Motivation

5
The Key Point

Even with great talents some people fail to achieve great things. In some cases it’s
because they just aren’t willing to work hard enough to achieve high performance.
When individuals underachieve, so do their organizations. An understanding of Chapter at
motivation theories can help turn such situations around. ■ a Glance

What’s Inside? ■ What Is

Motivation?
■ What Can We
■ Bringing OB to LIFE
Learn from the
HITTING THE SNOOZE BUTTON TO IMPROVE PERFORMANCE
Needs Theories
■ Worth Considering . . . or Best Avoided? of Motivation?
HIRING HOURLY WORKERS? PAYING MORE THAN THE MINIMUM MAY BE THE ■ Why Is the
BEST CHOICE Equity Theory
■ Checking Ethics in OB of Motivation
INFORMATION GOLDMINE CREATES A DILEMMA Important?
■ Finding the Leader in You ■ What Are the
LORRAINE MONROE TURNS LEADERSHIP VISION INTO INSPIRATION Insights of the
Expectancy Theory
■ OB in Popular Culture
of Motivation?
EQUITY THEORY AND ALLY BANK
■ How Does Goal
■ Research Insight Setting Influence
CONSCIOUS AND SUBCONSCIOUS GOALS HAVE MOTIVATIONAL IMPACT Motivation?

99
 100 CHAPTER 5 ■ Motivation

What Is Motivation?
LE A R N ING
ROA DM A P MOTIVATION DEFINED • MOTIVATION THEORIES

Motivation refers to forces
within an individual that
account for the level,
direction, and persistence of
effort expended at work.
Content or needs theories
identify different needs that
may motivate individual
behavior.
Motivation Defined
Parable: Once upon a time there was a horse standing knee deep in a field of car-
rots, contentedly munching away. A farmer wanted the horse to pull a wagon to
another field, but she couldn’t get the horse to come over to the fence and be har-
nessed. So, she stood by the wagon and held up a bunch of carrots for the horse to
see. But, the horse continued to munch away on the carrots in the field.1
“What,” you might be asking, “do horses and carrots have to do with human behavior in
organizations?” The answer is motivation. Think of it as the forces within the individual
that account for the direction, level, and persistence of effort expended at work. Direction
refers to an individual’s choice among alternative ends or goals. Level refers to the amount
of effort put forth. Persistence refers to the length of time a person sticks with a path of
action, even in face of difficulty.
With our co-workers and teammates, and with those we supervise and those who
supervise us, we are often like the farmer in our opening parable: We’d really like some-
one to do something for us or for the team or organization, and we reach for some sort of
incentive to try and “motivate” them to do so. All too often these attempts aren’t any
more successful than that of the farmer in the field.
Motivation Theories
Many years of OB scholarship have created a rich foundation of research and thinking
about motivation. Even as that research continues to evolve, a number of core “content”
and “process” theories help us to think more rigorously and systematically about what
turns people on and off in their work.2 Although no single theory offers an absolutely best
explanation, each is valuable in its own way. By combining insights from the available
theories with wisdom gained through our experiences, we have a good chance of devel-
oping personal models of motivation that work well for us in most situations.
The content theories of motivation focus primarily on individual needs—physiological
or psychological deficiencies that we feel a compulsion to reduce or eliminate. These
theories try to explain the behaviors people display at work as a search for pathways to
satisfy important needs or as reactions to blocked needs. Examples to be discussed in
this chapter are Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, Alderfer’s ERG theory, McClelland’s
acquired needs theory, and Herzberg’s two-factor theory.

Something to Read—Drive:
The Surprising Truth About happens when we are able to do
things that are meaningful to us,
What Motivates Us things we pursue because we
Author Daniel Pink believes that real drive—think of it as want to and not because we’re
a willingness to work hard to accomplish a goal—comes told we have to do them.
from intrinsic motivation. In his book, Drive, Pink sets Employers can tap the potential
out the notion that we are more motivated to do things of intrinsic motivation by giving
that we enjoy than to do things merely to get extrinsic workers discretion to make
rewards. Although most of us need to work for a living, decisions about how their jobs
once a minimum amount of pay and job security is get done and free time to pursue
achieved the motivational kick comes mainly from their own ideas on how things
intrinsic motivation. This “motivation from the inside” can be done better. Larry Busacca/Getty Images
 Motivation and Human Needs 101

The process theories of motivation focus on how cognitive processes—individual Process theories examine
thoughts and decision tendencies—influence work behavior. The focus is on understand- the thought processes that
ing how and why certain factors influence people’s decisions to work hard or not in motivate individual behavior.
certain situations. Three process theories discussed in this chapter are equity theory,
expectancy theory, and goal-setting theory.

Motivation and Human Needs

HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY • ERG THEORY
LE A R N ING
ROA DM A P ACQUIRED NEEDS THEORY • TWO FACTOR THEORY
EMOTIONAL DRIVES OR NEEDS MODEL

The premise of the content or needs theories is that motivation results from our attempts
to satisfy important needs. They suggest that once an individual’s needs are understood,
it should be possible to create situations—work, family, sport, or otherwise—that respond
positively to them.

Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Perhaps the most well-known of the content approaches to motivation is Abraham Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs theory. As depicted in Figure 5.1, this theory identifies five levels of indi- Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
vidual needs. They range from self-actualization and esteem needs at the top, to social, safety, theory offers a pyramid of
and physiological needs at the bottom.3 The concept of a needs “hierarchy” assumes that physiological, safety, social,
esteem, and self-actualization
some needs are more important than others and must be satisfied before the other needs can needs.
serve as motivators. For example, physiological needs must be satisfied before safety needs
are activated; safety needs must be satisfied before social needs are activated; and so on.
Maslow’s model is easy to understand and has been quite popular for many years. How-
ever, it needs to be considered with caution. Research fails to support the existence of a

HIGHER-ORDER NEEDS FIGURE 5.1 Pathways to

Self-Actualization
satisfaction of Maslow’s
Highest need level; need to fulfill oneself; higher-order and lower-order
to grow and use abilities to fullest needs.
and most creative extent

