WATER QUALITY

AND POLLUTION
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 150
ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESS ENGINEERING
OUTLINE
• Measures of Water Quality
• Physical
• Chemical

• Water Pollution
• Point and Non-point Sources
• Classifying Water Pollution
• Water Pollutants
Measures of
Water Quality
PHYSICAL MEASURES OF
WATER QUALITY
A. Total Solids
B. Turbidity
C. Color
D. Taste and Odor
E. Temperature
CHEMICAL MEASURES OF
WATER QUALITY
A. pH
B. Dissolved Solids
C. Organic Content
Measures of
Water Quality
PHYSICAL MEASURES OF WATER QUALITY
TOTAL SOLIDS
1. Types of Solids according to chemical property:
a. Organic
b. Inorganic (includes salts and minerals)
2. Types of solids according to size:
a. Suspended: >1 mm (larger than bacteria)
b. Colloidal: 0.001 mm to 1 mm
c. Dissolved: <0.001 mm
TOTAL SOLIDS
SAMPLE

Ignition at Ignition at
Imhoff Cone Filter
103°C 550°C

Settleable Dissolved
Total Solids Organic
Solids Solids

Non-settleable Suspended
Inorganic
Solids Solids
TOTAL SOLIDS
SAMPLE
Total Solids Inorganic Organic
(residue at 103°C) (residue at 550°C) (loss at 550°C)
Unfiltered
TOTAL FIXED TOTAL VOLATILE
(Suspended + TOTAL SOLIDS
SOLIDS SOLIDS
Dissolved)
Filtered
TDS FDS VDS
(Dissolved)
By Difference
TSS VSS
(Suspended)
TOTAL SOLIDS
A. Total Solids (TS)
• related to both specific conductance and
turbidity.
B. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
• Solids in water that can pass through a filter
(pore size of 0.45 µm)
• About 90% in true solution and 10% colloidal
• About 40% organic and 60% inorganic
TOTAL SOLIDS
C. Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
• Solids in water that can be trapped by a
filter.
• Can be removed from the water by
physical or mechanical means.
• 70% organic and 30% inorganic
• Consists of settleable and colloidal solids
TOTAL SOLIDS
Types of Total Suspended
Solids (TSS)
1. Settleable: can settle
in one hour.
• Determined using an
Imhoff Cone
• Approximately 75%
Organic
• Indicates the volume of
solids removed by
settling in
sedimentation tanks,
clarifiers, or ponds.
TOTAL SOLIDS
Types of Total Suspended
Solids (TSS)
1. Settleable: can settle
in one hour.
• Settleable Solids Test
– indicates whether
the primary and
secondary processes
are functioning
properly.
TOTAL SOLIDS
Fill an Imhoff Cone to the one liter mark with a well mixed
sample.

Allow sample to settle in the Imhoff Cone for 45 minutes.

Gently stir the sample with a glass rod to release the

suspended matter clinging to the sides of the Imhoff Cone.

Let the sample settle for an additional 15 minutes.

