8th edition

Steven P. Robbins
Mary Coulter
 What Is Motivation?

• Motivation
The willingness to exert effort to reach
organizational goals, conditioned by the
effort’s ability to satisfy some individual
need.
 Motivation
works best when individual needs
are compatible with organizational goals.

Page 292 Slide 2

 The Motivation Process

Exhibit 14.1
Page 293 Slide 3
 What Is Motivation?

• Need
 An internal state that makes certain outcomes
(results) appear attractive.
 An unsatisfied need creates tension which is
reduced by an effort to satisfy the need.

• Early Theories of Motivation

 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 MacGregor’s Theories X and Y
 Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

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 Early Theories of Motivation
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
1. Physiological needs:
 Food, drink, shelter, sexual satisfaction, others…
2. Safety needs
 Physical & emotional security and protection.
3. Social needs
 Affection, belongingness, acceptance and friendship.
4. Esteem needs
 Internal factors: Self-respect, autonomy, achievement
 External factors: Status, recognition and attention.
5. Self-actualization needs
 Growth, achieving one’s potential and self-fulfillment.
Page 293 Slide 5
 Early Theories of Motivation
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
 Needs were categorized as five levels of lower- to
higher-order needs.
 Individuals must satisfy lower-order needs before
they can satisfy higher order needs.
 Satisfied needs will no longer motivate.
 Motivating a person depends on knowing at what
level that person is on the hierarchy.
 Hierarchy of needs
 Lower-order (external): physiological, safety
 Higher-order (internal): social, esteem, self-
actualization
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 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Exhibit 14.2
Page 294 Slide 7
 Early Theories of Motivation
• McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
 Theory X
 Lower-order needs dominate individuals (little ambition,
dislike work, avoid responsibility, require close
supervision).
 Theory Y
 Higher-order needs dominate (workers can exercise self-
direction, desire responsibility, and like to work).
 McGregor believed that Theory Y was more valid in
workers and proposed that participation in decision
making, interesting jobs, and good group relations
would maximize employee motivation.

Page 294 Slide 8

 Early Theories of Motivation
• Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
 Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are created by
different factors.
 Hygiene factors: extrinsic (environmental) factors that
create job dissatisfaction.
 Motivators: intrinsic (psychological) factors that create job
satisfaction.
 Attempted to explain why eliminating hygiene factors
does not necessarily result in increased motivation.
 People won’t be dissatisfied, but they won’t be satisfied
nor motivated.
 To motivate people, Herzberg suggested emphasizing
motivators (the intrinsic factors) that increase job
satisfaction.
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 Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Exhibit 14.3
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 Contrasting Views of Satisfaction-
Dissatisfaction

Exhibit 14.4
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 Contemporary Theories of Motivation

Three-Needs Theory
Goal-Setting Theory
Reinforcement Theory
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory
Designing Motivating Jobs

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 Motivation and Needs

• Three-Needs Theory
 There are three acquired needs that are major
motives in work.
1. Need for achievement (nAch)
 The drive to excel, to achieve, and to succeed
2. Need for power (nPow)
 The need to influence the behavior of others
3. Need of affiliation (nAff)
 The desire for friendly and interpersonal
relationships

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 Motivation and Needs

• Three-Needs Theory
 High achievers do not necessarily
make good managers; they focus on
their own accomplishments while
good managers emphasize helping
others accomplish goals. The best
managers tend to be high in the
need for power and low in the need
for affiliation.

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 Examples of Pictures Used for Assessing Levels of
nAch, nAff, and nPow

Exhibit 14.5
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 Motivation and Goals

• Goal-Setting Theory
 Proposes that setting specific goals increase
performance, and difficult (challenging) goals
result in higher performance than easy goals.
• Benefits of Goal-Setting
 The specificity (particularity) of the goal itself acts
as an internal stimulus (stimulation).
 E.g. When a sales representative commits
(promises) to making eight sales calls daily, this
commitment gives him/her a specific goal to
attain.

Page 298 Slide 16

 Goal-Setting Theory

Exhibit 14.6
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 Motivation and Behavior
• Reinforcement Theory
 Assumes that behavior is externally caused, and
controlled by its consequences (reinforcers).
 People will behave as desired if they are rewarded
for doing so, behavior that isn’t rewarded is less
likely to be repeated.
 Reinforcers are the consequences (rewards) that
increase the probability that the behavior will be
repeated
 Ignoring undesired behavior is better than
punishment which may create additional
dysfunctional behaviors.

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 Motivation and Perception
• Equity Theory
 Proposes that employees compare their inputs-
outcomes ratio with inputs-outcomes ratios of
relevant others.
Inputs-outcomes ratio: what they get from a job
situation (outcomes) in relation to what they put in
(inputs).
 If the ratios are perceived as equal then a state of equity
(fairness) exists.
 If the ratios are perceived as unequal, inequity exists
and the person feels under-rewarded or over-rewarded.
 Employee motivation is influenced by relative rewards
as well as by absolute rewards.

