Chapter 2. Earthing Systems-Rev1 PDF

Chapter 2.
Earthing Systems
Chapter 2 . Earthing Systems

2.1. Introduction
Earthing is one of the first things to consider when designing an electrical installation.
Theoretically it is the process of transferring an unintended discharge of the electrical energy
directly to the earth by the help of the low resistance wire. Earthing system is done by connecting
specific parts of the installation to the ground for safety and functional purposes, such as protection
of persons and equipment by controlling the insulation fault effects.
2.2. Insulation faults and consequences

2.2.1. Definition of insulation
In order to ensure protection of persons and continuity of service, conductors and live parts
of electrical installations should be «insulated» from the frames or enclosures connected to the
earth. Insulation is achieved by:
 Insulating material which is a non-conducting material that provides electric isolation, it
meets two primary requirements:
o An electrical resistivity and a dielectric strength sufficiently high for the given
application.
o Adequate thermal and mechanical properties.
 Clearances (spaces) in gases (e.g. in air) and crawling distances (concerning switchgear, to
prevent flashover on electrical switchgear), (this is the distance from the accessible side of
the electrical equipment enclosure to various wall construction types, or other electrical
equipment).
Insulation is characterized by specified voltages which, in accordance with standards, are
applied to new products and equipment:
 Insulating voltage (highest network voltage);
 Lightning impulse withstand voltage: overvoltage of external origin (1.2kV/50 µs
wave);
 Power frequency withstand voltage: overvoltage of internal origin (2U + 1000 V for
1min).
Example for a LV PRISMA type switchboard:
 Insulating voltage: 1,000 V;
 Impulse voltage: 12 kV.
When a new installation is produced and commissioned, in accordance with the standards,
the risk of insulation faults is extremely small, as the installation ages, this risk however, increases
(1).
EENG465-handout Eng. Amani SAIED, Dr. Imane MAATOUK

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Chapter 2. Earthing Systems
2.2.2. Causes of insulation faults
The insulation can be subject to various aggressions which give rise to insulation faults,
for example:
 During installation
o mechanical deterioration of a cable insulator
 During operation such as:
o dust with a varying degree of conductivity
o thermal ageing of insulators due to excessive temperatures caused by: climate, too
many cables in a duct, a poorly ventilated cubicle, harmonics, overcurrent, etc,
o The electrodynamics forces developed during a short-circuit, which may damage a
cable or reduce a clearance.
o The operating and lightning overvoltage,
o The 50 Hz return overvoltage, resulting from an insulation fault in MV.
 Insulation fault normally results from a combination of these primary causes. This fault
can be either:
o Between the live conductors, in which case it becomes a short circuit (for example
phase to phase fault)
o Between live conductors and the exposed conductive parts or earth. A fault current
then flows in the protection conductor (PE) and/or in the earth.
System earthling arrangements in LV are mainly concerned by the second type of faults
which occur most frequently in loads and cables (1).
2.2.3. Hazards linked to insulation faults
Whatever its cause, an insulation fault is a risk to persons, to life property and the
availability of electrical power
2.2.3.1. Risk of electric shock
i. Definition of electric shock

Since protection of persons against the dangerous effects of electric current takes priority,
the electric shock becomes the first danger to be considered.
An electric shock is the patho-physiological effect of an electric current through the human
body. Its passage affects essentially the muscular, circulatory and respiratory functions and
sometimes results in serious burns (2). So depending on the severity of the electric shock, the
person may experience discomfort, a muscular contraction, a burn, and a cardiac arrest.
So how an electric shock occurs?
An electric shock is the result of you becoming part of a circuit (see Figure 2-1). If you
have a voltage source of V volts, and you touch the two ends you complete the circuit. Your body
has a resistance of R, therefore, the current I is V/R. Your skin has a high resistance, but if you are
wet your resistance drops a lot, therefore, a lot more current will pass through your body.
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Figure 2-1: Human body becoming a part of an electric circuit

ii. Direct contact and indirect contact
Electric shocks are usually subdivided into two categories of direct contact and indirect
contact shocks. A direct contact refers to a person coming into contact with a conductor which is
live in normal circumstances, while an indirect contact refers to a person coming into contact with
a conductive part which is not normally alive, but has become alive accidentally (due to insulation
failure or some other cause), (see Figure 2-2).
Figure 2-2: Direct and indirect contact

i. Contact voltage UC
Persons subjected to electrical voltages get electrocuted. The impedance value of the body
(skin resistance) virtually changes only according to ambient conditions (dry, damp, or wet
premises). In each case, a safety voltage (maximum acceptable contact voltage for at least 5s) has
been defined: it is known to be the conventional limit voltage UL in accordance with IEC 60479
(see Table 2-1). According to standards, if there is a risk of contact voltage Uc exceeding voltage
UL, the application time of the fault voltage must be limited by the use of protection devices.
Table 2-1: Maximum times for maintenance of contact voltage as in standard IEC
60364 [2]
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ii. Effect of AC current when passing in a human body

