22/07/2019

Motivation at Work

Definition of Motivation

Motivation – the process of arousing

and sustaining goal-directed behavior

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 Three key elements:

◦ Intensity – how hard a person tries

◦ Direction – effort that is channelled toward, and

consistent with, organizational goals

◦ Persistence – how long a person can maintain effort

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Need hierarchy –
theory that behavior
is determined by a
SA
progression of
physical, social,
and
Esteem
psychological
needs Social

Safety & Security

Physiological

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McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

 Two distinct views of human beings:Theory X
(basically negative) and Theory Y (positive).
◦ Managers used a set of assumptions based on their
view
◦ The assumptions molded their behavior toward
employees
◦ No empirical evidence to support this theory.

Theory X Theory Y

• Workers have little • Workers are self-

ambition directed
• Dislike work • Enjoy work
• Avoid responsibility • Accept responsibility

David McClelland’s Theory of Needs

Need for Achievement
The drive to excel, to achieve
in relation to a set of
standards, to strive to
succeed.
Need for Affiliation
The desire for friendly
and close personal
relationships.

Need for Power nPow

The need to make others
behave in a way that they
would not have behaved
otherwise.
nAch nAff

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Herzberg’s Two-Factor (Motivation-

Hygiene) Theory of Motivation
• Company policy and
administration • Achievement
• Supervision • Achievement recognition
• Interpersonal relations • Work itself
• Working conditions • Responsibility
• Salary, Status, Security • Advancement
• Growth
• Salary?

Hygiene factors Motivation factors

avoid increase
job dissatisfaction Motivation &
job satisfaction

But…
• Is salary a hygiene or a motivational factor?
• What role do individual differences (age, sex, social status, education) play?
• What role do intrinsic job factors (work flow process) play?

Motivational Need Theories

Maslow McGregor Alderfer McClelland
Self-actualization Growth Need for
Achievement
Esteem
Higher self Need for
Order interpersonal
Needs Theory Y Power
Belongingness
(social & love) Relatedness Need for
Affiliation

Safety & Security

Lower interpersonal
Order
physical Theory X
Needs Existence
Physiological

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Contemporary Theories of Motivation

1. Self-Determination Theory
2. Equity Theory
3. Expectancy Theory
4. Goal-Setting Theory
– Management by Objectives (MBO)
5. Reinforcement Theory

Self-Determination Theory

People prefer to feel they have control over their actions, so

anything that makes a previously enjoyed task feel more like an
obligation than a freely chosen activity will undermine
motivation.

Major Implications for Work Rewards

◦ Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are not independent
◦ Extrinsic rewards may decrease intrinsic rewards
◦ Goal setting is more effective in improving motivation
◦ Verbal rewards increase intrinsic motivation; tangible
rewards reduce it

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Adams’ Equity Theory

 Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-
to-inputs of relevant others.
◦ When ratios are equal: state of equity exists –
there is no tension as the situation is considered
fair
◦ When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to
unfairness
 Underrewarded states cause anger
 Overrewarded states cause guilt
◦ Tension motivates people to act to bring their
situation into equity

Adam’s Theory contd.

 There can be four referent comparisons:
◦ Self–Inside
◦ Self–Outside
◦ Other–Inside
◦ Other–Outside

Person Comparison
Other
Equity Outcomes =or>or< Outcomes
Inputs Inputs

Inputs e.g.: Effort, Time, Skill, Ability, Loyalty, Hard Work, Commitment, Trust, etc.
Outputs e.g.: Recognition, Reputation, Responsibility, Sense of Achievement
and Advancement, etc.

