Work Motivation

Kinza Javed
Work Motivation
Defining Motivation

According to one definition (Steers & Porter, 1991), motivation is a force that serves three
functions: It energizes, or causes people to act; it directs behavior toward the attainment of
specific goals; and it sustains the effort expended in reaching those goals.
• Because motivation cannot be observed directly, it is very difficult to study. We can only
infer motives either by observing goal-directed behavior or by using some psychological
measurement technique.
 Activity

What factors motivate you to do work/ a job?

Imagine you are going to create a hiring post for your newly build company. What
incentives or motivating factors you will mention for your employees?
 Throughout its history, I/O psychology has
offered many theories of work motivation.

1. Need Theories of Motivation

Work Motivation 2. Behavior based / Learned Theories of
Theories Motivation

3. Job Designs Theory of Motivation

4. Cognitive Theories of Motivation

 Need Theories of Motivation
• Several motivation theories assert that people have certain needs that are important in
determining motivation.
• Needs involve specific physiological or psychological deficiencies that the organism is
driven to satisfy.
• The need for food and the drive of hunger is a physiological need and drive inherent in all
living organisms;
• the need for human contact is a psychological need.
• Need theories of motivation propose that motivation is the process of the interaction among
various needs and the drives to satisfy those needs.
Need Theories of Motivation

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

• By far, the most widely known theory of human motivation is Maslow’s needs
hierarchy theory.
• Developed by psychologist Abraham Maslow in the 1940s, the model consists
of five categories of needs (from lowest to highest).
 Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
Theory
Self-
actualiz
ation.The
need for self-fulfillment, realization of one’s
potential.
Esteem
Needs
The need for self-esteem through personal achievement as well
as social esteem through recognition and respect from others.

Belongi
ngness/
love. The need for love, affection, and
interaction with other people.
Safety
Needs
Safety. The need for a secure and stable environment
and the absence of pain, threat, or illness.

Physiol
ogical
Needs
Physiological.The need for food, air, water,
shelter, and the like.
 Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
• According to Maslow, we are motivated simultaneously by several needs but the strongest
source is the lowest unsatisfied need at the time.
• As the person satisfies a lower-level need, the next higher need in the hierarchy becomes the
primary motivator and remains so even if never satisfied.
• Physiological needs are initially the most important, and people are motivated to satisfy
them first. As they become gratified, the desire for safety emerges as the strongest motivator.
As safety needs are satisfied, belongingness needs become most important, and so forth.
• The exception to this need fulfillment process is self-actualization; as people experience
self-actualization, they desire more rather than less of this need.
• Thus, while the bottom four groups are deficiency needs because they become activated
when unfulfilled, self-actualization is known as a growth need because it continues to
develop even when fulfilled.
 Need Theories of Motivation

Alderfer’s ERG Theory of Motivation

• Building in part on Maslow’s theory is Clayton Alderfer’s
(1972) ERG theory, which categorizes needs into existence,
relatedness, and growth needs.
• It collapses Maslow’s five categories of needs into three:
i. existence needs, which are similar to Maslow’s basic
physiological and safety needs;
ii. relatedness needs, which stem from social interaction and
are analogous to the social needs in Maslow’s hierarchy;
iii. growth needs, which are the highest-order needs, dealing
with needs to develop fully and realize one’s potential.
• Alderfer made predictions similar to Maslow’s, that as
each level of need becomes satisfied, the next higher
level becomes a strong motivator.
Need Theories of Motivation

McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory

• A more comprehensive need theory of motivation, and

one that deals specifically with work motivation, is
David McClelland’s achievement motivation theory
(McClelland, 1961, 1975).
• This theory states that three needs are central to work
motivation. According to McClelland, the factors that
lead to work motivation may differ from person to
person, depending on their particular pattern of needs.
• The three key motives, or needs, in his theory are as
follows:
 McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory
1. Need for achievement— the
compelling drive to succeed and to
get the job done.
• Individuals with a very high need
for achievement are those who love
the challenge of work.
• They are motivated by a desire to
get ahead in the job, to solve
problems, and to be outstanding
work performers.
• Need for achievement is also
associated with being task
oriented, preferring situations
offering moderate levels of risk or
difficulty, and desiring feedback
about goal attainment.
2. Need for power— the need to 3. Need for affiliation— the
direct and control the activities of desire to be liked and accepted
others and to be influential. by others.
• Individuals with a high need for • Individuals motivated by
power are status oriented and are affiliation needs strive for
more motivated by the chance to friendship.
gain influence and prestige than
• They are greatly concerned
to solve particular problems
with interpersonal
personally or reach performance
relationships on the job and
goals.
prefer working with others
• McClelland talks about two sides on a task.
to the need for power: One is
• They are motivated by
personal power that is used
cooperative rather than
toward personal ends and the
competitive work situations.
other is institutional power, or
power that is oriented toward
organizational objectives.
 Behavior-Based Theories of Motivation