Current effects on human’s body depend also on the frequency of current.
A let go current is the maximum current a person can tolerate, when holding an electrode
in hand, and still let go of the energized conductor by using the muscles directly stimulated by that
current (3). After this current the individual can withstand with no ill after effects. Currents only
slightly in excess of one’s let go current are said to freeze the victim to the circuit, these currents
are very painful and hard to endure for even a short time. At a fixed frequency the degree of danger
for the victim is a function of:
 The magnitude of the current,
 The parts of the body through which the current passes,
 The duration of current flow.
The current strength I - in value and time -, passing through the human body (in particular
the heart) is the dangerous aspect. When a current exceeding 30 mA, passes through a part of a
human body, the person concerned is in serious danger, if the current is not interrupted in a very
short time.
The protection of persons against electric shock in LV installations must be provided in
conformity with appropriate national codes of practice, standards, statutory regulations, official
guides and circulars etc.
Example:
 NEC Section 250,
 Relevant IEC standards include: IEC 60364, IEC 60479 series, IEC 61008, IEC
61009 and IEC 60947-2.
Figure 2-3 illustrates the effect of electric shock depending on the duration and on the
magnitude of current flow (at a fixed frequency).

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Figure 2-3: Zones time/current of effects of AC current on human body when passing
from left hand to feet (2)
Some serious effects of current on human body are shown in Figure 2-4.

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Figure 2-4: Some serious effect of a current on human body

iii. Fault current paths
Current will always try to return to the source, it will return in as many paths that are
available to it as shown in Figure 2-5. The amount of current on a particular path depends on the
impedance of that path.
Figure 2-5: Series and parallel paths for current

Current needs a closed loop to flow back to the source; this is clearly shown in the examples
of Figure 2-6, Figure 2-7, and Figure 2-8.

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Figure 2-6: Example 1 of current flow in human body

In the above example of Figure 2-6 a person and a bird are in a direct contact with hot
conductor (due to a bad insulation). There is a level potential difference between the person’s hand
(direct contact with hot conductor) and the person’s leg (connected to the earth with zero potential
level), the person’s body is considered as a resistance. Electrons find a closed loop through the
person’s body and thus an electric current circulates from its hand to its leg and returns to the
source. We have now two paths for the current, the first through the load and the second through
the person’s body. The person is subject to electric shock. However the bird is not in direct contact
with the earth, the current couldn’t find its return path through the bird. This last is safe.
Figure 2-7: Example 2 of current flow in human body

In example 2 of Figure 2-7, the right hand of the person is in contact with a faulty appliance
(which is at a certain potential), while the second hand is on the water faucet (which is at 0

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potential). So a level potential difference between the person’s right and left hands appears. Thus
an electric current circulates from its right hand to its left one.
Figure 2-8: Example 3 different cases of electric shock
 Figure 2-8-a: The neutral point of the transformer is connected the Earth/Ground; the person’s
hand is in direct contact with a hot conductor. Shock current flows from the source through the
line and from person’s hand to the person’s leg through person’s body and find its returning
path to star point (source) through the general mass of earth (because neutral point is earthed).
The person is electrified.
 Figure 2-8-b: The neutral is not earthed, but a poor/ broken down insulation ensures connection
to the earth (we are now in the same case as in a.); the person is electrified.
 Figure 2-8-c: The neutral is not earthed but line capacitance with respect to the ground ensures
connection to the earth. As in case a. and b., the person is electrified.
 Figure 2-8-d: The transformer neutral point is connected to the earth. There is an electric
potential difference between the two conductors (phase A and phase B), current flows from the
person’s hand 1 to the person’s hand 2 through its heart. This case of electric shock is fatal
because the heart is electrified.
 Figure 2-8-e: The neutral is earthed; the floor of area is wet and conductive, the person’s hand
is in touch with a faulty appliance due to a bad insulation, current flows from the person’s hand
to the person’s leg, through person’s body, and return to the source through the earth. The
person is electrified.

