UNDERSTAND WAYS TO COLLECT

DATA AND WAYS TO

SYSTEMATICALLY COLLECT DATA

Research Team 4
 Content

01
Standard styles in review
of
02
Qualitative Research
03
Sampling
Designs
related literature, citation
or references
 INTRODUCTION
Spending months or years in gathering facts and information
about your research topic may turn into a voluminous
amount of data. However, such data of great size can be
valuable in so far as they result from standard - criterion-
based data collection methods.
 STANDARD STYLES IN REVIEW OF
RELATED LITERATURE, CITATION OR REFERENCES
In reviewing related literature, you read varieties of reading materials
containing knowledge related to your research. It is a fact that these ideas,
including the language structures to express these ideas, belong to other
people.

The following are the three terms used to express your appreciation for
or recognition of people's ownership of borrowed ideas (Sharp, 2012):
 1. Acknowledgement

the beginning portion of the work that identifies individuals who

have contributed something for the production of the paper
2. References or Bibliography

a complete list of all reading materials, including books, jourhals,

periodicals, etc. from where the borrowed ideas came from
3. Citation or In-text Citation

references within the main body of the text, specifically in RRL

01
The third one, citation, is the focus of this lesson. Citation, also called in-text citation,
has many purposes and style, which are as follows (Badke, 2012):

PURPOSES OF CITATION
1. To give importance and respect to other people for what they know about the field

2. To give authority, validity, and credibility to other people's claims, conclusions, and
arguments

3. To prove you with broad and extensive reading of authentic and relevant materials
about your topic
4. To help readers find or contact the sources of ideas easily

5. To permit readers to check the accuracy of your work

6. To save yourself from plagiarism

 STYLES OF CITATION
1. Integral Citation

This is one way of citing or referring to the author whose ideas appear i work. You do this by using
active verbs like claim, assert, state, etc. to report the author's ideas. Using these types of verbs somehow
expresses the author's attitude, stand, or opinion in relation to the information referred to. This is the
reason integral citation is often used in social sciences or any subjects belonging to the soft sciences.
Examples of Integral Citation:

APA
One study by Manalo (2015) reveals...
The latest work by (Lee, 2015) asserts...

MLA
One study by (Manalo 70)
The latest work by (Lee 123)
2. NON-INTEGRAL CITATION
In contrast to integral citation that reflects the author's personal inclinations to a certain
extent, this second citation style downplays any strength of the writer's personal
characteristics. The stress is given to the piece of information rather than to the owner of
the ideas.

EXAMPLES OF NON-INTEGRAL CITATION:

a. The Code of Ethics for Intercultural Competence gives four ways by which people from
different cultural background can harmoniously relate themselves with one another (De la
Cruz, 2015).

b. Knowledge is one component of not only Systemic Functional Grammar but

Intercultural Competence as well. It is the driving force beyond any successful
collaborative activities to develop interpersonal relationships and communicative
competence (Smith, 2015).
EXAMPLES OF NON-INTEGRAL CITATION:

c. The other components of Intercultural Competence which are also present in SFG are:
context (Harold, 2015), appropriateness (Villar, Marcos, & Atienza, 2016: Santos & Daez,
2016), and emotions (Flores, 2016).
 Patterns of Citation

1 Summary

The citation in this case is a shortened version of the original text that
is expressed in your own language. Making the text short, you have to
pick out only the most important ideas or aspects of the text.

2 Paraphrase

This is the antithesis of the first one because, here, instead of shortening the form of the text,
you explain what the text means to you using your own words. In doing so. it is possible that
your explanations may decrease or exceed the number of words of the original text.
3 Short Direct Quotation
Only a part of the author's sentence, the whole sentence, or several sentences, not exceeding 40 words, is
what you can quote or repeat in writing through this citation pattern. Since this makes you copy the exact
words of the writer, it is necessary that you give the number of the page where the readers can find the copied
words.