At this point, an hour has passed. Record the volume of

settleable solids (in mm) in the Imhoff Cone.
TOTAL SOLIDS
2. Colloidal Suspended Solids
• Not truly dissolved, yet do not settle
readily.
• Important factor in treatment and disposal
of wastewater.
TOTAL SOLIDS
D. Suspended Solids (SS)
• used as a measure of wastewater strength
and process performance.
E. Volatile Suspended Solids (VSS)
• Indicator of the organic content of
wastewater.
• Provides measure of the active microbial
population in biological processes.
TURBIDITY
• Measure of water clarity.
• Capacity of solids in the water to scatter
light, caused by suspended solids.
TURBIDITY
• Measuring Turbidity:
1. Secchi Disk Method:
• Involves lowering a
special black and
white disk into the
water and
determining the
maximum depth at
which it is visible.
• Results are
reported in meters.
TURBIDITY
• Measuring Turbidity:
2. Chemical Titration Method:
• Involves titrating a turbidity solution into a
sample until an equilibrium point is
reached.
• Results are reported in Nephlometer
Turbidity Units (NTU) or Jackson Turbidity
Units (JTU)
• In general, a turbidity value of > 40 NTU
for at least twenty-four hours indicates a
problem.
COLOR
• Anthropogenic Sources:
• Paper Mills
• Textile Mills
• Food Processing
• Impact:
• Usually an aesthetic problem, both in drinking
water and wastewater treatment.
(acceptability)
• May be an indication of toxicity.
• May stain textiles and fixture.
COLOR
• Measurement:
Optical Principle
1. Place detector in
direction of
incoming light
source.
2. Light is absorbed
3. Measures
absorbance in
nm.
TASTE AND ODOR
• Usually inter-related. Inorganic chemicals
can affect taste but not cause any odor.
• Salt
• Minerals
• Metals
TASTE AND ODOR
• A few inorganic chemicals can cause both
taste and odor problems:
• Ammonia
• Chlorine
• Hydrogen Sulfide
• Organic Chemicals usually affect both taste
and odor:
• Biological decay products
• Petroleum Products
• Pesticides
TASTE AND ODOR
• Impact:
• Odors from wastewater is an aesthetic problem.
• Taste and odor in drinking water can upset
customers.
• Measurement: Subjective
• Get 5-10 Volunteers
• Give volunteers water sample diluted with decreasing
amounts of distilled water.
• Have them taste and smell water.
• Have them record when they detect taste or smell.
TEMPERATURE
• Measured in-situ.
Measures of
Water Quality
CHEMICAL MEASURES OF WATER QUALITY
pH
• pH of Natural Waters:
• Surface Water: 6.5 to 8.0
• Ground Water: 5.5 to 7.5
• Acid Rain: as low as 3.0.
Lakes damaged by acid
rain can have pH of 4.0 or
less.
• pH must be measured in-
situ and must me
accompanied by
temperature measurement.
DISSOLVED SOLIDS
• Represents the total amount of salts in the
water.
• Dissolution: Minerals enter into water.
• Precipitation: Minerals are deposited out of
water.
DISSOLVED SOLIDS
• Effect of pH on TDS:
• Some solids such as carbonates, oxides, and
hydroxides tend to dissolve under acidic
conditions (pH <7.0).
• Solids tend to precipitate out of the water
under basic conditions (pH >7.0).
DISSOLVED SOLIDS
• Measured as conductivity.

𝑇 = 𝑘 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒,
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 = 0.55 𝑡𝑜 0.75

• Conductance is measured in microsiemens

per centimeter (µS/cm).
ORGANIC CONTENT
𝐶𝑥 𝐻𝑦 𝑂𝑧 + 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎 + 𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 + 𝑂2
→ 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑚

• Collective Analysis is done.

ORGANIC CONTENT
• Methods
• Total Organic Carbon (TOC): based on the
amount of carbon dioxide produced.
• Oxygen Demand: based on the amount of
oxygen used.
a. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
b. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
c. Total Oxygen Demand (TOD)
 ORGANIC CONTENT
TOC concentration is not directly measured; the analyzer measures
total carbon (TC) and total inorganic carbon (TIC) and subtracts TIC
from TC to obtain TOC.

An oxidizer and an acid are added to the sample. The acid reacts with
bicarbonate and carbonate ions present in the sample to release
carbon dioxide (CO2) (TIC in the sample).

The sample is then subjected to ultra-violet (UV) radiation, which

reacts with the oxidant and breaks down all remaining carbon bonds
in the sample to release CO2.

The CO2 released from both the acid reaction and the UV radiation
represents all the carbon (TC) released from the sample.

TOC is then obtained by subtracting TIC from TC.