• The behavior based or learning theory focuses on behavioral outcomes as

critical to affecting work motivation.
Reinforcement Theory
• Reinforcement theory draws on principles of operant conditioning and states
simply that behavior is motivated by its consequences.
• A consequence that follows a behavior and serves to increase the motivation to
perform that behaviour is a reinforcer.
 Behavior-Based Theories of Motivation

Reinforcement Theory
• These reinforcers can be of two types.
• Positive reinforcers are events that are in and of themselves desirable to the person.
Receiving praise, money, or a pat on the back are all common positive reinforcers.
• Negative reinforcers are events that lead to the avoidance of an existing negative state or
condition. Being allowed to escape the noise and confusion of a busy work area by taking a
short break in a quiet employee lounge or working hard at a task to avoid the wrath of a
watchful supervisor are negative reinforcement situations. Negative reinforcement
increases the motivation to perform the desired behavior again in an effort to keep the
aversive negative condition from returning.
• For example, if a clerical worker feels that being behind schedule is a particularly
aversive condition, the individual will be motivated to work hard to avoid the
unpleasant state of being behind schedule.
 Behavior-Based Theories of Motivation

Reinforcement Theory
• It is important to reemphasize that both negative and positive reinforcement can increase the
motivation to repeat a behavior.
• Punishment is the term used to describe any unpleasant consequence that directly follows the
performance of a behavior. The effect of punishment is to weaken the tendency to perform the
behavior again.
• Punishment is applied to behaviors that are deemed inappropriate.
• Receiving a harsh reprimand from your boss for too much socializing on the job and
receiving a demotion because of careless work are examples of punishment.
• Reinforcement theory argues that reinforcement is a much better motivational technique than is
punishment, because the goal of punishment is to stop unwanted behaviors, whereas
reinforcement is designed to strengthen the motivation to perform a particular desired behavior.
 Job Design Theories of Motivation
• Job design theories of motivation stress the structure and design of jobs as key
factors in motivating workers.
• They argue that if jobs are well designed, containing all the elements that
workers require from their jobs to satisfy physical and psychological needs,
employees will be motivated.
• The job design theories are as follows;
1. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
2. Job Characteristics Model
 Job Design Theories of Motivation

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

• Frederick Herzberg developed a theory of motivation that
highlighted the role of job satisfaction in determining worker
motivation.
• He stated that the traditional, single-dimension approach to
job satisfaction, with its continuum ends ranging from job
dissatisfaction to job satisfaction, is wrong, and that job
satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are actually two separate
and independent dimensions.
• Herzberg arrived at these conclusions, called the two-factor
theory, after analyzing the survey responses of many white-
collar, professional workers who were asked to describe what
made them feel especially good or bad about their jobs.
He divided the factors into two categories;

Motivators Hygiene factors

• What he found was that the factors • Other factors, when absent, tended to
clustered into one of two categories. cause job dissatisfaction, and he called
Certain factors, when present, seemed to them hygienes.
cause job satisfaction, and Herzberg
• Hygienes are related to the context in
labeled them motivators.
which people perform their jobs.
• Motivators are factors related to job
• Common hygienes include benefits,
content; they are inherent in the work
itself. working conditions (including both
physical and social conditions), type of
• The type of work, the level of supervision, base salary, and company
responsibility associated with the job, and policies.
the chances for recognition, advancement,
and personal achievement are all
motivators.
 Job Design Theories of Motivation

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Herzberg’s theory indicates that if managers are to keep workers happy and motivated,
two things must be done.
• First, to eliminate job dissatisfaction, workers must be provided with the basic
hygiene factors. That is, they must be compensated appropriately, treated well,
and provided with job security.
• However, furnishing these hygienes will only prevent dissatisfaction; it will not
necessarily motivate workers. To get workers to put greater effort and energy
into their jobs, motivators must be present. The work must be important, giving
the workers a sense of responsibility, and should provide chances for recognition
and upward mobility.
 Job Design Theories of Motivation

Job Characteristics Model

• The job characteristics model emphasizes the role of certain aspects or

characteristics of jobs in influencing work motivation.
• According to Hackman and Oldham (1976), employees must experience
three important psychological states to be motivated:
i. Workers must perceive their work as meaningful,
ii. associate a sense of responsibility with the job,
iii. and have some knowledge of the results of their efforts.
 Job Design Theories of Motivation