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 Figure 2-8-f: The floor of the area is insulated but the connection to the earth is made by other
conductive material (ex: earthed tap). Current flows through the heart of person and find its
return path to the source through the conductive material. This case of electric shock is fatal
because the heart is electrified.
2.2.3.2. Fire hazards
Large number of fires is caused by high temperatures or by an electric arc generated by an

insulation fault. This hazard, when it occurs, can inflict consequences for the persons and property.
The hazard increases as the fault current increases. Fire hazards can be present in areas where the
risk of explosions can occur in the premises.
2.2.3.3. Unavailability of electrical power
It is becoming increasingly vital to be more aware of this hazard. If the part in fault is
automatically disconnected to eliminate the fault, it can result in a risk for persons, for example:
 Sudden absence of lighting,
 Placing the equipment required for safety purposes out of service,
 Economic Impact due to production loss. This risk must be overcome especially in
industrial facilities where some of the machines take long time to start and could be
costly to start.
 Moreover, if the fault current is high, it can inflict damage, in the installations or the
loads, which in effect can lead to tardiness and maintenance costs
 It can disturb sensitive equipment in case of a phase to earth faults, especially if they
are part of a low current system
 Disconnecting over-voltages and/or the eruption of the phenomena of electromagnetic
radiation may lead to the malfunctioning or even the damage of some sensitive
equipment.
2.3. Managing the electrical hazard

This management is optimized by prevention. If an insulation fault occurs, and generates a
dangerous fault voltage, it must be eliminated by automatically disconnecting the circuit of the
installation where this fault occurred. The removal of the hazard afterwards depends on the
earthing system.
2.3.1. Direct contact protection measures
This is known to be the accidental contact of persons with a live conductor (phase or
neutral) or a normally live conductive element as explained in section 2.2.3.1. Two complementary
measures are commonly used as protection against the dangers of direct contact:
 The physical prevention of contact with live parts by barriers, insulation,
inaccessibility, etc. (see Figure 2-9)
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 Additional protection in the event that a direct contact occurs, despite or due to failure
of the above measures. This protection is based on residual-current operating device
with a high sensitivity (IΔn ≤ 30 mA) and a low operating time. These devices are
highly effective in the majority of case of direct contact, (see Figure 2-10).
Figure 2-9: example of physical prevention of contact with live parts (2)
Figure 2-10: High sensitivity RCD (2)

2.3.2. Indirect contact protection measures
As explained in section 2.2.3.1, electric shock occurs due to an indirect contact of a person
with accidentally energized metal frames. This accidental energizing is the result of an insulation
fault. A fault current flows and creates a potential rise between the frame and the earth, thus
causing a fault voltage to appear which is dangerous if it exceeds voltage U L (refer to section
2.2.3.1). Two levels of protective measures exist for this case:

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 First level: The earthing of all exposed-conductive-parts of electrical equipment in the

installation and the constitution of an equipotential bonding network.
 Second level: Automatic disconnection of the supply of the section of the installation
concerned, in such a way that the touch-voltage and the time safety requirements are
respected for any level of touch voltage Uc.. As seen in section 2.2.3.1 the greater the
value of Uc, the greater the rapidity of supply disconnection required to provide
protection (see Table 2-1).
So as regards this hazard, the installation standards (IEC 60364 at international level) have
given official status to earthing systems and defined the corresponding installation and protection
rules.
Note: For the study of earthing systems and their associated protection devices, the
hypothesis chosen by standard makers Uc = Ud is applied since Uc is at the most equal to Ud (see
Figure 2-11), where:
 Ud is the fault voltage, with respect to the deep earth, of the frame of an electrical device
with an insulation fault,
 Uc the contact voltage, depending on the potential Uc and the potential reference of the
person exposed to the hazard, generally the ground.
Figure 2-11: Indirect contact-fault voltage and contact voltage

All the earthing and equipotentiality principles will be explained in details in the following
section.
2.4. Earthing systems