ORGANIC CONTENT
• Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
• the amount of oxygen required by aerobic
microorganisms to decompose the organic
matter in a sample of water and used as a
measure of the degree of water pollution.
ORGANIC CONTENT
• BOD Test:
• If waste is very strong, it is diluted with a known
amount of water.
• If waste does not contain bacteria, they are
added (seeded).
ORGANIC CONTENT
• Method:
• Test is run for 5 days
• Temperature is kept at 20°C
• Bottles are kept in the dark.
• Analyzed by measuring the DO at the beginning
and end of a time period, usually 5 days.
ORGANIC CONTENT
• Example:
• Waste is diluted 1:100
• Initial Dissolved Oxygen = 9 mg/L
• Final Dissolved Oxygen = 3 mg/L
𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔
• 𝐵𝑂𝐷 = 100 9 − 3 = 600
𝐿 𝐿
ORGANIC CONTENT
• Equation for BOD:

𝐿 = 𝐿0 10−𝑘𝑡

L = carbonaceous BOD remaining at time t.

(O2 needed to oxidize carbonaceous organic matter
remaining)

Lo = ultimate carbonaceous oxygen demand

(ultimate BOD; O2 needed to oxidize carbonaceous organic
matter initially present)

k= rate constant
ORGANIC CONTENT
• Factors affecting BOD:
• Seed
• Toxicity
• Nitrification
• Oxidation of Carbonaceous Matter:
𝐶𝑥 𝐻𝑦 𝑂𝑧 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
• Oxidation of Nitrogen:
𝑁𝐻3 → 𝑁𝑂2 → 𝑁𝑂3
• Equation:
𝐵𝑂𝐷 𝐸𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 =
𝐿0 1 − 10−𝑘𝑡 + 𝐿𝑁 1 − 10−2𝑘𝑡
ORGANIC CONTENT
• Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
• indicates the amount of oxygen needed to
chemically oxidize organic compounds present in
wastewater.
• based on the fact that nearly all organic
compounds can be fully oxidized to carbon
dioxide with a strong oxidizing agent under
acidic conditions.
ORGANIC CONTENT
• Oxidizing Agents:
a. Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4)-: Poor Oxidizing Agent
b. Potassium Dichromate (K2Cr2O7):

2−
𝐶𝑛 𝐻𝑎 𝑂𝑏 𝑁𝑐 + 𝑑 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7 + 8𝑑 + 𝑐 𝐻+ →
𝑎+8𝑑−3𝑐
𝑛𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑐𝑁𝐻4 + +2𝑑𝐶𝑟 3+
2

