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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BRAKING SYSTEM AND AUTOMOTIVE SAFETY

From the early days of Henry Ford's first automobile to the hybrids
and sports cars of today, vehicle technology has come a long way. For several
decades, automotive safety didn’t keep pace with the exponential growth of
the auto industry, but with today's safety measures, the rate of fatal traffic
accidents is on the decline. According to the Prevention Institute, the first seat
belts appeared in cars not to prevent injury during crashes but to keep the
rider from bouncing out of his vehicle on a bumpy ride. For the first several
decades of automobile production, the government did little to regulate safety
standards. As vehicles grew, accidents increased as well. In 1966, Congress
passed the Highway Safety Act and the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle
Safety Act, which set safety standards and put regulations on the automotive
industry and the nation's roadways. The National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration reports a decline in the number of fatal accidents and an
increase in the usage of seat belts. One of the predominant reasons for
accident is brake failure. A poorly designed or an improperly maintained
braking system causes a brake failure resulting in major accidents. A well
designed braking system prevents accidents due to brake failure.
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1.1.1 Brake

Brake is an equipment used in automobiles or machines to slow

down a running vehicle and during this period the kinetic energy is degraded
into heat energy. Brake is used to stop an object or equipment that is running.
Brakes generally employ friction pads to change the kinetic energy into heat
energy, however in hybrid system the kinetic energy is changed into useful
electrical energy or potential energy which is in the form of pressurised air as
an alternative to heat energy. The brakes in automobile stores the heat in the
drum brake or disc brake while braking, then carry out it to the air regularly.
When travelling downhill a few automobiles use its engine to brake. When
brake is pushed the caliper holding the piston/diaphragm pushes the pad near
the brake disc to slow down the wheels of an automobile.

1.1.1.1 Air brake

Air brake system is widely used in automobiles such as buses,

trailers, trucks and semi-trailers. The compressed air brake system is used in
trucks which contains a standard disc or drum brake using compressed air instead
of hydraulic fluid. Most types of truck air brakes are drum units, though there is a
growing trend to the use of disc brakes. The compressed air brake system works
by drawing clean air from the environment, compressing it, and holding it in high
pressure tanks. Whenever the air is needed for braking, the stored air is directed
to the functioning cylinders on brakes to activate the braking hardware and slow
down the vehicle. Air brakes use compressed air to increase braking forces. The
large vehicles also have an emergency brake system, in which the compressed air
holds back a mechanical force using springs which will otherwise engage the
brakes. If air pressure is lost for any reason, the brakes will hold and vehicle is
stopped.
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1.1.1.2 Disc brake

Disc brake has a brake disc or rotor which is made up of cast iron
or ceramic compounds like carbon, Kevlar and silica and linked to the wheel
and/or the axle. The friction material in the form of brake pads is mounted on
a mechanism called a brake caliper is pushed either mechanically or
hydraulically or pneumatically or electromagnetically on both sides of the
disc to stop the wheel. Friction causes the disc and the connected wheel to
slow down or stop the automobile. Generally disc brakes change the friction
to heat. If the brakes get heated abnormally, they will stop to function because
they cannot disperse sufficient heat.

1.1.1.3 Drum brake

Drum brake has a set of brake pads or brake shoes that push against
the inner surface of a rotating drum causing friction. The drum is coupled to a
rotating wheel. The kinetic energy of the wheels is converted into thermal energy
in the pads of the drum through friction. In drum brakes, the shoes were
mechanically functioning with levers and rods or cables. From 1930 the shoes
are actuated with oil pressure in a small wheel cylinder and pistons, though some
vehicles are sustained with pure mechanical systems for decades. Some of the
brakes have two wheel cylinders.

1.1.1.4 Hydraulic brake

The hydraulic brake system uses brake fluid usually glycol-ether

based, to transmit pressure from the controlling unit, which is usually near the
driver, to the actual brake mechanism, which is near the wheel of the vehicle.
This type of brake system is widely used in cars. The pneumatic or air
assisted hydraulic brake system is used in many heavy vehicles.
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1.1.1.5 Anti-lock brake

An anti-lock braking system (ABS) is a braking system or security

system which prevents the wheels of an automobile from locking up while
braking. The wheels revolving on the road let the driver to maintain steering
control under heavy braking by preventing a skid and allowing the wheel to
continue interacting tractively with the road surface as directed by driver
steering inputs. The ABS offers better vehicle control, and may reduce ending
distances on dry and especially slippery surfaces. It can also boost the braking
distance on loose surfaces such as snow and gravel.