Example: Contexts is influenced by these four factors: "language, culture, institutions, and ideologies"
(Aranda, 2015).

4 Tense of Verbs for Reporting

Active verbs are effective words to use in reporting authors' ideas. Present their ideas in any of these
tenses: present, simple past, or present perfect tense. The APA system, however, prefers the use of present
perfect tense.

Examples: Present tense - Marcos explains... Past tense - Marcos explained... Present perfect tense -
Marcos has explained...
5 Long Direct Quotation or Block Quotation, or Extract.

Named in many ways, this citation pattern makes you copy the author's exact words
numbering from 40 up to 100 words. Under APA, the limit is eight lines. Placed at the center
of the page with no indentation, the copied lines look like they compose a stanza of a poem.

Example:

The latest study by (Hizon, 2015) reveals the social nature of language. Stressing this nature
of language, he says: Language features result from the way people use language to meet
their social needs. In their interactions, they use language to describe, compare, agree,
explain, disagree, and so on. Each language function requires a certain set of language
features like nouns for naming, adjectives for comparing, verbs for agreeing, prepositions
for directing, and conjunctions for connecting ideas.
You should quote judiciously because having so many quoted words or lines in your paper
signals your lack of understanding of such part of the text. Besides, frequent copying of the
author's words indicates your lack of originality in conducting your research work. To avoid
negative connotations about direct quotations in your paper, have in mind the following
reasons to justify your act of quoting or repeating in writing other people's words (Ransome,
2013).

a. The idea is quite essential.

b. The idea is refutable or arguable.
c. The sentence is ambiguous or has multiple meanings.
d. There is a strong possibility that questions may be raised about the citation.
e. It is an excellent idea that to make it a part of your paper will bring prestige and
credibility to your entire work.
There are two basic methods of referencing, pointing to, or identifying the
exact author referred to by your paper. These are the APA (American
Psychological Association and the MLA (Modern Language Association).
Each of these two methods has its own in-text citation style. The following
shows the difference between them as regards citation format.

APA - (Ramos, 2015) or Ramos (2015) (Manalo, 2015) or Manalo (2015)

MLA - (Bautista 183), Flores et.al. 150-158)

 PLAGIARIS
M
Plagiarism is an act of quoting or copying the exact words of the writer and passing
the quoted words off as your own words. The leading act of plagiarism is using the
words of the original text in expressing your understanding of the reading material.
The right way to avoid plagiarism is to express the borrowed ideas in your own words
(Ransome, 2013).

Nowadays, due to the proliferation of "Grey Literature" or unpublished reading

materials or of non-peer reviewed online publications, many reading materials as
sources of information for research studies appear questionable as to how qualitative,
credible, and authoritative they are. Not with standing the doubtful reputation of these
grey literature, to free yourself from any guilt of plagiarism, you must identify in your
paper the owners of any idea, word, symbol that you quoted or copied verbatim,
summarized, or paraphrased. (Sharp, 2012; Gray, 2013).
QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
DESIGNS
Design is a word which means a plan or something that is conceptualized by the mind.
As a result of a mental activity characterized by unfixed formation of something but an
extensive interconnection of things, a design in the field of research serves as a blueprint or
a skeletal framework of your research study. It includes many related aspects of your
research work. A choice of a research design requires you to finalize your mind on the
purpose, philosophical basis, and types of data of your research, including your method of
collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting the data. It is a plan that directs your
mind to several stages of your research work (De Mey, 2013).
 There are five research designs that are commonly used in a qualitative data. These are: case study,
ethnography, historical study, phenomenology and grounded theory.