Job Characteristics Model

Five core job characteristics contribute to a worker’s experience of the three
psychological states:
1. Skill variety: the degree to which a job requires the worker to use a variety of
abilities and skills to perform work-related tasks. A job that demands a range of
skills is likely to be perceived as challenging and meaningful.
2. Task identity: the degree to which a job requires the completion of an entire job
or function. The worker needs to see the observable outcome or product of work
efforts.
3. Task significance: the degree to which a job has a substantial impact on other
people within the organization, such as co-workers, or persons outside of the
organization, such as consumers.
 Job Design Theories of Motivation

Job Characteristics Model

4. Autonomy: the degree to

which the job gives the worker
freedom and independence to
choose how to schedule and
carry out the necessary tasks.
5. Feedback: the degree to
which the job allows the
worker to receive direct and
clear information about the
effectiveness of performance.
 Cognitive Theories of Motivation
This category, labeled “cognitive theories of motivation,” view workers as rational
beings who cognitively assess personal costs and benefits before taking action. There are
two cognitive theories of motivation;
1. Equity theory
2. Expectancy theory
 Cognitive Theories of Work Motivation

Equity Theory of Motivation

• Equity theory states that workers are motivated by a desire to be treated

rightfully or fairly.
• If workers perceive that they are receiving fair treatment, their motivation to
work will be maintained, and steady performance can be expected.
• If, on the other hand, they feel that there is inequitable treatment, their
motivation will be channeled into some strategy that will try to reduce the
inequity.
 Cognitive Theories of Work Motivation

Equity Theory of Motivation

• Equity theory, first proposed by J. Stacey Adams (1965).

• According to this theory, the worker brings inputs to the job, such as experience,
education and qualifications, energy, and effort, and expects to receive certain
outcomes, such as pay, fringe benefits, recognition, and interesting and
challenging work, each in equivalent proportions.
• To determine whether the situation is equitable, workers make some social
comparisons between their own input–outcome ratio and those of comparison
others, who can be coworkers, people with a similar job or occupation.
• It must be stressed that equity theory is based on workers’ perceptions of
equity/inequity. In certain instances, workers may perceive that an inequity exists
when there is not one.
 Equity Theory of Motivation
According to equity theory, lack of motivation is caused by two types of perceived inequity.
• Underpayment inequity results when workers feel they are receiving fewer outcomes from the job in ratio to
inputs.
• Imagine that you have been working at a particular job for over a year. A new employee has just been hired
to do the same type of job. This person is about your age and has about the same background and level of
education. However, your new coworker has much less work experience than you. Now imagine that you
find out that this new employee is making 1000 Rs. per hour more than you are.
• Equity theory predicts that you would experience underpayment inequity and would be motivated to try to
balance the situation by doing one of the following:
i. Increasing outcomes—You could confront your boss and ask for a raise, or find some other way to
get greater outcomes from your job, perhaps even through padding your expense account or taking
home office supplies.
ii. Decreasing inputs—You might decide that you need to limit your work production or quality of
work commensurate with your “poor” pay.
iii. Changing the comparison other—If you find out that the new employee is actually the boss’s
daughter, she is clearly not a similar comparison other (Werner & Ones, 2000).
iv. Leaving the situation—You might decide that the situation is so inequitable that you are no longer
motivated to work there (Van Yperen, Hagedoorn, & Geurts, 1996)
 Equity Theory of Motivation
Now imagine that you are on the receiving end of that extra $1.50 per hour. In other words,
compared to your comparison others, you are receiving greater outcomes from your average-
level inputs.
• This is referred to as overpayment inequity, which also creates an imbalance. In this case,
equity theory predicts that you might try doing one of the following:
i. Increasing inputs—You might work harder to try to even up the input– outcome ratio.
ii. Decreasing outcomes—You might ask for a cut in pay, although this is extremely
unlikely.
iii. Changing comparison others—An overpaid worker might change comparison others to
persons of higher work status and ability. For example, “Obviously my boss sees my
potential. I am paid more because she is grooming me for a management position.”
iv. Distorting the situation—A distortion of the perception of inputs or outcomes might
occur. For example, “My work is of higher quality and therefore deserves more pay than
the work of others.”
 Cognitive Theories of Work Motivation

Expectancy Theory of Motivation

• One of the most popular motivation theories is expectancy theory given by Vroom
(1964), which is also known as VIE theory, referring to three of the theory’s core
components: valence, instrumentality, and expectancy.
• The three core components of expectancy theory are;
• expectancy, which is the perceived relationship between the individual’s effort and
performance of the behavior.
• instrumentality, which is the perceived relationship between the performance of a
particular behavior and the likelihood that a certain outcome will result—in other
words, the link between one outcome (the worker’s behavior) and another
outcome (obtaining recognition or a pay raise, for example)
• valence, which refers to the desirability (or undesirability) of a particular outcome
to an individual;