1.2 AIR COMPRESSOR IN BRAKING SYSTEM

Air brakes or air assisted hydraulic brakes use compressed air to

activate the brakes. Air brakes are a good and safe way of stopping large and
heavy vehicles. There are many components in the air brake system circuit.
The compressor is the main component of the brake system. The compressor
pumps the air into the air storage tanks. The reciprocating air compressor is
connected to the engine through gears or a V-belt. The compressor may be
air-cooled or may be cooled by the engine cooling system. It may have its
own oil supply or lubricated by engine oil. The governor controls when the air
compressor pumps the air into the air storage tank. When the air tank pressure
rises to the “cut-out” level, the governor stops the compressor from pumping
the air. When the tank pressure falls to the “cut-in” level the governor allows
the compressor to start pumping again. Since an automotive air compressor is
run by engine itself, it consumes a significant amount of high grade
mechanical energy (0.5 kW to 3.5 kW) of the engine that comes from the
combustion of fuel.
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1.3 UNIQUE FEATURES OF A COMPRESSOR MODELLING

A well designed compressor will consume less engine power with

good volumetric efficiency and operating life. The engineers at the design
stage will try to analyse the outcome of their work related to performance and
life at various operating and physical conditions. Mathematical model is an
effective tool to predict the performance of a compressor at any working
condition. The designer will be in a position to know the outcome at the initial
stage of the proposed work and thereby reducing the time and cost of
experimental work. The model can accommodate any modification of
physical and operating parameters in the existing compressor or in the
compressor to be developed.

1.3.1 Modelling concepts

A mathematical model uses mathematical language to describe a

system. The process of developing a mathematical model is termed
mathematical modelling and is widely used in all engineering and sciences for
performance prediction. Eykhoff (1974) defined a mathematical model as a
representation of the essential aspects of an existing system (or a system to be
constructed) which presents knowledge of that system in usable form.
Mathematical modelling problems are often classified into black box or white
box models, according to how much a priori information is available of the
system. A black-box model is a system in which there is no a priori information
available. A white-box model (also called glass box or clear box) is a system
where all necessary information is available. Practically all systems are
somewhere between the black-box and white-box models, so this concept only
works as an intuitive guide for approach. Usually it is preferable to use as much
a priori information as possible to make the model more accurate. Therefore the
white-box models are usually considered easier, because if the information is
used correctly, then the model will give results accurately.
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Conventionally, mathematical modelling or simulation is defined as

the process of designing a model of a real system and conducting experiments
with it for the purpose of understanding the behaviour of the system.
Mathematical models can take many forms, including but not limited to
dynamical systems, statistical models, differential equations, or game
theoretic models. These and other types of models can overlap, with a given
model involving a variety of abstract structures. Often when engineers analyze
a system to be controlled or optimised, they use a mathematical model. In
analysis, engineers can build a descriptive model of the system as a hypothesis
of how the system could work, or try to estimate how an unforeseeable event
could affect the system. Similarly, in the control of a system, engineers can try
out different control approaches in simulations. Mathematical models in
general can be classified in some of the following ways:

1. Linear vs. nonlinear: Mathematical models are usually

composed by variables, which are abstractions of quantities of
interest in the described systems, and operators that act on
these variables, which can be algebraic operators, functions,
differential operators, etc. If all the operators in a
mathematical model exhibit linearity, the resulting
mathematical model is defined as linear. A model is
considered to be nonlinear otherwise. The question of linearity
and nonlinearity is dependent on the context, and linear
models may have nonlinear expressions in them. For example,
in a statistical linear model, it is assumed that a relationship is
linear in the parameters, but it may be nonlinear in the
predictor variables. Similarly, a differential equation is said to
be linear if it is written with linear differential operators, but it
can still have nonlinear expressions in it. In a mathematical
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programming model, if the objective functions and constraints

are represented entirely by linear equations, then the model is
regarded as a linear model. If one or more of the objective
functions or constraints are represented with a nonlinear
equation, then the model is known as a nonlinear model.
Nonlinearity, even in fairly simple systems, is often associated
with phenomena such as chaos and irreversibility. Although
there are exceptions, nonlinear systems and models tend to be
more difficult to study than linear ones. A common approach
to nonlinear problems is linearisation, but this can be
problematic for studying the effect such as irreversibility,
which are strongly tied to nonlinearity.