Esteem

Need for esteem of others; respect, prestige,

recognition, need for self-esteem, personal
sense of competence, mastery

LOWER-ORDER NEEDS Social

Need for love, affection, sense of

belongingness in one’s relationships
with other persons

Safety

Need for security, protection, and

stability in the physical and inter-
personal events of day-to-day life

Physiological

Most basic of all human needs;

need for biological maintenance; need
for food, water, and sustenance
 102
Higher-order needs in
Maslow’s hierarchy are
esteem and self-actualization.
Lower-order needs in
Maslow’s hierarchy are
physiological, safety, and
social.
Alderfer’s ERG theory
identifies existence,
relatedness, and growth
needs.
Existence needs are desires
for physiological and material
well-being.
Relatedness needs are
desires for satisfying
interpersonal relationships.
Growth needs are desires for
continued personal growth
and development.
Need for achievement
(nAch) is the desire to do
better, solve problems, or
master complex tasks.
Need for affiliation (nAff ) is
the desire for friendly and
warm relations with others.
Need for power (nPower) is
the desire to control others
and influence their behavior.
CHAPTER 5 ■ Motivation
precise five-step hierarchy of needs. If anything, the needs are more likely to operate in a
flexible rather than in a strict, step-by-step sequence. The higher-order needs of self-
actualization and esteem, for example, may grow more important than the lower-order
needs—physiological, safety, and social, as one moves to higher levels of work responsibility.4
Studies report that needs may vary according to a person’s career stage, the size of the
organization, and even geographic location.5 There is also no consistent evidence that
the satisfaction of a need at one level decreases its importance and increases the impor-
tance of the next-higher need.6 In addition, the presumed hierarchy of needs may vary
across cultures. Findings suggest, for instance, that social needs tend to take on higher
importance in more collectivist societies, such as Mexico, than in individualistic ones,
such as the United States.7
ERG Theory
Clayton Alderfer’s ERG theory is also based on needs, but it differs from Maslow’s theory
in important ways.8 To begin, the theory collapses Maslow’s five needs categories into
three. Existence needs are desires for physiological and material well-being. Related-
ness needs are desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships. Growth needs are
desires for continued personal growth and development. ERG theory also abandons
Maslow’s strict hierarchy and contends that more than one of these needs need may be
active at the same time.
One of the most unique aspects of ERG theory is its allowance for frustration–regression
in how needs become activated. Alderfer believes an already satisfied lower-
level need can become reactivated when a higher-level need cannot be satisfied. When
someone is continually frustrated in attempts to satisfy growth needs, for example,
relatedness and existence needs can again surface as key motivators.9 This frustration-
regression dynamic might explain why complaints about wages, benefits, and working
conditions are often heard in many work settings. In addition to possible absolute
deficiencies in these matters, concerns for them may also get exaggerated attention due
to a lack of opportunities for workers to satisfy their relatedness and growth needs.
Acquired Needs Theory
In the late 1940s psychologist David I. McClelland and his co-workers began experiment-
ing with the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) as a way of measuring human needs.10
The TAT is a projective technique that asks people to view pictures and write stories
about what they see, and its use proved historic in motivation theory. Consider, for exam-
ple, these differences when McClelland showed three executives a photograph of a man
looking at family photos arranged on his work desk. One executive wrote of an engineer
who was daydreaming about a family outing scheduled for the next day. Another
described a designer who had picked up an idea for a new gadget from remarks made by
his family. The third described an engineer who was intently working on a bridge stress
problem that he seemed sure to solve because of his confident look.11
McClelland identified themes in the TAT stories that he believed correspond to needs
that are acquired over time as a result of our life experiences. Need for achievement
(nAch) was evident in the executive who spoke of an engineer working on a bridge stress
problem. It is the desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or
to master complex tasks. Need for affiliation (nAff ) is the desire to establish and
maintain friendly and warm relations with others. This need may be more represented in
the executives who mentioned family in regards to the TAT photos. Yet another need
identified in McClelland’s work is need for power (nPower). You can think of it as the
desire to control others, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for others.
Because each of the acquired needs can be linked with a set of work preferences,
McClelland encouraged managers to identify in themselves and in others the strengths
 Motivation and Human Needs 103

BRINGING OB “‘Chronic exhaustion’—meaning employees who don’t get enough rest—is estimated
to cost U.S. companies $60 billion a year in lost productivity.”
TO LIFE
w

Hitting the Snooze Button to Improve Performance

Not all of us can quietly close the office door and take a
midday power nap. Yet, facts are suggesting that napping
should become an accepted norm. Perhaps it’s time for
organizations to have dedicated “Quiet, I’m napping!”
zones just as they have wellness and day care centers.
After all, feeling sleepy at work can’t be good for
business.
Did you know that medical researchers find that
about one-third of American workers don’t get enough
sleep to perform at high levels on the job? And “chronic
exhaustion”—meaning employees who don’t get enough
rest—comes at high cost to not just the individual
but also the organization. It is estimated to cost U.S.
companies $60 billion a year in lost productivity. That’s a Photo-Dave/iStockphoto
big number, and many employers are taking notice.
What we are talking about here are people who
come to work tired and end up cranky, listless, and made the quick nap acceptable in the organizational
underperforming. They don’t intend to be that way, but culture, everyone might gain. That’s part of the message
lack of sleep caused by pressures of balancing work in a book, Sleep for Success, by Psychologist James Maas.
demands with complicated personal lives leaves them He writes, “If we treated machinery like we treat the
that way. The problem is especially common among shift human body, there would be breakdowns all the time.”
workers whose work and personal schedules are out of Organizational behavior researchers are always
balance. interested in studying things like motivation, effort,
Is it time to put the snooze button on the desk and ability, and performance. It may be time for them to put
disassociate the office nap from perceived loafing? If we “well rested” on their lists of research variables.

of nAch, nAff, and nPower. Armed with this understanding, it is possible to create work
environments that will satisfy people with different need profiles. Someone with a high
need for achievement, for example, will prefer individual responsibilities, challenging
goals, and performance feedback. Someone with a high need for affiliation is drawn to
interpersonal relationships and opportunities for communication. Someone with a high
need for power seeks influence over others and likes attention and recognition.
Since these three needs are acquired, McClelland also believed it may be possible
to teach people to develop need profiles required for success in various types of jobs.
His research indicated, for example, that a moderate-to-high need for power that is
stronger than a need for affiliation is linked with success as a senior executive. The
high nPower creates the willingness to exercise influence and control over others; the
lower nAff allows the executive to make difficult decisions without undue worry over
being disliked.12

