condition for a dissertation to be
associated with the solution of a specific problem. Dissertations can be purely theory-based as well.
Examples of such studies may include:
 Born or bred: revising The Great Man theory of leadership in the 21st century
 A critical analysis of the relevance of McClelland’s Achievement theory in the US information
technology industry
 Neoliberalism as a major reason behind the emergence of the global financial and economic
crisis of 2007-2009
 Analysis of Lewin’s Model of Change and its relevance to pharmaceutical sector of France

3. The study has to contribute to the level of professional development of the researcher.
You have to explain in what ways your research contributes to the achievement of your long-term
career aspirations in a detailed way.
For example, you have selected a research topic of “A critical analysis of the relevance of
McClelland’s Achievement theory in the US information technology industry”. You may state that you
associate your career aspirations with becoming an IT executive in the US, and accordingly, in-depth
knowledge of employee motivation in this industry is going to contribute your chances of success in
your chosen career path.
Therefore, you are in a better position if you have already identified your career objectives, so that
during the research process you can get detailed knowledge about various aspects of your chosen
industry.

Chapter 1(Rationale …)
No study can begin without a topic. This article also includes guidelines on how to select a research
problem and how to write a research topic.

Research is the process of systematic, scientific, and objective search for: 1) the increasing of
knowledge; 2) establishing of facts and principles; 3) proving, disproving, or modifying theories; and
4) developing new ideas, processes, or products.

By “process”, we mean that research is a step-by-step procedure (see number 1 in Characteristics of

Research below). By “scientific” we mean that research is based on science (from the Latin
word scientia or ‘knowledge’). “Proving” means proving that a theory is true; “disproving” means
proving that the theory is false; “modifying” means adjusting a theory based on the evidence.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH (According to Bordo, et al.)

1. Research is systematic. This means that it follows certain processes. For example, the Scientific
Method, which is a) identifying the problem; b) doing preliminary reading; c) formulating hypotheses;
d) conducting experiments; and e) drawing conclusions.

2. Research is objective. It based on known facts or evidence. It is not based on personal opinion or
beliefs. (The antonym for objective is 'subjective’.)

3. Research is organized. It follows a certain format; e.g., page size, line spacing (double spaced),
font style (usually Times New Roman, Arial, or Calibri, etc.), and font size (usually point 12). It also
follows a pattern in citing references, for example, the American Psychological Association (APA)
format.

4. Research is ethical. It does no harm to other people, wither psychologically or physically. It also
means that confidentiality and anonymity is observed: The identity of confidential source is never
revealed, for their own security. It also means that the necessary permissions to conduct research
should also be

5. Research is significant. Its importance can be seen on how the research will benefit people and
the community.

6. Research is feasible. This means that research is “doable”. It should be able to be finished in an

allotted period of time. It means that that the research should also be within the researcher’s budget.

THE RESEARCH PROBLEM (According to Calderon & Gonzales)

A problem is “any significant, perplexing, and challenging situation, real or artificial, the solution of
which requires reflexive thinking”. In research, it is known as the research topic or research title
Elements of a Research Title. The research title is not meant to be entertaining or “catchy” like the
titles of television programs or movies, but informative. The parts of a research title contain the
following information:

1. The subject matter or topic to be investigated. (“What?”)

2. The place or locale where the research is to be conducted. (“Where?”)

3. The population or universe from who the data are to be collected, i.e., the respondents or
interviewees. (“Who”?)

4. The time period of the study during which the data are to be collected. (“When”?)

Example:

Subject matter: The teaching of Science

Place or locale: in the high schools of Province A
Time period: during the school year 1989-1990
Population: as perceived by teachers and students

Subject matter: The effects of the use of cell phones on the academic performance
Population to senior high school students
Place or locale: at Philippine Christian University
Time period: during the first semester, school year 2016-2017

Choosing a Workable Topic (According to Bordo, et al.)