2. Deterministic vs. probabilistic (stochastic): A deterministic

model is the one in which every set of variable states is
uniquely determined by parameters in the model and by sets
of previous states of these variables. Therefore, deterministic
models perform the same way for a given set of initial
conditions. Conversely, in a stochastic model, randomness is
present, and variable states are not described by unique values,
but rather by probability distributions.

3. Static vs. dynamic: A static model does not account for the
element of time, while a dynamic model does. Dynamic
models typically are represented with difference equations or
differential equations.

4. Lumped vs. distributed parameters: If the model is

heterogeneous (varying state within the system) the
parameters are distributed. If the model is homogeneous
(consistent state throughout the entire system), then the
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parameters are lumped. Distributed parameters are typically

represented with partial differential equations.

1.4 ACTUAL AND IDEAL COMPRESSORS

Operation and thermodynamic analysis of an ideal compressor is

very simple, due to the following reasons:

1. The suction is assumed to be reversible constant pressure

process. This means that the velocity of air is equal to the
velocity of piston. This is possible by either of the two ways:
(i) The diameter of the cylinder should be equal to the
diameter of the suction port, i.e., the flow area is equal to the
cylinder cross-sectional area. (ii) The compressor speed
should be infinitely small. There is no flow resistance in the
suction line and air enters the cylinder at atmospheric
temperature and pressure. It is easy to calculate the mass of air
sucked in per cycle or work transfer and other properties using
simple thermodynamic equations. The analysis does not
depend on the valve dimensions.

2. The compression is assumed to follow pVn = C. The index of

compression is constant and is generally taken as 1.2 to 1.35.
At the beginning of compression the pressure of the air is
taken as atmospheric pressure. At any crankangle, it is easy to
calculate the temperature, pressure, work transfer and heat
transfer using thermodynamic equations.

3. Discharge, similar to the suction is assumed to be a reversible

constant pressure process. There is no flow resistance in the
discharge line and the pressure of the discharged air is equal to
the reservoir pressure.
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4. Expansion is similar to the compression process, with constant

index of expansion.

The volumetric efficiency of the compressor is calculated based on

the pressure ratio and clearance ratio. Volumetric efficiency is constant at all
the speeds and no other effects affect the volumetric efficiency.

But, in actual compressors, the operation and analysis are totally

different, due to the following reasons:

1. In actual compressors, the suction or discharge valve plays a

vital role. The port diameter will never be equal to the
cylinder diameter. The flow area will never be equal to the
cylinder cross sectional area. It is not possible to get a
constant pressure suction. The air enters the cylinder through
filter and head that results in a pressure drop in the flow path.
The pressure during suction is affected by (i) The diameter of
the port which is not equal to the diameter of the cylinder.
Therefore, the mass corresponding to the volume displaced by
the piston will not be equal to the mass entering the cylinder
through the suction port or flow area. (ii) The wall
temperature will not be equal to the atmospheric temperature
as in the case of ideal compressors. The movement of the
piston with piston rings generates heat and it is dissipated to
the air and cylinder wall. This heat addition to the air raises
the suction temperature and affects the pressure pattern during
suction. Therefore, the available thermodynamic equations
cannot be used directly to determine the various properties of
air during operation.
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2. Werner Soedel (1984), in his study, mentioned that at the

earlier stages of compression, the wall temperature will be
greater than the atmospheric temperature and cylinder air
temperature. There will be heat transfer from wall to the air
and this will increase the work transfer during compression
and therefore the index of compression will be more than
adiabatic index of 1.4. At the later stages there will be a
reverse effect and the index of compression will be less than
1.4. It is not possible to determine the various properties from
simple thermodynamic equations.

3. During discharge process, there will be a pressure rise, due to

(i) The mass corresponding to the volume displaced by the
piston during discharge process will not be equal to the mass
going out of the cylinder. (ii) The air is discharged to the
reservoir through delivery head and air drier. There will be a
pressure drop in the discharge line and this will increase the
compressor work and pressure in the cylinder. (iii) There may
be intermediate opening and closing of valves during
discharge. And this will create a pressure pulsation during the
discharge process.