Two-Factor Theory
As scholarship on work motivation continued to develop, Frederick Herzberg took yet
another approach that proved insightful to some and controversial to many. He began by
asking workers to report the times they felt exceptionally good about their jobs and the
times they felt exceptionally bad about them.13 Results showed that people talked about
 104
FIGURE 5.2 Sources of
dissatisfaction and satisfaction
in Herzberg’s two-factor theory.
Herzberg’s two-factor theory
identifies job context as the
source of job dissatisfaction
and job content as the source
of job satisfaction.
Hygiene factors in the job
context are sources of job
dissatisfaction.
Motivator factors in the job
content are sources of job
satisfaction.
Job enrichment tries to build
more motivator factors into
job content.
CHAPTER 5 ■ Motivation
Hygiene factors found in job context Motivator factors found in job content
and affect job dissatisfaction and affect job satisfaction
• Organizational policies • Achievement
• Quality of supervision • Recognition
• Working conditions • Work itself
• Relationships with co-workers • Responsibility
• Status and security • Advancement
• Base wage or salary • Growth
High Job Dissatisfaction Low Job Satisfaction High
very different things when they reported feeling good or bad about their jobs. Herzberg
explained these results using what he called the two-factor theory, also known as the
motivator–hygiene theory. This theory identifies motivator factors as primary causes of
job satisfaction and hygiene factors as primary causes of job dissatisfaction.
Hygiene factors, shown to the left in Figure 5.2, are sources of job dissatisfaction, and
they are found in the job context or work setting. They relate more to the setting in which
people work than to the nature of the work itself. The two-factor theory suggests that job
dissatisfaction occurs when hygiene is poor. It also suggests that improving the hygiene
factors will not increase job satisfaction; it will only decrease job dissatisfaction. Among
the hygiene factors, perhaps the most surprising is salary. Herzberg found that paying a
low base salary or wage makes people dissatisfied, but paying more does not necessarily
satisfy or motivate them.
Motivator factors, shown on the right in Figure 5.2, are sources of job satisfaction.
These factors are found in job content—what people actually do in their work. They
include such things as a sense of achievement, opportunities for personal growth, recog-
nition, and responsibility. According to two-factor theory, the presence or absence of sat-
isfiers or motivators in people’s jobs is the key to satisfaction, motivation, and perfor-
mance. When motivator factors are minimal, low job satisfaction decreases motivation
and performance. When motivator factors are substantial, high job satisfaction raises
motivation and performance.
A controversial point in the two-factor theory is Herzberg’s belief that job satisfac-
tion and job dissatisfaction are separate dimensions. Taking action to improve a
hygiene factor, such as by giving pay raises or creating better physical working condi-
tions, will not make people satisfied and more motivated in their work; it will only
prevent them from being less dissatisfied on these matters. To improve job satisfac-
tion, Herzberg believes job content must be enriched by adding more motivator fac-
tors. His technique of job enrichment is given special attention in the next chapter as
a job design alternative. For now, the implication is well summarized in this statement
by Herzberg: “If you want people to do a good job, give them a good job to do.”14
OB scholars have long debated the merits of the two-factor theory.15 It is criticized as
being method bound, or replicable only when Herzberg’s original methods are used. This
is a serious criticism, since the scientific approach valued in OB requires that theories be
verifiable under different research methods.16 Yet, the distinction between hygiene and
motivator factors has been a useful contribution to OB. As will be apparent in the discus-
sions of job designs and alternative work schedules in the next chapter, the notion of two
factors—job content and job context—has a practical validity that adds useful discipline
to management thinking.
 Motivation and Equity 105

Emotional Drives or Needs Model

An example of continuing attention to the link between human needs and motivation
is found in the emotional drives or needs model described by Harvard scholars Paul
Lawrence and Nitin Nohria. Their model of motivation identifies four emotional drives or
needs that people seek to satisfy at work and in daily living. The drive to acquire is the
need to obtain physical and psychological gratification. The drive to bond is the need to
connect with other people individually and in groups. The drive to comprehend is the
need to understand things and gain a sense of mastery. And, the drive to defend is the
need to be protected from threats and obtain justice.17
The emotional drives or needs model ties each of the four drives with specific things
that organizations and managers can do to satisfy them as ways to gain a positive impact
on motivation. As shown in the figure, the drive to acquire is satisfied through reward
systems that clearly distinguish between high and low performers and that distribute
rewards contingently based on performance. The drive to bond is satisfied through a
collaborative organizational and team culture that encourages friendship and positive
social identity. The drive to comprehend is satisfied by job designs that provide a sense of
meaning and importance in work being
done, as well as the opportunity to learn and
improve in one’s competencies. The drive to Satisfy Need Differentiate high and low performers,
to Acquire and make rewards performance contingent
defend is satisfied by information transpar-
ency and fair practices that build confidence
and trust, especially in relation to rewards
and resource allocations. Satisfy Need Create a collaborative organizational and team
When the four emotional drives or needs to Bond culture that offers friendship and positive identity
were examined in empirical studies of 685
workers in major businesses, researchers
found that their satisfaction explained 60 Satisfy Need to Design jobs that give job holders meaning,
percent of the motivation workers experi- Comprehend a sense of importance, and opportunities to learn
enced in their organizations.18 Perhaps more
important, they also reached this conclusion:
“Employees in our study attributed as much Satisfy Need Provide information transparency and fair
importance to their boss’s meeting their four to Defend decisions that build confidence and trust
drives as to the organization’s policies.”19

Motivation and Equity

EQUITY AND SOCIAL COMPARISONS
LE A R N ING EQUITY THEORY PREDICTIONS AND FINDINGS
ROA DM A P
EQUITY AND ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE

What happens when you get a grade back on a written assignment or test? How do you
interpret your results, and what happens to your future motivation in the course? Such ques-
tions fall in the motivational domain of process theory, specifically equity theory. As known
in OB through the writing of J. Stacy Adams, equity theory argues that any perceived inequity
becomes a motivating state. In other words, people are motivated to behave in ways that Adams’s equity theory posits
restore or maintain a sense of balance—perceived equity—in their minds. These tenden- that people will act to
cies are found in work situations and the full variety of our personal affairs.20 eliminate any felt inequity in
the rewards received for their
Equity and Social Comparisons work in comparison with
others.
The act of social comparison is a basic foundation of equity theory. Think back to the
earlier questions. When you receive a grade, do you quickly try to find out what others
received as well? When you do, does the interpretation of your grade depend on how well
 106 CHAPTER 5 ■ Motivation

