Motivation Concepts

What is Motivation?

Motivation
The processes that account for an individual’s
intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward
attaining a goal.

Key Elements
1. Intensity: how hard a person tries
2. Direction: toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: how long a person tries
 Direction

Intensity Persistence
Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)

Hierarchy of Needs Theory

There is a hierarchy of five needs—physiological,
safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization; as each
need is substantially satisfied, the next need
becomes dominant.

Self-Actualization
Realizing one’s full potential.
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Lower-Order Needs Higher-Order Needs
Needs that are satisfied Needs that are satisfied
externally; physiological internally; social, esteem,
and safety needs. and self-actualization
Self needs.

Esteem

Social

Safety

Physiological
 Assumptions of Maslow’s Hierarchy

Movement up the Pyramid

•Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until
all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied.

•Individuals Maslow Application:

therefore must
move up the A homeless person
hierarchy in order will not be motivated to
meditate!
 Having Little Ambition

Theory X Disliking Work

Managers See Workers As…

Avoiding Responsibility

Self-Directed

Theory Y
Enjoying Work
Managers See Workers As…

Accepting Responsibility
 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Bottom Line: Satisfaction and
Dissatisfaction are not Opposite Ends of the
Same Thing!
Hygiene
Factors: Separate constructs Motivators:

•Salary – Hygiene Factors--- •Achievement

Extrinsic & Related to
•Work •Responsibility
Dissatisfaction
Conditions •Growth
•Company – Motivation Factors---
Policies Intrinsic and Related to
Satisfaction
Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction
 David McClelland’s Theory of Needs

Need for Achievement Need for Affiliation

The drive to excel, to achieve The desire for friendly
in relation to a set of and close personal
standards, to strive to relationships.
succeed.

Need for Power Bottom Line:

Individuals have
Desire to influence, teach or
encourage others. different levels of
needs in each of these
Enjoys status recognition,
winning arguments,
areas, and those
competition, and levels will drive their
influencing others. behavior
Matching High Achievers and Jobs
Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Providing an extrinsic reward Hint: For this theory,
for behavior that had been think about how fun it
previously only intrinsically is to read without any
rewarding tends to decrease exam, but once
the overall level of motivation. reading is assigned to
The theory may only be you for a grade, you
relevant to jobs that are neither don’t want to do it!
extremely dull nor extremely
interesting.
 Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)

Specific and difficult goals, with self-generated

feedback, lead to higher performance.

But, the relationship between goals and

performance will depend on
• goal commitment
–“I want to do it & I can do it”
• task characteristics (simple, well-learned)
• national culture
Goal Setting in Action: MBO Programs

Management By Objectives Programs

• Company wide goals & objectives
• Goals aligned at all levels
• Based on Goal Setting Theory
What is MBO?

Management by Objectives (MBO)

A program that encompasses specific goals,
participatively set, for an explicit time period,
with feedback on goal progress.

Key Elements
1. Goal specificity
2. Participative decision making
3. An explicit time period
4. Performance feedback
Cascading of Objectives
Linking MBO and Goal-Setting Theory

MBO Goal-Setting Theory

Goal Specificity Yes Yes
Goal Difficulty Yes Yes
Feedback Yes Yes
Participation Yes No
(qualified)
Why MBOs Fail

 Unrealistic expectations about results

 Lack of commitment by top management
 Failure to allocate reward properly
 Cultural incompatibilities
 Self-Efficacy
• An individual’s feeling that s/he can
complete a task (e.g. “I know I can!”)
• Enhances probability that goals will be
achieved

Not to be confused with:

Self Esteem, which is….

Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking
themselves.
Four Ways of Increasing Self Efficacy

1. Lawful Mastery
2. Satisfactory Modeling
3. Verbal Persuasion
4. Arousal
Reinforcement Theory

Argues that behavior is a function of its

consequences.

Assumptions:
• Behavior is environmentally caused.
• Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by
providing (controlling) consequences.
• Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.
Reinforcement Theory

Reinforcement Theory of Motivation

includes 4 aspects:

• Positive reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
• Punishment reinforcement
• Extinction reinforcement
Equity Theory

Equity Theory
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes
with those of others and then respond to eliminate
any inequities.

Referent Comparisons:
• Self-input
• Self-output
• Other-input
• Other-output
Equity Theory (cont’d)
Equity Theory (cont’d)

Choices for dealing with inequity:

1. Change inputs (slack off)
2. Change outcomes (increase output)
3. Distort/change perceptions of self
4. Distort/change perceptions of others
5. Choose a different referent person
6. Leave the field (quit the job)
Equity Theory (cont’d)

Propositions relating to inequitable pay:

1. Individuals seek to maximize their rewards.
2. Groups can maximize collective rewards by
developing accepted systems for equitably
apportioning rewards.
3. When individuals find themselves
participating in inequitable relationships,
they become distressed.
4. Individuals who perceive that they are in an
inequitable relationship attempt to eliminate
their distress by restoring equity.
 Three types of Justice

Distributive Justice Procedural Justice

Perceived fairness of the
The perceived fairness of the
outcome
process used to determine
(the final distribution).
the outcome (the final
“Who got what?” distribution).
“How was that decided?”

Interactional Justice
The degree to which one
is treated with dignity
and respect.
“Was I treated well?”
Justice and Equity Theory
 Expectancy Theory

Ethical Values and

Behaviors of Leaders

Bottom line
All three links between the boxes must be intact; otherwise
motivation will not occur. Thus,
• Individuals must feel that if they try, they can perform
And
• If they perform, they will be rewarded
And
• When they are rewarded, the reward will be something
they care about