4. Similarly, during expansion process, the index of expansion

will not be constant due to heat transfer effect as in the case of
compression.

5. The volumetric efficiency of the compressor cannot be

calculated based on the pressure ratio and clearance ratio,
since constant pressure ratio in the cycle is not attained.
Therefore the volumetric efficiency should be calculated from
the actual mass delivered per cycle.
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The analysis is even more complicated with reed valve

compressors. The performance of the compressor greatly depends on the
valve behaviour during operation. It is very difficult to predict the valve
behaviour during operation. The valve behaviour varies with operating speed
and pressure. Mathematical modelling of reed valve compressor is a
challenging task.

1.5 OBJECTIVES OF THE PRESENT WORK

The objective of the present study was to develop a model for the
steady state performance of a reciprocating automotive air compressor. The
model equations composed of analytical equations based on simple energy
and mass balances in addition to simple relations developed from
experimental data. Since the model equations are simple in form, they can
easily be solved sequentially yielding the reasonable numerical results to
predict the performance of compressor at different operating conditions.
Furthermore, the analytical equations contained physical parameters which
can be varied to provide simulations of various compressor geometries. The
constants appeared in the empirical relations were obtained from the analysis
of experimental data. The experimental data used for parameter estimation
were obtained from the testing of automotive air compressor used in the
braking system. The modelling algorithm presented can easily be extended to
other reciprocating compressors with a minimal amount of experimental data.
Furthermore, the algorithm is capable of establishing a model that is accurate
over a broad range of operating conditions. The model's performance was
studied by comparison of simulation results with experimental data. The
present work was aimed at developing an effective and simplified model of a
reciprocating air compressor with various valves for investigating its
thermodynamic behaviour. Figure 1.1 shows the various inputs and outputs of
the mathematical model.
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Physical and
operating Input Model Output
parameters

Code written • Cylinder air pressure

Text in C • Cylinder air temperature
• Head air temperature
• Head air pressure
• Resultant torque
• Indicated power
• Shaft power
• Free air delivered
• All related performance
curves

Figure 1.1 Inputs and outputs of the mathematical model

1.6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The work was proceeded as follows:

1. Development of a mathematical model for ideal

compressor [Single Port (SP) Model]: This is the model of
an ideal compressor. In ideal compressors, the air enters and
leaves the compressor through the same port. The port has the
diameter equal to the diameter of the cylinder of the
compressor. This model was developed with all the
assumptions of an ideal thermodynamic cycle to predict the
thermodynamic properties of air in the cycle at different
crankangles. This model was validated by verifying the results
obtained from the basic thermodynamic equations.
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2. Development of a mathematical model from ideal model

[Multi Port (MP) Static Model]: This model was developed
for the compressors with suction and discharge ports instead
of suction and discharge valves. Based on simple assumptions,
the model was developed with constant flow area without
valve dynamics. This model was verified by obtaining ideal
values, incorporating ideal conditions in the model. The
results obtained from MP static model are compared with the
experimental results from Compressor 1. The deviation from
the experimental results is discussed and suitable suggestions
are presented for improvement.

3. Development of Multi Port (MP) Dynamic model: This

model was developed by relaxing the various assumptions in
stages for the actual compressors. In Stage 1, a simple valve
dynamics was incorporated to estimate the mass flow through
the compressor valves. The results are verified with SP model
and experimental values from Compressor 1 and suitable
suggestions are made for further improvement. In Stage 2,
improved valve dynamics was incorporated. The effect of
parameters like index of compression, index of expansion,
damping coefficient, suction temperature, etc., on the
performance was studied and the results are compared with SP
model, MP dynamic Stage 1 and experimental values from
Compressor 1 and suitable suggestions are made for further
improvement. In Stage 3, the mathematical model for 160 cc
air cooled compressor with 80 mm bore and 32 mm stroke
was developed by eliminating the assumptions of ideal
compressor and the results are discussed.
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4. Validation of model: Finally the model was validated with

experimental results from Compressor 2, Compressor 3 and
Compressor 4.

This chapter briefly covered the automotive vehicles safety, the role
of a braking system in safety, the function of air compressor in automotive
braking system, the need for compressor model, the objectives of the present
work and the research methodology. The various studies carried out by
different researchers in the compressor field are stated and discussed in
Chapter 2.