Avoid the following topics:

a. Controversial issues (e.g., political scandals, court matters, etc.)

b. Very new topics (references may not yet be available)
c. Personal bias and discriminating topics (e.g., racism, sexism, etc.)
d. Supernatural and paranormal topics (e.g., fortune-telling, astral projection, telepathy, etc.)
e. Political conflicts (e.g., graft and corruption, wiretapping, war on drugs, etc.)
f. How to commit crimes

Things to consider in selecting a topic:

a. Time frame for completion (Research should be feasible)

b. Benefit to the community. Topics that improve human life is the ultimate goal of research.
(Research is ethical)
c. Focus on a specific area of knowledge; i.e., it should be concentrated on a specific subject area.
d. Topics should be interesting; that is, pertinent to the readers’ interests.
e. Topics should be measurable and observable for it must be results oriented.

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY (According to Bordo, et al.)

This section serves the following purposes: 1) to provide readers with the background and general
direction of the research paper, 2) to bring about a smooth transition into the major discussion of the
paper, and 3) to arouse curiosity among the readers thereby getting their attention.

The following are some elements that should or might be included in this section:
Presentation of the problem – Describe the existence of an unsatisfactory condition or a problem that
needs a solution.

Historical background of the problem - Give the historical background of the problem, if applicable.

Geographical conditions of the study locale - If applicable, describe the geographical location of the
study.

Rationale of the study - Give the reason(s) why the study should be conducted.

Example:

In 2004, the researcher migrated to the Philippines to accompany her spouse who was at the time
studying at the Adventist Institute for International Advanced Studies (AIIAS) in Silang, Cavite. They
discovered the study opportunities and were motivated by the quality of education and low school
fees being offered. They visited several colleges and universities to collect pamphlets and sent them
back to Vanuatu for educational awareness. The Ni-Vanuatus became aware and decided to send
students to study in the Philippines. The first two schools to receive Vanuatu students were AMA
Computer College in Dasmariñas, Cavite and Air Link Aviation College in Parañaque City. The
researcher came to know Cavite State University (CvSU) in 2009 and transferred from AMA.

(Ngwele, March 2011)

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The statement of the problem (also called “purpose statement and research questions”) is a
statement of the purpose of the study and a series of questions that will help in researching the topic.
It is composed of 1) the general statement of the problem (the purpose statement) and 2) the specific
sub-problems or sub-questions (or research questions). (It may help to think that the specific sub-
questions/research questions is an outline in question form.)

Guidelines in Writing the Statement of the Problem (According to Calderon & Gonzales)

1. The general statement of the problem (or the purpose statement) and the specific sub-problems (or
the research questions) should be formulated first before conducting the research.

2. It is customary to state specific sub-problems in the interrogative form; hence, sub-problems are
also called “specific questions”.

3. Each specific research question should be clear and unequivocal (should only have one meaning)
in order to avoid confusion.

4. Each research question should be researchable apart from the other questions (i.e., separable).

5. Each research question must be based upon known facts and phenomena. Furthermore, data from
such facts and phenomena should be accessible to the researcher.

6. Answers to each research question can be interpreted apart from the answers to the other specific
questions.

7. Answers to each research question must contribute to the development of the whole research
study.
8. Summing up the answers to all the specific questions will give a complete development of the
entire study.

9. The number of research questions should be enough to cover the development of the whole
research study.

Example:

This research aims to develop an evaluation model of a web-based tool used in test administration for
Grade 11 and 12 students.

Specifically it aims to answer the following questions:

1. What are the commonly used web-based tools used in test administration?

2. How are these web-based test tools evaluated?

3.How could evaluation model be designed for web-based test administration?

(Leanillo, 2016)

SCOPE AND DELIMITATION

This section is a description of what is included in the study and what is not included. The population
under study and the locale of the study should be described.

The scope describes the coverage of the study. It specifies what is covered in terms of concept,
number of subjects or the population included in the study, as well as the timeline when the study was
conducted.

Delimit by citing factors or variables that are not to be included and the boundary in terms of time
frame, number of subjects, participants or respondents who are excluded.