FINDING THE LEADER

IN YOU Lorraine Monroe Turns Leadership Vision into Inspiration
r. Lorraine Monroe began her career in the New leaders in visionary
D York City schools as a teacher. She went on to
serve as assistant principal, principal, and vice-
leadership and help
them go forth to
chancellor for curriculum and instruction. Her career build high-performing
really took off when she founded the Frederick Doug- schools that trans-
lass Academy, a public school in Harlem, where she form children’s lives.
had grown up. The academy’s namesake was an Lorraine Monroe’s
escaped slave who later became a prominent abolition- many leadership
ist and civil rights leader. Under her leadership as ideas are summarized
principal, the school became highly respected for in what is called the
educational excellence. “Monroe Doctrine.”
Through her experiences, Monroe formed a set of It begins with this
beliefs centered on a leader being vision driven and fol- advice: “The job of
lower centered. She believes leaders must always start the leader is to uplift
at the “heart of the matter” and that “the job of a good her people—not just
leader is to articulate a vision that others are inspired to as members of and
follow.” She believes in making sure all workers know contributors to the
they are valued, that their advice is welcome, and that organization, but as
workers and managers should always try to help and sup- individuals of infinite
port one another. “I have never undertaken any project,” worth in their own Copyright © 2003 by Lorraine
she says, “without first imagining on paper what it would right.” Monroe. Reprinted by permission of
PUBLICAFFAIRS, a member of Perseus
ultimately look like. . . . All the doers who would be Books Group. All rights reserved.
responsible for carrying out my imaginings have to be
informed and let in on the dream.”
About her commitment to public leadership, Monroe What’s the Lesson Here?
states, “We can reform society only if every place we How good are you at visioning? Are you able to
live—every school, workplace, church, and family— generate visions that are persuasive and engaging to
becomes a site of reform.” She now serves as a others? Do others feel inspired by your visions? If not,
leadership consultant and runs the Lorraine Monroe could it be that you need to think about how to make
Leadership Institute. Its goal is to train educational the vision more about them and less about you?

Perceived inequity is feeling
under-rewarded or over-
rewarded in comparison with
others.
your grade compared to those of others? Equity theory predicts that your behavior upon
receiving a grade—working less or harder in the course—will be based on whether or not
you perceive it as fair and equitable. Furthermore, that determination is made only after
you compare your results with those received by others.
Adams argues that the motivational consequences of rewards are a function of
how one evaluates rewards received relative to efforts made, and as compared to the
rewards received by others relative to their efforts made. A key issue in this comparison
is “fairness.” Perceived inequity occurs when someone believes that he or she has been
under-rewarded or over-rewarded for work contributions in comparison to other people.
As you might expect, any feelings of unfairness or perceived inequity are uncomfortable.
They create a state of mind that equity theory says we are motivated to eliminate.

Equity Theory Predictions and Findings

The basic equity comparison can be summarized as follows:
Individual Outcomes Others’ Outcomes
⫽?
Individual Efforts Others’ Efforts
 Motivation and Equity 107

The preceding equity comparison shows that felt negative inequity exists when an Felt negative inequity occurs
individual believes that he or she has received relatively less than others in proportion to when an individual believes
work efforts. Think of this as under-reward inequity. By contrast, felt positive inequity he or she has received
relatively less than others in
exists when an individual believes that he or she has received relatively more than others. proportion to efforts.
Think of this as over-reward inequity. When either felt negative or positive inequity exists,
the theory suggests that people will be motivated to act in ways that remove the cogni- Felt positive inequity occurs
when an individual believes
tive discomfort and restore a sense of perceived equity to the situation. In both cases the he or she has received
motivational value of rewards is determined by social comparison. It isn’t the reward relatively more than others in
giver’s intentions that count in terms of motivational impact. What counts is how the proportion to efforts.
recipient perceives the reward in his or her social context. In figurative terms:

Equity Motivational
Reward is given
comparison impact of
and received
takes place reward is felt

Research on equity theory indicates that people who feel they are overpaid (perceived
positive inequity) are likely to try to increase the quantity or quality of their work, whereas
those who feel they are underpaid (perceived negative inequity) are likely to try to
decrease the quantity or quality of their work.21 The research is most conclusive with
respect to felt negative inequity. It appears that people are less comfortable when they are
under-rewarded than when they are over-rewarded.22 And it is important to understand
how people may react, particularly in felt negative inequity situations. In these cases, an
individual might engage one of the following alternatives as a way of restoring a sense of
perceived equity to the situation.
■ Reduce work inputs (e.g., don’t do anything extra in future: “If that is all I’m going to  Ways to reduce perceived
get, this is all I’m going to do.”). negative inequity

■ Change the outcomes received (e.g., ask for a bigger raise: “Given my contributions
and what I see others getting for their work, I believe I deserve more.”).
■ Leave the situation (e.g., quit: “That’s it, I’m out of here.”).
■ Change the comparison points (e.g., compare to a different co-worker: “Perhaps I’m
looking at this the wrong way. My situation is more similar to Henry’s than Alicia’s.”).
■ Psychologically distort things (e.g., rationalize the inequity as temporary: “The boss
has been under a lot of pressure and misses a lot of things going on in the office.
Things should improve in the future.”).
■ Try to change the efforts of the comparison person (e.g., get a teammate to accept
more work: “Look, Miranda, I know you’ve had a hard time at home, but it’s only fair
that you do a bit more to justify the raises that were just given out.”).

Equity and Organizational Justice

Organizational justice
Fairness is a basic element of equity theory. It raises an issue in organizational behavior concerns how fair and
known as organizational justice—how fair and equitable people view the practices and equitable people view
workplace practices and
outcomes of their workplace.23 outcomes.
Procedural justice is the degree to which the process, such as rules and procedures
specified by policies, is properly followed in all cases to which it applies. In a sexual Procedural justice is the
degree to which rules are
harassment case, for example, this may mean that required formal hearings are held for always properly followed to
every case submitted for administrative review. Distributive justice is the degree to implement policies.
which all people are treated the same, regardless of race, ethnicity, gender, age, or any
Distributive justice is the
other demographic characteristic. In a sexual harassment case, this might mean that a degree to which all people are
complaint filed by a man against a woman would receive the same consideration as one treated the same under a
filed by a woman against a man. policy.
 108 CHAPTER 5 ■ Motivation

OB IN POPULAR CULTURE

Equity Theory
and Ally Bank
Equity theory tells us that employees are motivated
to eliminate perceived inequity: the feeling that stems
from unfair distributions of rewards. These perceptions
develop when employees receive outcomes as a result
of their work effort and then make comparisons with
similar others, known as referents.
Ally Bank has a number of child-themed commer-
cials to depict unfair practices in the banking industry.
The commercials resonate with viewers because we all
have a fundamental understanding of what is fair and
what is not. In one particular commercial, two little girls
are sitting at a table with a grown man. The man turns
to the first little girl and asks, “Would you like a pony?”
The girl smiles and nods affirmatively, and he hands her
a toy pony. Then the man turns and repeats his ques-
tion to the second little girl. Only this time, when the
girl indicates she would like a pony, the man makes a Emmerich-Webb/Getty Images

clicking noise and a real pony emerges from behind a

playhouse.
The second little girl is overjoyed. But the first—
initially quite happy with the toy pony, becomes upset.
Her reaction illustrates equity theory and shows that
we evaluate rewards within the context in which they
are given. Rewards may look good on the surface.
However, if someone else gets the same reward while
doing less or gets a bigger reward for similar work, it
makes your reward pale by comparison. That’s not a
good feeling.