1. Case Study
To do a research study based on this research design is to describe a person, a thing, or any
creature on Earth for the purpose of explaining the reasons behind the nature of its existence.
Your aim here is to determine why such an individual or an object acts, behaves, occurs, or
exists in a particular manner. Usually, a case study centers on an individual or single subject
matter. Your methods of collecting data for this qualitative research design are interview,
observation, and questionnaire. One advantage of case study is its capacity to deal with a lot of
factors to determine the unique characteristics of the entity (Meng, 2012; Yin, 2012).
2. Ethnography

This involves a study of a certain cultural group or organization in which you, the
researcher, to obtain knowledge about the characteristics, organizational set-up, and
relationships of the group members, must necessarily involve you in their group
activities. Since this design gives stress to the study of a group of people, in a way,
this is one special kind of a case study. The only thing that makes it different from
the latter is your participation as a researcher in the activities of the group.
3. Historical Study

This qualitative research design allows you to determine the reasons for changes or
permanence of things in the physical world in a certain period, e.g., years, decades, or
centuries. What is referred to in the study as time of changes is not a time shorter than
a year, but a period indicating a big number of years. Obviously, historical study
differs from other research designs because of this one element that is peculiar to it, the
scope. The scope or coverage of a historical study refers to the number of years
covered, the kind of events focused on, and the extent of new knowledge or
discoveries resulting from the historical study.
The data collecting techniques for a study following a historical research design are
biography or autobiography reading, documentary analysis, and chronicling activities.
This last technique, chronicling activities, makes you interview people to trace series
of events in the lives of people in a span of time. However, one drawback of historical
study is the absence or loss of complete and well-kept old that may hinder the
completion of the study.
The data collecting techniques for a study following a historical research
design are biography or autobiography reading, documentary analysis, and
chronicling activities. This last technique, chronicling activities, makes you
interview people to trace series of events in the lives of people in a span of
time. However, one drawback of historical study is the absence or loss of
complete and well-kept old that may hinder the completion of the study.
4. Phenemology
A phenomenon is something you experience on Earth as a person. It is a sensory.
experience that makes you perceive or understand things that naturally occur in your
life such as death, joy, friendship, caregiving, defeat, victory, and the like. This
qualitative research design makes you follow a research method that will let you
understand the ways of how people go through inevitable events in their lives. You
are likely to spend much time in listening to people's recount of their significant
experiences to be able to get a clue or pattern of their techniques in coming to terms
with the positive or negative results of their life experiences.
Comparing phenomenology and ethnography, the first aims at getting a thorough
understanding of an individual's life experiences for this same person's realistic
dealings with hard facts of life while the second aims at defining, describing, or
portraying a certain group of people possessing unique cultural traits.

Focusing on peoples meaning and making strategies in relation to their life experiences,
phenomenology as a qualitative research design finds itself relevant or useful to people
such as teachers, nurses, guidance counselors, and the like, whose work entails giving
physical and emotional assistance or relief to people. Unstructured interview is what this
research design directs you to use in collecting data (Paris, 2014; Winn, 2014).
5. Grounded Theory

A research study adhering to a grounded theory research design aims to develop a

theory that will increase your understanding of something in a psychosocial context.
Such study enables you to develop theories to explain sociologically and
psychologically influenced phenomena for proper identification of a certain
educational process. Occurring in an inductive manner, a research study following a
grounded theory design takes place in an inductive manner, wherein one basic
category of peoples action and interactions gets related to a second category; to third
category; and so on, until a new theory emerges from the previous data (Gibson,
2014; Creswell, 2012).
SAMPLING
In research, sampling is a word that refers to your method or process of selecting respondents or
people to answer questions meant to yield data for a research study. The chosen ones constitute the
sample through which you will derive facts and evidence to support the claims or conclusions
propounded by your research problem. The bigger group from where you choose the sample is
called population, and sampling frame is the term used to mean the list of the members of such
population from where you will get the sample (Paris, 2013).
History Of Sampling
The beginning of sampling could be traced back
to the early political activities of the Americans
in 1920 when Literary Digest did a pioneering
survey about the American citizens favorite
among the 1920 presidential candidates. This
was the very first survey that served as the
impetus for the discovery by academic
researchers of other sampling strategies that
they categorized into two classes: probability
sampling or unbiased sampling and non-
probability sampling (Babbie, 2013).
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING OR UNBIASED SAMPLING
Probability sampling involves selecting members from a sampling frame representing a specific
population targeted by the study, with each member having an equal chance of participation.
This unbiased sampling method allows for obtaining a sample capable of representing the
population accurately or exhibiting strong similarities in characteristics. Sampling errors occur
when the selection process deviates from the planned approach, leading to dissimilarities
between the sample and the sampling frame. The number of sampling errors is influenced by the
sample size; smaller samples tend to have more errors. Increasing the sample size can mitigate
sampling errors, but this decision requires consideration of factors such as questionnaire
expenses and the heterogeneity or homogeneity of the group. Social science studies, especially
those involving national government, typically require sample sizes ranging from 1,000 to
2,500, while studies focusing on local government units can suffice with hundreds, not
thousands, of respondents (Suter, 2012; Emmel, 2013).
 TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING

1. Simple Random Sampling

Simple random sampling is the best type of probability sampling through which you can
choose a sample from a population. Using a pure-chance selection, you assure every member
the same opportunity to be in the sample. Here, the only basis of including or excluding a
member is by chance or opportunity, not by any occurrence accounted for by cause-effect
relationships. Simple random sampling happens through any of these two methods (Burns,
2012):

a. Have a list of all members of the population; write each name on a card and choose cards
through a pure-chance selection.
b. Have a list of all members; give a number to member and then use randomized or unordered
numbers in selecting names from the list.
2. Systematic Sampling

For this kind of probability sampling, chance and system are the ones to determine who should
compose the sample. For instance, if you want to have a sample of 150, you may select a set of
numbers like 1 to 15, and out of a list of 1,500 students, take every 15th name on the list until
you complete the total number of respondents to constitute your sample.

3. Stratified Sampling

The group comprising the sample is chosen in a way that such group is liable to subdivision
during the data analysis stage. A study needing group-by-group analysis finds stratified
sampling the right probability sampling to use.
4. Cluster Sampling

This is a probability sampling that makes you isolate a set of persons instead of
individual members to serve as sample members. For example, if you want to
have a sample of 120 out of 1,000 students, you can randomly select three
sections with 40 students each to constitute the sample.
Non-Probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling disregards random selection of subjects.
The subjects are chosen based on their availability or the purpose
of the study, and in some cases, on the sole discretion of the
researcher. This is not a scientific way of selecting respondents.
Neither does it offer a valid or an objective way of detecting
sampling errors (Edmond, 2013).
 Types of Non-probability Sampling

1.Quota Sampling

You resort to quota sampling when you think you

know the characteristics of the target population very well. In this
case, you tend to choose sample members possessing or indicating
the characteristics of the target population. Using a quota or a
specific set of persons, whom you believe to have the
characteristics of the target population involved in the study, is
your way of showing that the sample you have chosen closely
2. Voluntary Sampling

Since the subjects you expect to participate in the sample selection are the
ones volunteering to constitute the sample, there is no need for you to do any
selection

3. Purposive or Judgmental Sampling

You choose people whom you are sure could correspond to the objectives of
your study, like selecting those with rich experience or interest in your study.
4. Availability Sampling

The willingness of a person as your subject to interact with you counts a

lot in this non-probability sampling method. If during the data-collection
time, you encounter people walking on a school campus, along corridors,
and along the park or employees lining up at an office, and these people
show willingness to respond to your questions, then you automatically
consider them as your respondents.
5. Snowball Sampling

Similar to snow expanding widely or rolling rapidly, this sampling method

does not give a specific set of samples. This is true for a study involving
unspecified group of people. Dealing with varied groups of people such as
street children, mendicants. drug dependents, call center workers, informal
settlers, street vendors, and the like is possible in this kind of non-
probability sampling. Free to obtain data from any group just like snow
freely expanding and accumulating at a certain place, you tend to increase
the number of people you want to form the sample of your study (Harding,
2013).
 Practical Research
Report

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Research
Team 4 | 2024