This section discusses the parameters of the research in paragraph, it answers the basic questions:

1. What - the topic of investigation and the variables included

2. Where – the venue or the setting of the research

3. When- the time frame by which the study was conducted

4. Why – the general objectives of the research

5. Who – the subject of the study, the population and sampling

6. How – the methodology of the research which may include the research design, methodology
and the research instrument.

Example:

The main purpose of the study is to provide information regarding metro-sexuality and how
being a metrosexual affects the lifestyle of the student. The study considers the student’s personal
information such as their name (optional) gender, age, and section.
 The researchers limited the study to 80 male and female secondary education students
enrolled in the second semester of school year 2015-2016 of Technological Institute of the
Philippines. Each of the respondents was given a questionnaire to answer. The students selected
came from four different sections to prevent bias and get objective perceptions.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

In this part of the research, the researcher defines who will benefit out of the findings of the study.
He/she describes how the problem will be solved and specifically pinpoints who will benefit from such
findings or results. Usually the beneficiaries of the study are those experts concerned about the
problem, the administrators or policy-makers who make the decisions or implement programs, the
subject themselves, future researches and those who are directly or indirectly affected by the
problem. One may also look into any contribution of the study to the field of specialization or
discipline, any advancement or new knowledge that the study contributes to the science or the state-
of-the-art. In this portion of the study one may also state the specific sectors who will benefit from the
study. This part also justifies the rationale of the undertaking.

Tips in Writing the Significance of the Study

1. Refer to the statement of the problem.

Your problem statement can guide you in identifying the specific contribution of your
study. You can do this by observing a one-to-one correspondence between the statement of
the problem and the significance of the study.

2. Write from general to specific

Write the significance of the study by looking into the general contribution of your study ,
such as its importance to society as a whole, then to individuals which may include yourself as
a researcher.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A Literature Review …
 is a comprehensive summary of previous research on a topic. The literature review surveys scholarly
articles, books, and other sources relevant to a particular area of research. The review should enumerate,
describe, summarize, objectively evaluate and clarify this previous research.  It should give a theoretical base for
the research and help you (the author) determine the nature of your research.  The literature review acknowledges
the work of previous researchers, and in so doing, assures the reader that your work has been well conceived.  It is
assumed that by mentioning a previous work in the field of study, that the author has read, evaluated, and
assimilated that work into the work at hand.
 is designed to identify and critique the existing literature on a topic to justify your research by exposing gaps in
current research.  This investigation should provide a description, summary, and critical evaluation of
works related to the research problem and should also add to the overall knowledge of the topic as well as
demonstrating how your research will fit within a larger field of study.  A literature review should offer critical
analysis of the current research on a topic and that analysis should direct your research objective. This should
not be confused with a book review or an annotated bibliography both research tools but very different in purpose
and scope.  A Literature Review can be a stand-alone element or part of a larger end product, know your
assignment.  Key to a good Literature Review is to document your process.
  A literature review creates a "landscape" for the reader, giving her or him a full understanding of the
developments in the field.  This landscape informs the reader that the author has indeed assimilated all (or the vast
majority of) previous, significant works in the field into her or his research. 
 "In writing the literature review, the purpose is to convey to the reader what knowledge and ideas have been
established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. The literature review must be defined by a
guiding concept (eg. your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative
thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries.
(http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/specific-types-of-writing/literature-review)
There are many different ways to organize your references in a literature review, but most reviews contain certain
basic elements.

 Objective of the literature review - Clearly describe the purpose of the paper and state your objectives in
completing the literature review.
 Overview of the subject, issue or theory under consideration – Give an overview of your research topic and what
prompted it.
 Categorization of sources – Grouping your research either historic, chronologically or thematically
 Organization of Subtopics – Subtopics should be grouped and presented in a logical order starting with the most
prominent or significant and moving to the least significant
 Discussion – Provide analysis of both the uniqueness of each source and its similarities with other sources
 Conclusion  - Summary of your analysis and evaluation of the reviewed works and how it is related to its parent
discipline, scientific endeavor or profession

Elements in a Literature Review

 Locate major formative works in the field

 Ascertain key researchers working on this topic
 Fine fain ideas conclusions and theories. Establish similarities & differences
 Notice main methodologies & research techniques
 Identify gaps in existing research
 Show relationships between previous studies / theories
 Provide context for your own research
 Explore existing information in the fields of research
The purpose of a literature review is to:

 Provide foundation of knowledge on topic

 Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication and give credit to other researchers
 Identify inconstancies: gaps in research, conflicts in previous studies, open questions left from other research
 Identify need for additional research (justifying your research)
 Identify the relationship of works in context of its contribution to the topic and to other works
 Place your own research within the context of existing literature making a case for why further study is needed.