Get to Know Yourself Better Take Assessment 17, Annual Pay Raises, in the OB Skills Workbook. It
asks you to determine pay raises for a group of employees based on information provided about performance,
co-worker assessments, and other nonperformance factors. Consider your inclinations when making these deci-
sions. Take a close look at employee Z. Davis. He is a good worker, but others do not see it that way. How would you
handle this situation? If Davis is truly deserving and does not get a pay raise, what will he do? If you give Davis a raise,
on the other hand, how will co-workers react?

Interactional justice is the
degree to which people are
treated with dignity and
respect in decisions affecting
them.
Commutative justice is the
degree to which exchanges
and transactions are
considered fair.
Interactional justice is the degree to which the people affected by a decision are
treated with dignity and respect. Interactional justice in a sexual harassment case, for
example, may mean that both the accused and accusing parties believe they have
received a complete explanation of any decision made. Commutative justice is the
degree to which exchanges and transactions among parties is considered free and fair.
In the sexual harassment example again, commutative justice is present when every-
one involved perceives themselves as having full access to all the available facts and
information.24
 Motivation and Expectancy 109

CHECKING ETHICS IN OB

Information
Goldmine Creates
a Dilemma
A worker opens the top of the office photocopier and
finds a document someone has left behind. It’s a list of
performance evaluations, pay, and bonuses for eighty
co-workers. She reads the document.
Lo and behold, someone considered a “nonstarter” is
DAJ/Getty Images
getting paid more than others regarded as “super
workers.” New hires are being brought in at substantially job for the firm. She wonders to herself, “Should I pass this
higher pay and bonuses than are paid to existing staff. To information around anonymously so that everyone knows
make matters worse, she’s in the middle of the list and not what’s going on? Or should I quit and find another em-
near the top, where she would have expected to be. She ployer who fully values me for my talents and hard work?”
makes a lot less money than some others are getting. In the end she decides to quit because she couldn’t
Looking at the data, she begins to wonder why she is stand the inequity. She also decided not to distribute
spending extra hours working on her laptop in the eve- the information to others in the office because “It would
nings and on weekends at home, trying to do a really great make them depressed, like it made me depressed.”

What Would You Do? Would you hit “Print,” make about eighty copies, and put them in everyone’s
mailboxes—or even just leave them stacked in a couple of convenient locations? That would get the information out
and right into the gossip chains pretty quickly. Is this ethical? On the other hand, if you don’t send out the informa-
tion, is it ethical to let other workers go about their days with inaccurate assumptions about pay practices at the firm?
By quitting and not sharing the information, did this worker commit an ethics miscue?

Motivation and Expectancy

LE A R N ING EXPECTANCY TERMS AND CONCEPTS • EXPECTANCY THEORY PREDICTIONS
ROA DM A P EXPECTANCY THEORY IMPLICATIONS AND RESEARCH

Another of the process theories of motivation achieving substantial scholarly impact is

Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory.25 It’s legacy value rests with the suggestion that moti-
vation is a result of a rational calculation—people will do what they can do when they
want to do it. In other words, work motivation is determined by individual beliefs regard-
ing effort–performance relationships and work outcomes.

Expectancy Terms and Concepts Vroom’s expectancy theory

argues that work motivation
In expectancy theory, and as summarized in Figure 5.3, a person is motivated to the degree is determined by individual
that he or she believes that (1) effort will yield acceptable performance (expectancy), beliefs regarding effort–
performance relationships
(2) performance will be rewarded (instrumentality), and (3) the value of the rewards is and work outcomes.
highly positive (valence). Each of the key terms is defined as follows:
Expectancy is the probability
■ Expectancy is the probability assigned by an individual that work effort will be that work effort will be
followed by a given level of achieved task performance. Expectancy would equal followed by performance
zero if the person felt it were impossible to achieve the given performance level; it accomplishment.
 110 CHAPTER 5 ■ Motivation

People exert to achieve task and realize work-related

work effort performance outcomes

Expectancy Instrumentality Valence

Select capable Clarify possible Identify needs and

workers, train them, rewards for match rewards to high
support them, set performance, give value needs
clear goals performance-
contingent rewards

FIGURE 5.3 Key terms and managerial implications of Vroom’s expectancy theory.

would equal one if a person were 100 percent certain that the performance could
be achieved.
Instrumentality is the ■ Instrumentality is the probability assigned by the individual that a given level of
probability that performance achieved task performance will lead to various work outcomes. Instrumentality also
will lead to various work varies from 0 to 1. Strictly speaking, Vroom’s treatment of instrumentality would
outcomes.
allow it to vary from ⫺1 to ⫹1. We use the probability definition here and the 0 to
⫹1 range for pedagogical purposes; it is consistent with the instrumentality notion.
Valence is the value to the ■ Valence is the value attached by the individual to various work outcomes. Valences
individual of various work form a scale from ⫺1 (very undesirable outcome) to ⫹1 (very desirable outcome).
outcomes.
Expectancy Theory Predictions
Vroom posits that motivation, expectancy, instrumentality, and valence are related to
one another in multiplicative fashion.
Motivation ⫽ Expectancy ⫻ Instrumentality ⫻ Valence
You can remember this expectancy equation simply as M ⫻ E ⫻ I ⫻ V, and the multiplier
effect described by the “x” signs is significant. It means that the motivational appeal of a
work path is sharply reduced whenever any one or more of these factors—E, I, or V—
diminishes and at the extreme approaches the value of zero. In order for a reward to have
a high and positive motivational impact as a work outcome, the expectancy, instrumen-
tality, and valence associated with it must each be high and positive.
Suppose, for example, that a team leader is wondering whether or not the prospect of
earning a merit pay raise will be motivational to employee team member. Expectancy
theory predicts that motivation to work hard to earn the merit pay will be low if expec-
tancy is low: a person feels that he or she cannot achieve the necessary performance
level. Motivation will also be low if instrumentality is low—the person is not confident
that a high level of task performance will result in a high merit pay raise. Motivation will
also be low if valence is low: the person places little value on a merit pay increase. Finally,
motivation will be low if any combination of these exists.
Expectancy Theory Implications and Research
The logic of expectancy theory suggests that work situations should be adjusted or
created to maximize expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences for people in their
jobs.26 To influence expectancies, the advice is to select people with proper abilities,
train them well, support them with needed resources, and identify clear performance
goals. To influence instrumentality, the advice is to clarify performance–reward rela-
tionships, and then live up to them when rewards are actually given for performance
 Motivation and Goals 111

WORTH CONSIDERING ...OR BEST AVOIDED?