In the event of power surges, lightning strikes, mechanical faults or other unforeseen
occurrences, objects around us can become dangerously electrified. We can use the techniques of
earthing, grounding and bonding to prevent this electrification, providing power surge protection
and keeping us safe. But what are these things and how do they work? Often these words are used
interchangeably, which has caused some confusion as to what each method actually involves.
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While the terms are similar, each method, in fact, provides surge and lightning protection in its
own specific way.
2.4.1. Earthing
Under fault conditions the dead metal parts (the parts which does not carry current under
normal conditions) of an electrical installation such as frames, enclosures, supports, fencing etc.
may attain high potential with respect to ground. So that any person or stray animal touching these
or approaching these will be subjected to potential difference which may result in the flow of a
current through the body of the person or the animal of such a value as may prove fatal.
To avoid this, non-current carrying metal parts of the electrical system are connected to the
general mass of earth by means of an earthing system comprising of earth conductors to conduct
the fault currents safely to the ground. It is normally achieved by inserting ground rods or other
electrodes deep inside earth. So earthing means, connecting the dead parts of the installation to the
earth. Generally green wire is used for this. Electricity flows to earth via the path of least
resistance. If there is a fault in an electrical appliance and a live wire comes into contact with a
part of the appliance, this can cause a very dangerous situation. If you touch the machine, electric
current will flow from the electrified part of the machine through you as it follows its path to earth.
This can cause serious injury or even death. Earthing prevents this risk by the electrical current
with an alternative path in the event of an accident. This is the concept used when deploying
lightning rods to offer protection to tall buildings and structures in the event of a lightning strike.
2.4.2. Grounding
There is a lot of confusion surrounding earthing and grounding, perhaps because –

generally speaking – the two terms refer to exactly the same thing. Basically, both methods involve
connecting parts of an electrical system to earth, but – while earthing connects the dead parts not
usually designed to carry electrical current – grounding connects live parts (it means the part which
carries current under normal condition) of the circuit to earth, for example neutral of power
transformer.
Grounding acts as a return path, diverting current away from potentially sensitive
components which could be damaged by a power surge. Because of lightning, line surges or
unintentional contact with other high voltage lines, dangerously high voltages can develop in the
electrical distribution system wires. Grounding provides a safe, alternate path around the electrical
system of your house thus minimizing damage from such occurrences.
There may exist a neutral to ground voltage due to voltage drop in the wiring, thus neutral
does not necessarily have to be at ground potential. In a properly balanced system, the phase
currents balance each other, so that the total neutral current is also zero. For individual systems,
this is not completely possible, but we strive to come close in aggregate.

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2.4.3. Bonding
Bonding is simply the act of joining two electrical conductors together. These may be two
wires, a wire and a pipe, or these may be two equipment. Bonding has to be done by connecting
of all the metal parts that are not supposed to be carrying current during normal operations to
bringing them to the same electrical potential. Bonding ensures that these two things which are
bonded will be at the same electrical potential. That means we would not get electricity building
up in equipment or between two different equipment. No current flow can take place between two
bonded bodies because they have the same potential.
Bonding, itself, does not protect anything. However, if one of those boxes is earthed there
can be no electrical energy build-up. If the grounded box is bonded to the other box, the other box
is also at zero electrical potential. Thus the primary reason for bonding is personnel safety, so
someone touching two pieces of equipment at the same time does not receive a shock by becoming
the path of equalization if they happen to be at different potentials.
The Second reason has to do with what happens if a phase conductor may be touched an
external metal part. The bonding helps to create a low impedance path back to the source. This
will force a large current to flow, which in turn will cause the breaker to trip. In other words,
bonding is there to allow a breaker to trip and thereby to terminate a fault. Bonding to electrical
earth is used extensively to ensure that all conductors (person, surface and product) are at the same
electrical potential.
When all conductors are at the same potential no discharge can occur. Bonding is achieved
by cad welding (exothermically welded connections to create a permanent bond) or bonding
connectors are attached to the appropriate parts, which mean that voltage is transferred via these
connectors rather than through you in the event of an accident. Bonding is shown in Figure 2-12.

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Figure 2-12: Equipotential Bounding Planes

2.4.4. Reasons for earthing
All people living or working in residential, commercial and industrial installations,

particularly the operators and personnel who are in close operation and contact with electrical
systems and machineries, should essentially be protected against possible electrocution.
In order to achieve a protective system, an earthing system should be defined, designed
and installed in accordance with National codes, Standards and local Regulations. In broad terms,
distribution systems are earthed for the following reasons:
 Limit voltages due to impressed surges (including lightning) and faults giving a measure
of safety to personal.
 Provide a known maximum voltage in the system.
 Facilitate clearance of line to earth faults.
 Reduce fire risk due to arcing earth faults.
 Provide a low impedance route for high frequency leakage currents.
2.4.5. How earthing protects a person against electric shock?
In the Figure 2-13, the earthing of the appliance is broken. When the person touches the
faulty appliance, the fault current will circulate in two paths through the person body. Because the
man’s hand is connected to an earthed metal conductive, there is a level potential difference
between the man’s hand and both the man’s leg and other hand. The person is shocked.