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Justice and Equity Theory Relationship

Procedural
Justice
• Fairness of
outcome process
Distributive Interactional
Justice Justice
• Fairness of • Being treated with
outcome dignity and respect

Organizational
 Reactions to Inequity: Justice
◦ Change inputs (slack off)
◦ Change outcomes (increase output)
◦ Distort/change perceptions of self
◦ Distort/change perceptions of others
◦ Choose a different referent person
◦ Leave the field (quit the job)

New Perspectives on Equity Theory

Preference for Equity

I prefer an equity ratio equal to that
of my comparison other
Equity Sensitive
I am comfortable with an equity
ratio less than that of my
comparison other
Benevolent
I am comfortable with an equity ratio
greater than that of my
Entitled comparison other

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Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of

Motivation:
Key Constructs

Valence – value or importance placed on

a particular reward
Expectancy – belief that effort leads to
performance
Instrumentality – belief that performance
is related to rewards

 A person’s motivation is a multiplicative function of expectancy,

instrumentality, and valence (M = E x I x V).
 Motivational Implications of expectancy theory.
◦ Motivation is sharply reduced when, expectancy, instrumentality, or
valence approach zero.
◦ Motivation is high when expectancy and instrumentality are high and
valence is strongly positive.

Effort Performance Reward

Perceived effort - Perceived Perceived value

performance performance - of rewards
probability reward probability

“What are my chances of getting “What are my chances of getting “What rewards do I value?”
the job done if I put forth the the rewards I value if I satisfactorily
necessary effort?” complete the job?”

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Expectancy Model Ref:

Reinforcement Theory
 Similar to goal-setting theory, but focused on a
behavioral approach rather than a cognitive one.
 It is a method to analyze behavior

◦ Behavior is environmentally caused

◦ Thought (internal cognitive event) is not important
 Feelings, attitudes, and expectations are ignored
◦ Behavior is controlled by its consequences –
reinforcers
◦ Reinforcement strongly influences behavior but is
not likely to be the sole cause

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Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory

 Basic Premise:
◦ That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback,
lead to higher performance
 Difficult Goals:
◦ Focus and direct attention
◦ Energize the person to work harder
◦ Difficulty increases persistence
◦ Force people to be more effective and efficient
 Relationship between goals and performance
depends on:
◦ Goal commitment (the more public the better!)
◦ Task characteristics (simple, well-learned)
◦ Culture

Implementation of Goal-Setting:
Management by Objectives (MBO)

 MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting.

 Goals must be: Tangible Verifiable Measurable

 Four common ingredients to MBO programs:

◦ Goal specificity
◦ Participative decision making
◦ Explicit time period
◦ Performance feedback

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Implications of Motivation
Theories
According to the theory, organizational interests are best served by a system
that attends to the employees ability, motivation, and opportunity (AMO).
If aligned with AMO imply that the company:
•Increases the ability of the employee
•Motivates employees
•Provides opportunities to contribute to the company

Approach by: Appelbaum et al. (2000)

Implications of Motivation Theories

Motivation to be worked out as a process that account for an
individual’s specificity, intensity, direction, and persistence of effort
toward attaining a goal.
Integrating diff. theories understanding and working on:

Specificity: Why/ What motivates them

Intensity: how hard a person tries
Persistence: how long a person can maintain effort

Direction: that is channeled toward, and consistent with, org. goals

•Valued rewards made available

•Develop tools to pay people in proportion to their contributions
•Strive for consistent reward and recognition systems
•Job opportunities
•Training/ Coaching
•Responsibilities/ Task assignments
•Monitoring the reward systems, policies
•Others

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Further Ref:
Goal Setting – the process of establishing desired
results that guide and direct behavior

Goals help crystallize the sense

of purpose and mission essential
to success at work.

Specific S
M
Effective Measurable

Attainable A
Goals
Realistic/Relevant R
Time-Bound T

Goal Setting Functions

•Improves Motivation and performance
•Reduce role stress associated with conflicting or confusing
situations
• Improve accuracy and validity of performance evaluation
High
Difficult goals

Task
Performance

Low
Easy goals

Low
High
Goal Level

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 Cultural Differences: Motivational theories are

culturally bound
 Research results differ among cultures

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