Hiring Hourly Workers? Paying More than the Minimum

May Be the Best Choice

M ore and more Americans are finding themselves in

hourly paid jobs, and they don’t pay real great on the
average. The U.S. minimum wage is $7.25 per hour for non-
tipped employees, and in some locations—like Ohio where
the wage is $7.70 per hour—set higher minimums. That mini-
mum wage may come with or without benefits such as health
insurance and retirement programs.
For some employers, wages are viewed strictly as costs
of production, and when it comes to costs, the tendency is
to try and minimize or control them. The less you can pay for
labor, the argument goes, the better off the “bottom line” is.
Whole Foods takes a different approach. It views busi-
ness as a balancing act between owner–shareholders, cus-
tomers, and employees as key stakeholders. Although the David McNew/Getty Images
interest of each stakeholder is important, balance among
all three is the goal. At Whole Foods this concept is de- Do the Analysis
scribed as “conscious capitalism,” and one of its character- Whole Foods co-CEO Walter Robb believes that paying more
istics is paying employees more than either the law or than the minimum and competitors builds a stronger and more
market conditions require. At the moment this is about committed workforce. The payoff from paying more than you
$15.00 per hour, often with benefits. Although this may not have to is having workers who are loyal, stable, and good for
sound great, it’s twice the minimum wage and about $3.00 customers. How about it? Should more employers be adopt-
plus benefits more than what an average worker earns at ing this philosophy on hourly pay? Or, is this just an interesting
Walmart, for example. case that probably wouldn’t apply in most other settings?

accomplishments. To influence valences, the advice is to identify the needs that are
important to each individual and adjust available rewards to match these needs.
A great deal of research on expectancy theory has been conducted.27 Even though the
theory has received substantial support, specific details, such as the operation of the multi-
plier effect, remain subject to some question. In addition, expectancy theory has proven inter-
esting in terms of helping to explain some apparently counterintuitive findings in cross-
cultural management situations. For example, one study found that a pay raise motivated a
group of Mexican workers to work fewer hours. Why? They wanted a certain amount of
money in order to enjoy things other than work, rather than just getting more money in
general. And, a Japanese sales representative’s promotion to sales manager at a U.S. company
adversely affected his performance. Why? His superiors did not realize that the promotion
embarrassed him and distanced him from his colleagues.28

Motivation and Goals

LE A R N ING MOTIVATIONAL PROPERTIES OF GOALS • GOAL-SETTING GUIDELINES
ROA DM A P GOAL SETTING AND THE MANAGEMENT PROCESS

Every so often a defensive football player makes a dramatic error—scooping up an oppo-

nent’s fumble and then with obvious effort and delight running the ball into the wrong
end zone. These players don’t lack motivation, but they fail by not focusing their energies
toward the right goal. Less dramatic but similar goal and goal-setting problems occur
regularly in work settings. People work hard, but end up disappointing themselves and
 112 CHAPTER 5 ■ Motivation

their bosses because they pur-

How to Make Goal Setting Work for You sued the wrong goals. When goals
are clear and properly set, moti-
• Set challenging goals: When viewed as realistic and attainable, more difficult vation is both activated and
goals lead to higher performance than do easy goals. directed toward the right accom-
• Set specific goals: They lead to higher performance than do more generally stat- plishments.
ed ones, such as “Do your best.” Motivational
• Provide feedback on goal accomplishment: Make sure that people know how Properties of Goals
well they are doing with respect to goal accomplishment.
Goal setting is the process of
• Build goal acceptance and commitment: People work harder for goals they ac- developing, negotiating, and for-
cept and believe in; they resist goals forced on them. malizing the targets or objectives
• Clarify goal priorities: Make sure that expectations are clear as to which goals that a person is responsible for
should be accomplished first, and why. accomplishing.29 Over a number
• Reward goal accomplishment: Don’t let positive accomplishments pass unno- of years Edwin Locke, Gary
ticed; reward people for doing what they set out to do. Latham, and their associates
have developed a comprehensive
framework linking goals to per-
Goal setting is the process of formance. They say: “Purposeful activity is the essence of living action. If the purpose is
setting performance targets. not clear, not challenging, very little gets accomplished.”30
Goal-Setting Guidelines
Although the theory has its critics, the basic precepts of goal setting remain a
respected source of advice for managing human behavior in the work setting.31 The
major implications of research are highlighted in the “How to Make Goal Setting Work
for You” sidebar and can be summarized as follows:32
Key findings of 䉴 ■ Difficult goals are more likely to lead to higher performance than are less difficult
goal-setting research ones. If the goals are seen as too difficult or impossible, however, the relationship
with performance no longer holds. For example, you will likely perform better as
a financial services agent if you have a goal of selling six annuities a week than if
you have a goal of selling three. But if your goal is selling fifteen annuities a week,
you may consider that impossible to achieve, and your performance may well be
lower than what it would be with a more realistic goal.
■ Specific goals are more likely to lead to higher performance than are no goals or vague or
very general ones. All too often people work with very general goals such as the encour-
agement of “Do your best.” Research indicates that more specific goals, such as selling
six annuities a week, are much more motivational than a simple “Do your best” goal.
■ Task feedback, or knowledge of results, is likely to motivate people toward higher
performance by encouraging the setting of higher performance goals. Feedback lets
people know where they stand and whether they are on course or off course in their
efforts. Think, for example, about how eager you may be to find out how well you
did on an examination. Think also about the instructor who often waits until the
end of the course to find out how well students really liked his or her approach.
■ Goals are most likely to lead to higher performance when people have the abilities and
the feelings of self-efficacy required to accomplish them. The individual must be able
to accomplish the goals and feel confident in those abilities. To take the financial
services example again, you may be able to do what is required to sell six annuities
a week and feel confident that you can. If your goal is to sell fifteen, however, you
may believe that your abilities are insufficient to the task, and thus you may lack
the confidence to work hard enough to accomplish it.
■ Goals are most likely to motivate people toward higher performance when they are
accepted and there is commitment to them. Participating in the goal-setting process
 Motivation and Goals 113

helps build acceptance and commitment; it creates a sense of “ownership” of the

goals that is motivating. However, even when goals are assigned, they can still be
motivating if they come from a respected authority figure and are perceived as at-
tainable. Assigned goals are most likely to lose motivational value when they are
curtly or inadequately explained, and/or seem impossible to achieve.