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Figure 2-13: Example of an electric shock in case of a broken ground of the appliance
Suppose now that the ground of the appliance is fixed, how it will protect the person against
the electric shock? (See Figure 2-14).
Figure 2-14: Proper grounding in case of insulation fault

In this case a large amount of current could pass through the earthing system (the resistive
of earthing system is very low); this is able to launch the circuit breaker to trip and protect the
person from any susceptible electric shock.
Note: an alternative procedure could be used to protect against electric shock, in case of a
broken ground as shown in Figure 2-15:

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Figure 2-15: GFCI in case of an insulation fault

In the figure above, a person is in touch with a faulty appliance. There is a level potential
difference between the man’s hand (directly connected to a positive voltage), and its leg connected
to the earth (zero voltage). The ground wire of the appliance is broken. An amount of current
(depending on body resistance) passes through the man’s body and return to the source. The
remaining current finds its way through the appliance. The person could be shocked. But in this
case the appliance is equipped with a GFI (Ground Fault Interrupter); this type of devices contains
a built in RCD (residual current device) and usually is installed when appliance is susceptible to
be in direct contact with a person (ex: refrigerator, washing machine, etc.), in order to protect this
person from any possible electric shock. Because of the RCD installed in the circuit, a leakage
current (difference between source current and returned current) is detected by this device and this
last launch the circuit breaker to trip.
2.4.6. Application for an earthing system of a building:
Under earthing system measures, metal covering bodies and enclosures of all equipment
are connected to each other as a grid by means of appropriate conductors to establish an equal zero
potential reference level among all points which may come in contact with persons.

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Figure 2-16 Example of application for an earthing system of a building [2]

In Figure 2-16 we have an example of a block of flats in which the main earthing terminal
(6) provides the main equipotential connection; the removable link (7) allows an earth-electrode-
resistance check.
1. Earth electrode: A conductor or group of conductors in intimate contact with, and
providing an electrical connection with Earth
2. Earthing conductor: A protective conductor connecting the main earthing terminal (6)
of an installation to an earth electrode (1) or to other means of earthing.
3. Protective conductor: A conductor used for some measures of protection against
electric shock and intended for connecting together any of the following parts:
 Exposed-conductive-parts
 Extraneous-conductive-parts
 The main earthing terminal
 Earth electrode(s)
 The earthed point of the source
4. Extraneous-conductive-part: A conductive part liable to introduce a potential, generally
earth potential, and not forming part of the electrical installation. For example:
 Non-insulated floors or walls, metal framework of buildings
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 Metal conduits and pipework (not part of the electrical installation) for water, gas,
 heating, compressed-air, etc. and metal materials associated with them
5. Bonding conductor: A protective conductor providing equipotential bonding
6. Main earthing terminal: The terminal or bar provided for the connection of protective
conductors, including equipotential bonding conductors, and conductors for functional
earthing, if any, to the means of earthing.
7. The removable link: allows an earth-electrode-resistance check.
2.4.7. Technical earthing systems
There are fundamentally two types of earthing systems:

 Protective earthing for protection of persons against electric shock.
 Technical earthing (sometime referred to as ‘functional’ or ‘clean’ or ‘IT/communications’
earthing) for noise suppression or stable earth reference. It is designed to provide a high
integrity, low impedance path to earth for high frequency leakage currents and noise caused
by the operation of switch mode power supplies.
2.4.8. Earthing schemes
The LV earthing system characterizes the earthing mode of the secondary of the MV/LV
transformer and the means of earthing the installation frames. Identification of the system types is
therefore defined by means of 2 letters:
 The first one is for the transformer neutral connection (2 possibilities):
o T for "connected" to the earth,
o I for "isolated" from the earth;
 The second one is for the type of application on the frame connection (2 possibilities):
o T for "directly connected" to the earth,
o N for "connected to the neutral" at the origin of the installation, which is connected
to the earth.
The combination of these two letters gives three possible configurations:
 TT: transformer neutral earthed, and frame earthed,
 TN: transformer neutral earthed, frame connected to neutral,
 IT: unearthed transformer neutral, earthed frame.
Note 1:
The TN system, as in IEC 60364 includes several sub-systems:
 TN-C; if the N and PE neutral conductors are one and the same (PEN);
 TN-S: if the N and PE neutral conductors are separate;
 TN-C-S: use of a TN-S downstream from a TN-C (the opposite is forbidden, i.e. TN-
S-C). TN-S is compulsory for networks with conductors of a cross-section <10 mm2
Cu.
Note 2:
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Each earthing system can be applied to an entire LV electrical installation; however several
earthing systems may be included in the same installation (2).
2.4.8.1. TT system
i. Definition
One point at the supply source is connected directly to earth. All exposed- and extraneous-
conductive-parts are connected to a separate earth electrode at the installation as shown in Figure
2-17. This electrode may or may not be electrically independent of the source electrode. The two
zones of influence may overlap without affecting the operation of protective devices (2).
Figure 2-17: TT System (2)
ii. Fault current calculation