• Dichromate is reduced to form Cr3+

• Cr3+ is used as indirect measure of organic content of water
sample.
• oxidizable inorganic materials may interfere with the
determination of COD (chloride, nitrite, ferrous iron, sulfides)
ORGANIC CONTENT
• Total Oxygen Demand (TOD)
• Determined by oxidation at high temperature
and use of a suitable catalyst.
• Oxidizes ammonium and ammonia
• During TOD measurements, non-carbon
containing compounds, for example sulfur and
nitrogen compounds, are also oxidized.
ORGANIC CONTENT
• Pathogens
• Organisms that produce diseases.
• Limitations to direct measurement of pathogens in
water:
• Time consuming and laborious analyses.
• Large numbers of potential pathogens requires
many types of analyses.
• Pathogens are normally present in relatively low
concentrations.
• Large Sample Volumes
• Sample Pre-concentration
• High Cost
ORGANIC CONTENT
• Alternative:
• Use a pathogen indicator as a surrogate of
many direct pathogen measurements.
• Eschrichia Coli (E. Coli) is the preferred
pathogen indicator.
• Note: this is not the pathogenic E. Coli
O157:H7 strain
ORGANIC CONTENT
• Properties of E. Coli as a pathogen indicator:
• Present in the in the intestinal tract of
warm-blooded animals.
• Found in much higher concentrations than
most pathogens in fecal material.
• Non-pathogenic
• Easy to detect
• Relatively fast and inexpensive analysis
• Its absence indicates absence of enteric
pathogens
ORGANIC CONTENT
• Most Probable Number (MPN) Test:
• Total Coliform – all aerobic and facultative
anaerobic gram-negative, non-spore
forming, rod-shaped bacteria that ferment
lactose with gas formation within 48 hours.
• Fecal Coliform (E-coli).
ORGANIC CONTENT
• Nutrients
A. Nitrogen – nitrate, nitrite, ammonia nitrogen,
organic nitrogen and N2.
a. Total ammonia nitrogen and organic
nitrogen –Kjeldahl Method.
b. Nitrate, Nitrite – spectrophotometric
methods.
B. Phosphorous – dissolved ortho-phosphates and
poly-phosphates. Determination is by total
phosphorous through colorimetry.
Water Pollution
WATER POLLUTION
• Water pollution occurs when a body of
water is adversely affected due to the
addition of large amounts of materials to
the water.
• When it is unfit for its intended use, water
is considered polluted.
POINT AND NON-POINT
SOURCES
• Point Sources of pollution occur when
harmful substances are emitted directly
into a body of water from a pipeline or
sewer. Technology exists for point sources
of pollution to be monitored and regulated.
POINT AND NON-POINT
SOURCES
• Nonpoint Sources deliver pollutants
indirectly by passing through the
continents. Example is when fertilizer from
a field is carried into a stream by rain. Non-
point sources are much more difficult to
control.
POINT AND NON-POINT
SOURCES
CLASSIFYING WATER
POLLUTION
• The major sources of water pollution can
be classified as:
• Municipal
• Industrial
• Agricultural
• Storm and Urban Run-offs
CLASSIFYING WATER
POLLUTION
• Municipal Water Pollution
• consists of waste water from homes and
commercial establishments
CLASSIFYING WATER
POLLUTION
• Agricultural Water Pollution
• includes commercial livestock and poultry
farming.
• contaminants include both sediment from
erosion cropland and compounds of
phosphorus and nitrogen that partly originate
in animal wastes and commercial fertilizers.
• wastes are contained and disposed of on
land; their main threat to natural waters,
therefore, is from runoff and leaching
CLASSIFYING WATER
POLLUTION
• Industrial Water Pollution
• means process and non-process wastewater
from manufacturing, commercial, mining, and
silvi-cultural facilities or activities, including
the runoff and leachate from areas that
receive pollutants associated with industrial
or commercial storage, handling or
processing, and all other wastewater not
otherwise defined as domestic wastewater.
Water Pollutants
WATER POLLUTANTS
A. Oxygen Demanding Material
B. Nutrients
C. Pathogenic Organisms
D. Suspended Solids
E. Toxic Metals and Toxic Organic Compounds
F. Heat
G. Gases
WATER POLLUTANTS
WATER POLLUTANTS
OXYGEN DEMANDING
MATERIAL
• Anything that can be oxidized in the receiving
water with the consumption of molecular
oxygen.
• Usually biodegradable organic matter.
• Comes primarily from human waste and food
residue in domestic wastewater.
• Can come from industries like food and pulp
and paper.
OXYGEN DEMANDING
MATERIAL
• Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
• Aquatic aerobic organisms need oxygen to
survive.
• Maximum amount in clean water is about 9
mg/L.