Goal Setting and the Management Process

The entire management process is affected by goal setting. Goals set during planning pro-
vide the focus for organizing and leading, and they also facilitate controlling by identifying
desired outcomes that can then be measured. One approach that tries to integrate goals
across these management functions is known as management by objectives (MBO). Management by objectives
or MBO is a process of joint
MBO is essentially a process of joint goal setting between managers or team leaders and goal setting between a
those who report to them.33 An example is the team leader who works with team mem- manager or team leader and
bers to set performance goals consistent with higher-level organizational objectives. those who report to them.

Research Insight

Conscious and Subconscious Goals Have Motivational Impact

riting in the Journal of Applied Psychology, Alexan-
W der D. Stajkovic, Edwin A. Locke, and Eden S. Blair
note that the literature on goal-setting theory and motiva-
With
Priming

tion is well established, but they point out that it deals

only with conscious motivation. In two empirical studies
Task Performance

they attempt to link this set of findings with a body of liter-

ature in social psychology concerned with subconscious
goal motivation.
One of the key findings of research on goal-setting
theory is that difficult goals lead to higher performance than
do general “Do your best” or easy goals when performance
feedback, goal commitment, and task knowledge are pres-
ent. A research stream of social psychology literature deals
with the subconscious activation of goals by primers found
in environments in which goals are regularly pursued. Using
this background, the researchers stated that their purpose
“was to link subconscious and conscious goals by empirically
examining the interaction between the two.”
A pilot study and a main study were conducted with sam-
ples of undergraduate and graduate students at a university
in the Midwest. Study participants were divided into two
groups, with one group receiving a “priming” treatment
where subjects did setup work involving identification or use
of achievement-related words before they completed a per-
formance task. In the second, or “no prime” group, only
achievement-neutral words were identified or used in the
setup work prior to the performance task.
In both studies the results confirmed predictions from
goal-setting theory by showing that “difficult” conscious
goals increased performance relative to “easy” and
“Do your best” goal-setting conditions. In addition, the
No
Priming
Do Best Difficult
Conscious Goal Condition
researchers found that subjects in primed subconscious
conditions performed better than did those in unprimed
subconscious conditions on both “difficult” and “Do your
best” goals. In other words, primed subconscious goals
had positive interactions with conscious goals for both
“difficult” and “Do your best” goals.
The overall conclusions from these studies show that
more research is needed on the links between conscious
and subconscious goals with task performance, but the
initial findings are favorable in suggesting that when both
types of goals are used together, their motivational im-
pact is increased.

Source: Alexander D. Stajkovic, Edwin A. Locke, and Eden S. Blair, “A First Examination of the Relationships between Primed Subconscious
Goals, Assigned Conscious Goals, and Task Performance,” Journal of Applied Psychology 91 (2006), pp. 1172–1180.
114 CHAPTER 5 ■ Motivation

Team leader
Jointly establish
performance goals
Team member actively
participates in
developing
performance goals
Team member
Individually act
Team member
performs tasks while
team leader coaches
and supports
Jointly evaluate
results and recycle
process
Team member actively
participates in
performance review

FIGURE 5.4 How a management by objectives process works.

Figure 5.4 shows how the MBO process can take advantage of goal-setting principles. The
joint team leader and team member discussions are designed to extend participation from
the point of setting initial goals all the way to evaluating results in terms of goal attainment. As
team members work to achieve their goals, the team leader’s role is to actively coach them.
Researchers identify a number of common difficulties with MBO in practice.34 These
include overemphasizing paperwork to document goals and accomplishments, and
focusing on top-down goals, goals that are easily stated and achieved, and individual
instead of team goals. When these issues are resolved, however, an MBO-type approach
can help bring the many benefits and insights of goal-setting theory to life.

5 Study Guide
Key Questions and Answers
What is motivation?
• Motivation is an internal force that accounts for the level, direction, and persistence of
effort expended at work.
• Content theories—including the work of Maslow, Alderfer, McClelland, and Herzberg—
focus on identifying human needs that influence behavior in the workplace.
• Process theories, such as equity theory and expectancy theory, examine the thought
processes that affect decisions people make about their work efforts.
What can we learn from the needs theories of motivation?
• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory views human needs as activated in a five-step
hierarchy ranging from physiological (lowest) to safety, to social, to esteem, to self-
actualization (highest).
• Alderfer’s ERG theory collapses the five needs into three: existence, relatedness, and
growth; it maintains that more than one need can be activated at a time.
• McClelland’s acquired needs theory focuses on the needs for achievement, affiliation,
and power, and it views needs as developed over time through experience and training.
• Herzberg’s two-factor theory links job satisfaction to motivator factors, such as
responsibility and challenge, associated with job content; it links job dissatisfaction
to hygiene factors, such as pay and working conditions, associated with job context.
 Self-Test 5 115

Why is the equity theory of motivation important?

• Equity theory points out that social comparison takes place when people receive rewards.
• Any felt inequity in social comparison will motivate people to behave in ways that
restore a sense of perceived equity to the situation.
• When felt inequity is negative—that is, when the individual feels unfairly treated—he or
she may decide to work less hard in the future or to quit a job for other, more attractive
opportunities.
• Organizational justice is an issue of how fair and equitable people view workplace practices;
it is described in respect to distributive, procedural, interactive, and commutative justice.
What are the insights of the expectancy theory of motivation?
• Vroom’s expectancy theory describes motivation as a function of an individual’s beliefs
concerning effort–performance relationships (expectancy), work–outcome relation-
ships (instrumentality), and the desirability of various work outcomes (valence).
• Expectancy theory states that Motivation ⫽ Expectancy ⫻ Instrumentality ⫻ Valence,
and argues that managers should make each factor strong and positive in order to
ensure high levels of motivation.
How does goal setting influence motivation?
• Goal setting is the process of developing, negotiating, and formalizing performance
targets or objectives.
• Goals are the most motivational when they are challenging and specific, allow for
feedback on results, and create commitment and acceptance.
• Management by objectives, a process of joint goal setting between a team leader and team
member, is a way of applying goal-setting theory in day-to-day management practice.