When an insulation fault occurs, the fault current Id (see Figure 2-18) is mainly limited by
the earth resistances. The source and installation electrodes are in series. Assuming that Rd = 0
(the fault resistance), the fault current is:
𝑈0
𝐼𝑑 =
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝑛
Where:
– U0: is the nominal line to ground voltage of the system.
– RA: the resistance of the earth electrode of the installation
– Rn: the resistance of the earth electrode of the neutral
This fault current induces a fault voltage Uf (sometimes called Ud) in the earth resistance
of the applications:
𝑈0
𝑈𝑓 = 𝑅𝐴 ×
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝑛
This voltage is dangerous. The part of the installation affected by the fault must therefore
be automatically disconnected.

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Figure 2-18: Fault current in TT system (2)

iii. Protection
The magnitude of the earth fault current in this case is generally too small to operate
overcurrent devices, and the use of a residual current operated device is essential. So automatic
disconnection for TT system is achieved by RCD having a sensitivity of:
50
𝐼∆𝑛 ≤
𝑅𝐴
Where:
– RA: is the resistance of the earth electrode for the installation
– IΔn: is the rated residual operating current of the RCD
For temporary supplies (to work sites, etc.) and agricultural and horticultural premises, the
value of 50 V is replaced by 25 V. The standard stipulates that de-energizing by the RCDs must
occur in less than 1s [2].
iv. Example:
Suppose that the resistance of the earth electrode of substation neutral Rn is 10 Ω and the
resistance of the earth electrode of the installation RA is 20 Ω.
a) Calculate the fault current Id
b) Calculate the fault voltage Uf
c) Calculate the maximum sensitivity of the RCD to be installed
Solution:
230
a) 𝐼𝑑 = 10+20=7.7A
230
b) 𝑈𝑓 = 20 × 20+10 = 20 × 7.7 = 154𝑉
50
c) 𝐼∆𝑛 = 20 = 2.5

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 So that a standard 300 mA RCD will operate and clear the fault with less than 1s (exact
operation time is specified by the standard) where a fault voltage exceeding appears on an
exposed-conductive-part.
2.4.8.2. TN system
i. Definition
The source is earthed as for the TT system (above). In the installation, all exposed and
extraneous-conductive-parts are connected to the neutral conductor. The several versions of TN
systems are shown below:
 TN-C system (see Figure 2-19)
The neutral conductor is also used as a protective conductor and is referred to as a PEN
(Protective Earth and Neutral) conductor. This system is not permitted for conductors of less than
10 mm2 or for portable equipment. The PEN conductor is both the neutral conductor and at the
same time carries phase unbalance currents as well as 3rd order harmonic currents (and their
multiples) (2).
Caution: In the TN-C system, the “protective conductor” function has priority over the
“neutral function”. In particular, a PEN conductor must always be connected to the earthing
terminal of a load and a jumper is used to connect this terminal to the neutral terminal (2).
Figure 2-19: TN-C system (2)

 TN-S system (see Figure 2-20)
The TN-S system (5 wires) is obligatory for circuits with cross-sectional areas less than 10
mm2. The protective conductor and the neutral conductor are separate.
Figure 2-20: TN-S system (2)

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 TN-C-S system (see Figure 2-21)

The TN-C and TN-S systems can be used in the same installation. In the TN-C-S system,
the TN-C (4 wires) system must never be used downstream of the TN-S (5 wires) system, since
any accidental interruption in the neutral on the upstream part would lead to an interruption in the
protective conductor in the downstream part and therefore a danger (2).
Figure 2-21: TN-C-S system (2)