• DO varies with temperature, salinity,
elevation, and turbulence (mixing).
OXYGEN DEMANDING
MATERIAL
OXYGEN DEMANDING
MATERIAL
• Effect of turbulence on DO:
• A stream with good mixing will replenish DO
quickly.
• A slow, sluggish stream (or a lake) will
replenish DO slowly.
OXYGEN DEMANDING
MATERIAL
OXYGEN DEMANDING
MATERIAL
OXYGEN DEMANDING
MATERIAL
OXYGEN DEMANDING
MATERIAL
NUTRIENTS
• Nitrogen and Phosphorous
• Problem occurs when they become
excessive (eutrophication)
• Sources can be phosphorous based
reagents, fertilizers, and food-processing
wastes.
NUTRIENTS
PATHOGENIC ORGANISMS
• Include bacteria, viruses, and protozoa
excreted by deceased persons and animals.
• Makes water non-potable.
• Shellfishes can concentrate pathogenic
organisms in their tissues.
PATHOGENIC ORGANISMS
• Pathogens:
• Disease-causing viruses, parasites, and
bacteria.
• Sources include hospitals, schools, farms, and
food processing plants.
• Illnesses from wastewater-related sources
include gastroenteritis, Hepatitis A, typhoid,
polio, cholera, and dysentery.
SUSPENDED SOLIDS
• Organic and inorganic particles that are
carried by the wastewater into a receiving
water.
• Reduce usefulness and value of water.
SALTS
• Dissolved Solids
• Water Hardness:
• Total Concentration of multi-valent cations.
• Includes:
• Calcium, Ca2+
• Magnesium, Mg 2+
• Iron, Fe3+
• Manganese, Mn2+
SALTS
• Water Hardness:
• Effects:
• Soap Scum and Water Spots
• Scaling in:
• Swamp Coolers
• Cooling Towers
• Boilers and Pipes
TOXIC METALS AND TOXIC
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• Agricultural run-offs containing pesticides
and herbicides.
• Urban run-off can be a source of metals
and gasoline for organics.
TOXIC METALS AND TOXIC
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• Metals can be either beneficial or harmful,
depending on:
• Chemical Properties
• Concentration
• Some are needed in trace amounts as
nutrients.
• High concentrations can cause health
problems.
• Nerve Damage
• Kidney Damage
• Birth Defects
TOXIC METALS AND TOXIC
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
TOXIC METALS AND TOXIC
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• Synthetic or Chemical Organic Compounds
• More stable and cannot be quickly broken
down by organisms.
• Certain synthetic organics are highly toxic.
• Can also damage processes in treatment
plants (benzene, toluene, phenols).
TOXIC METALS AND TOXIC
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• Synthetic or Chemical Organic Compounds
• found in some solvents, degreasers,
petroleum products, pesticides, and other
products.
• synthetic organic compounds are being
developed all the time, which can complicate
treatment efforts.
TOXIC METALS AND TOXIC
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• Properties of Organic Chemicals vary
greatly, depending on chemical
composition:
• Flammability: ranges from nil to extremely
flammable.
• Toxicity: ranges from nil to extremely toxic.
TOXIC METALS AND TOXIC
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• Properties of Organic Chemicals vary
greatly, depending on chemical
composition:
• Solubility: amount that will dissolve in water.
Ranges from nil to 100%.
• Density: lighter than water (floats), heavier
than water (sinks).
TOXIC METALS AND TOXIC
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• Properties of Organic Chemicals vary
greatly, depending on chemical
composition:
• Temperature: only a problem with
wastewater discharges.
• Sources:
• Power Plants
• Industrial Cooling
TOXIC METALS AND TOXIC
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• Properties of Organic Chemicals vary greatly,
depending on chemical composition:
• Temperature: only a problem with wastewater
discharges.
• Effects:
• Fish and other organisms sensitive to
temperature.
• Higher temperature causes lower
solubility of DO in water.
• Biological processes are temperature
dependent and chemical reactions and
reaction rates all temperature sensitive.
TOXIC METALS AND TOXIC
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• Properties of Organic Chemicals vary
greatly, depending on chemical
composition:
• pH
• acidity or alkalinity of wastewater affects
both treatment and the environment.
• pH of wastewater needs to remain
between 6 and 9 to protect beneficial
organisms.
TOXIC METALS AND TOXIC
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
HEAT
• Comes primarily from industry through use
of cooling water.
GASES
• can cause odors, affect treatment, or are
potentially dangerous.