Terms to Know
Commutative justice (p. 108) Hierarchy of needs theory Need for achievement
Content theories (p. 100) (p. 101) (nAch) (p. 102)
Distributive justice (p. 107) Higher-order needs Need for affiliation (nAff )
Equity theory (p. 105) (p. 102) (p. 102)

ERG theory (p. 102)
Existence needs (p. 102)
Expectancy (p. 109)
Expectancy theory (p. 109)
Felt negative inequity
(p. 107)
Felt positive inequity (p. 107)
Goal setting (p. 112)
Growth needs (p. 102)
Hygiene factors (p. 104)
Instrumentality (p. 110)
Interactional justice (p. 108)
Job enrichment (p. 104)
Lower-order needs (p. 102)
Management by
objectives (MBO) (p. 113)
Motivation (p. 100)
Motivator factors (p. 104)
Need for power (nPower)
(p. 102)
Organizational justice (p. 107)
Perceived inequity (p. 106)
Procedural justice (p. 107)
Process theories (p. 101)
Relatedness needs (p. 102)
Two-factor theory (p. 104)
Valence (p. 110)

Self-Test 5
Multiple Choice
1. Motivation is defined as the level and persistence of ____________.
(a) effort (b) performance
(c) need satisfaction (d) instrumentalities
116 CHAPTER 5 ■ Motivation

2. A content theory of motivation is most likely to focus on ____________.

(a) organizational justice (b) expectancy
(c) equity (d) individual needs
3. A process theory of motivation is most likely to focus attention on ____________.
(a) frustration–regression
(b) expectancies regarding work outcomes
(c) lower-order needs
(d) hygiene factors
4. When a team member shows strong ego needs in Maslow’s hierarchy, the team leader
should find ways to link this person’s work on the team task with ____________.
(a) compensation tied to group performance
(b) individual praise and recognition for work well done
(c) lots of social interaction with other team members
(d) challenging individual performance goals
5. According to McClelland, a person high in need achievement will be motivated
by ____________.
(a) status of being an executive
(b) control and influence over other people
(c) teamwork and collective responsibility
(d) challenging but achievable goals
6. In Alderfer’s ERG theory, the ____________ needs best correspond with Maslow’s
higher-order needs of esteem and self-actualization.
(a) existence (b) relatedness
(c) recognition (d) growth
7. Improvements in job satisfaction are most likely under Herzberg’s two-factor theory
when ____________ are improved.
(a) working conditions (b) base salaries
(c) co-worker relationships (d) opportunities for responsibility
8. In Herzberg’s two-factor theory ____________ factors are found in job context.
(a) motivator (b) satisfier
(c) hygiene (d) enrichment
9. Both Barry and Marissa are highly motivated college students. Knowing this I can
expect them to be ____________ in my class.
(a) hard working (b) high performing
(c) highly satisfied (d) highly dissatisfied
10. In equity theory, the ____________ is a key issue.
(a) social comparison of rewards (b) equality of rewards
(c) equality of efforts (d) absolute value of rewards
11. A manager’s failure to enforce a late-to-work policy the same way for all employees
is a violation of ____________ justice.
(a) interactional (b) moral
(c) distributive (d) procedural
 Steps to Further Learning 5 117

12. When someone has a high and positive expectancy in expectancy theory of motiva-
tion, this means that the person ____________.
(a) believes he or she can meet performance expectations
(b) highly values the rewards being offered
(c) sees a relationship between high performance and the available rewards
(d) believes that rewards are equitable
13. In expectancy theory, ____________ is the perceived value of a reward.
(a) expectancy (b) instrumentality
(c) motivation (d) valence
14. Which goals tend to be more motivating?
(a) challenging goals (b) easy goals
(c) general goals (d) no goals
15. The MBO process emphasizes ____________ as a way of building worker commit-
ment to goal accomplishment.
(a) authority (b) joint goal setting
(c) infrequent feedback (d) rewards

Short Response
16. What is the frustration–regression component in Alderfer’s ERG theory?
17. What does job enrichment mean in Herzberg’s two-factor theory?
18. What is the difference between distributive and procedural justice?
19. What is the multiplier effect in expectancy theory?

Applications Essay
20. While attending a business luncheon, you overhear the following conversation at a
nearby table. Person A: “I’ll tell you this: If you satisfy your workers’ needs, they’ll be
productive.” Person B: “I’m not so sure. If I satisfy their needs, maybe they’ll be real
good about coming to work but not very good about working really hard while they
are there.” Which person do you agree with and why?

Steps to Further Learning 5

Top Choices from The OB Skills Workbook
These learning activities from The OB Skills Workbook found at the back of the book
are suggested for Chapter 5.

Case for Team and Self-Assessment

Critical Thinking
• “It Isn’t Fair . . .”
Experiential Exercises Portfolio
• What Do You Value in • Managerial Assumptions
Work? • Two-Factor Profile
• Teamwork and Motivation
• Downsides of Punishment
• Annual Pay Raises
 It’s all about person–job fit
aphrodite74/iStockphoto
Motivation and
6
Performance
The Key Point

Work, family, and leisure are highly intertwined in our busy multitasking world.
There’s a lot to balance in the quest for life and career satisfaction. Things go a lot
better for people and organizations when work activities and outcomes fit well Chapter at
with individual needs and responsibilities. ■ a Glance

What’s Inside? ■ What Is the

Link Between
Motivation,
■ Bringing OB to LIFE Performance, and
PAYING OR NOT PAYING FOR KIDS’ GRADES Rewards?
■ Worth Considering . . . or Best Avoided? ■ What Are the
WANT VACATION? NO PROBLEM, TAKE AS MUCH AS YOU WANT Essentials of
■ Checking Ethics in OB Performance
SNIFFLING AT WORK TAKES ITS TOLL Management?
■ Finding the Leader in You ■ How Do Job
SARA BLAKELY LEADS SPANX FROM IDEA TO BOTTOM LINE Designs Influence
Motivation and
■ OB in Popular Culture Performance?
SELF-MANAGEMENT AND SLUMDOG MILLIONAIRE
■ What Are the
■ Research Insight Motivational
RACIAL BIAS MAY EXIST IN SUPERVISOR RATINGS OF WORKERS Opportunities of
Alternative Work
Arrangements?

119