When an insulating fault is present, the fault current 𝐼𝑑 is only limited by the impedance of
the fault loop cables (see Figure 2-22):
𝑈0
𝐼𝑑 =
𝑍𝑠
Where:
– Uo: nominal phase to neutral voltage
– Zs=ZAB+ZBC+ZCD+ZDE+ZEN+ZNA, it is the earth-fault current loop
impedance, equal to the sum of the impedances of the source, the live phase
conductors to the fault position, the protective conductors from the fault position
back to the source
– Id : the fault current
In point of fact, when a short-circuit occurs, the impedances upstream from the relevant
feeder cause a voltage drop of around 20 percent on phase-to-neutral voltage 𝑈𝑜, which is the
nominal voltage between phase and earth:
0.8𝑈𝑜
𝐼𝑑 =
𝑍𝐶
Where
– Zc=ZS the faulty circuit loop impedance
– Id thus induces a fault voltage with respect to earth:
0.8𝑈𝑜
𝑈𝑓 = 𝑍𝐷𝐸
𝑍𝑆

Page 22
It is a dangerous voltage since it exceeds the limit safety voltage, even in dry atmospheres
(𝑈𝐿 = 50𝑉). The installation or part of the installation must then be automatically and promptly
de-energized (2).
Figure 2-22: Fault current in TN-S system (2)

iii. Protection
The automatic disconnection for TN system is achieved by overcurrent protective device
or RCD’s. As the insulation fault resembles a phase-neutral short-circuit, breaking is achieved by
the Short-circuit Protection Device (SCPD) with a maximum specified breaking time depending
on 𝑈𝐿 . To be sure that the protection device really is activated, the fault current Id must be greater
than the operating threshold of the protection device Ia (Id > Ia) irrespective of where the fault
occurs. This condition must be verified at the installation design stage by calculating the fault
currents for all the distribution circuits. Thus a maximum impedance value is imposed on the fault
loops according to the type and rating of the SCPDs chosen. So to ensure protection of persons a
maximum length should not to be exceeded by the feeder for a given protection threshold Ia. If the
line is longer than Lmax, either conductor cross-section must be increased or it must be protect
protected using a Residual Current Device (RCD) (2).
iv. Example:
Suppose we have the system below shown in Figure 2-23, where the phase to neutral
voltage is equal to 230V.
a) Calculate ZS
b) Calculate the fault current Id
c) Calculate the fault voltage Uf

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Solution:
a) The fault loop impedance ZS= ZAB+ZBC+ZCD+ZDE+ZEN+ZNA, if ZBC and ZDE
are the predominant, these are the impedances of two cables of 35m2 section and 50m
long so:
𝜌×𝐿
𝑍𝑆= 2 × = 64.3𝑚Ω
𝑆
b) The “instantaneous” magnetic trip unit adjustment of the circuit-breaker protecting this
circuit must be less than this short-circuit value so that positive operation in the shortest
time possible is assured.
230
𝐼𝑑 = = 3576𝐴
0.0643
Some authorities base such calculations on the assumption that a voltage drop of 20%
occurs in the impedance loop thus the fault current will be:
230
𝐼𝑑 = 0.8 × = 2860.8A
0.0643
230
c) 𝑈𝑓 = = 115𝑉
2
Figure 2-23: Example for a fault current calculation in case of a TN system (2)
2.4.8.3. IT system
i. Definition
 IT system (isolated neutral)
No intentional connection is made between the neutral point of the supply source and earth
(see Figure 2-24). Exposed- and extraneous-conductive-parts of the installation are connected to
an earth electrode.
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Figure 2-24: IT system (isolated neutral) (2)

In practice all circuits have leakage impedance to earth, since no insulation is perfect. In
parallel with this (distributed) resistive leakage path, there is the distributed capacitive current
path, the two paths together constituting the normal leakage impedance to earth (see Figure 2-25
and Figure 2-26) (2).
Figure 2-25: IT system (isolated neutral) (2)
Figure 2-26: impedance equivalent to leakage impedances in an IT system (2)

 IT system (impedance-earthed neutral)
The impedance Zs (in the order of 1000 to 2000 Ω) is connected permanently between the
neutral point of the transformer LV winding and earth (see Figure 2-27). All exposed- and
extraneous-conductive-parts are connected to an earth electrode.