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 Equity Theory

Exhibit 14.7
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 Motivation and Perception
Equity Theory
 Distributive justice  Procedural justice
 The perceived  The perceived
fairness of the fairness of the
amount and process used to
allocation of determine the
rewards among distribution of
individuals (i.e., who rewards (i.e., how was it
received what). distributed).
– Influences an – Influences an
employee’s employee’s
satisfaction. organizational
commitment.
Page 301 Slide 21
 Motivation, Perception, and Behavior

• Expectancy Theory
 States that an individual tends to act in a certain
way based on
a) the expectation that the act will be followed by a
given outcome and
b) the attractiveness of that outcome to the
individual.

 Key to the theory is understanding employee

goals and the linkages (relationships) between effort,
performance and rewards.

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 Motivation, Perception, and Behavior
• Expectancy Relationships
1. Expectancy (effort-performance linkage)
 How hard do I have to work to achieve a certain level
of performance? and Can I actually achieve that level?
2. Instrumentality (performance-reward linkage)
 What reward will that level of performance get me?
3. Valence or attractiveness of reward
 How attractive is the reward to me?

 Whether employees are motivated or not depends

on their particular goals and their perception of
the level of performance needed to attain those
goals.
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 Simplified Expectancy Model

Exhibit 14.8
Page 302 Slide 24
 Integrating
Contemporary
Theories of
Motivation

Exhibit 14.9
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 Designing Motivating Jobs
Definitions:

Job enlargement (horizontal expansion)

 Increasing the scope (number of tasks) in a job.

Job enrichment (vertical expansion)

 Increasing responsibility and autonomy (depth)
in a job.

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 Designing Motivating Jobs
• Job Characteristics Model (JCM)
 A framework for designing motivating jobs.

 It identifies Five job characteristics and their impact

on employee productivity, motivation and satisfaction.
 Skill variety: how many skills and talents are needed?
 Task identity: does the job produce a complete work?
 Task significance: how important is the job?
 Autonomy: how much independence does the jobholder
have?
 Feedback: do workers know how well they are doing?

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 Designing Motivating Jobs
• Job Characteristics Model (JCM)
 According to the JCM, any job can be described in
terms of five core dimensions:
1. Skill variety: The degree and variety of activities
required so that an employee can use a number of
different skills.
2. Task identity: The degree to which a job requires
completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work.
3. Task significance: The degree to which a job impacts
the lives or work of other people.
4. Autonomy: The degree to which a job provides
freedom in scheduling and determining procedures.
5. Feedback: The degree to which a job results in direct
and clear information about performance effectiveness.
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 Job Characteristics Model

Source: J.R. Hackman and J.L. Suttle (eds.). Improving Life at Work
(Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1977). With permission of the authors.
Exhibit 14.10
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 Designing Motivating Jobs
• Suggestions for Using the JCM
 Combine tasks (job enlargement): To increase skill variety
and task identity.
 Create natural work units: Design tasks that form a whole
so employees view their work as important rather than
irrelevant and boring.
 Establish client relationships: Between workers and their
clients to increase skill variety, autonomy and feedback.
 Expand jobs vertically (job enrichment): Gives employees
responsibilities and controls that were reserved for
managers. It increases employee autonomy
(independence).
 Open feedback channels: To let employees know how well
they are performing their jobs. Employees should receive
performance feedback directly as they do their jobs.

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 Guidelines for Job Redesign

Source: J.R. Hackman and J.L. Suttle (eds.). Improving Life at Work
(Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1977). With permission of the authors.
Exhibit 14.11
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 C H A P T E R R E V I E W 1/3
What Is Motivation? (slides 2, 4)
• Define motivation.
• Explain motivation as a need-satisfying process.
Early Theories of Motivation (slides 5, 6, 8, 9)
• Describe the five levels in Maslow’s hierarchy and how
Maslow’s hierarchy can be used in motivational efforts.
• Discuss how Theory X and Theory Y managers
approach motivation.
• Describe Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory.
• Explain Herzberg’s views of satisfaction and
dissatisfaction.
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 C H A P T E R R E V I E W 2/3
Contemporary Theories of Motivation (slides 13, 16, 18, 19,
21~23)

• Describe the three needs McClelland proposed as

present in work settings.
• Explain how goal-setting and reinforcement theories
explain employee motivation.
• Describe the job characteristics model as a way to
design motivating jobs.
• Discuss the motivation implications of equity theory.
• Contrast distributive justice and procedural justice.
• Explain the three key linkages in expectancy theory and
their role in motivation.
Page 290 Slide 33
 C H A P T E R R E V I E W 3/3

Motivating Organizational Members (slides 27,

28, 30)

• Describe the job characteristics model as a

way to design motivating jobs.

Page 290 Slide 34