Page 25
The reasons for this form of power-source earthing are to fix the potential of a small
network with respect to earth (Zs is small compared to the leakage impedance) and to reduce the
level of overvoltage, such as transmitted surges from the MV windings, static charges, etc. with
respect to earth (2).
Figure 2-27: IT system (impedance-earthed neutral) (2)

On the occurrence of a true fault to earth, referred to as a first fault, the fault current is very
low, such that:
𝐼𝑑 × 𝑅𝐴 ≤ 50𝑉
So no dangerous fault voltages can occur. In practice the current Id is low, a condition that
is neither dangerous to personnel, nor harmful to the installation (See Figure 2-28). However, in
this system:
 A permanent monitoring of the insulation to earth must be provided, coupled with an alarm
signal (audio and/or flashing lights, etc.) operating in the event of a first earth fault.
 The rapid location and repair of a first fault is imperative if the full benefits of the IT system
are to be realized. Continuity of service is the great advantage afforded by the system.

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Figure 2-28: Fault current path for a first fault in IT system (2)
 First Fault:
The first fault current will be then equal to:
0.8 × 𝑈𝑜
𝐼𝑑 = + 𝐼𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑍𝐶
Where:
– 𝑈𝑜 = phase to neutral voltage
– 𝑍𝐶 = impedance of the circuit fault-current loop
– I capacitive is the vector sum of the capacitive currents in the two healthy phases. The
voltages of the healthy phases have (because of the fault) increased to √3 the normal
phase voltage, so that the capacitive currents increase by the same amount. These
currents are displaced, one from the other by 60°, so that when added vectorially, this
amounts to 3x capacitive current.
 Second Fault:
On the appearance of a second fault, on a different phase, or on a neutral conductor, a rapid
disconnection becomes imperative. This will be similar to a phase to phase fault, the two circuits
involved in this short-circuit are assumed to be of equal length, with the same cross sectional area
conductors, the PE conductors being the same cross sectional area as the phase conductors. In such
a case, the impedance of the circuit loop will be twice that calculated for one of the circuits in the
TN case.
If one of the two faulty conductors is the neutral so the fault current will be:
0.8𝑈𝑜
𝐼𝑑 =
2 × 𝑍𝐶
Where:
– Uo = phase to neutral voltage
Page 27
– Zc = impedance of the circuit fault-current loop

If no neutral conductor is distributed, then the voltage to use for the fault-current
calculation is the phase-to-phase value:
0.8 × √3 × 𝑈𝑜
𝐼𝑑 =
2 × 𝑍𝐶
iii. Protection
The simultaneous of two earth faults (if not both on the same phase ) is dangerous, and
rapid clearance by fuses or automatic circuit breaker tripping depends on the type of earth-bonding
scheme, and whether separate earthing electrodes are used or not, in the installation concerned.
When all exposed conductive parts are bonded to a common PE conductor, as shown in Figure
2-29, in this case no earth electrodes are included in the fault current path, so that a high level of
fault current is assured, and conventional overcurrent protective devices are used, i.e. circuit
breakers and fuses (2).
Figure 2-29: Circuit breaker tripping on double fault situation when exposed-
conductive-parts are
connected to a common protective conductor (2)
While when exposed conductive parts are earthed either individually (each part having its
own earth electrode) or in separate groups (one electrode for each group), it is then possible for
the second earth fault to occur in a different group or in a separately earthed individual apparatus.
Additional protection to that described above for the first case, is required, and consists of a RCD
placed at the circuit breaker controlling each group and each individually-earthed apparatus.
The reason for this requirement is that the separate-group electrodes are bonded through
the earth so that the phase to phase short-circuit current will generally be limited when passing
through the earth bond by the electrode contact resistances with the earth, thereby making
protection by overcurrent devices unreliable. The more sensitive RCDs are therefore necessary,
but the operating current of the RCDs must evidently exceed that which occurs for a first fault (see
Figure 2-30). For a second fault occurring within a group having a common earth-electrode system,
the overcurrent protection operates, as described above for case 1.

Page 28
Figure 2-30: Application of RCDs when exposed-conductive-parts are earthed

individually or by group on IT system (2)
So in general the protection technique in the case of an IT system will be as follows:
 Interconnection and earthing of exposed conductive parts
 Indication of the first fault by an insulation monitoring device (IMD)
 Interruption for the second fault using overcurrent protection (circuit breakers or
fuses)
And the operating technique will be as follows:
 Monitoring of the first insulation fault
 Mandatory location and clearing of the fault
 Interruption for two simultaneous insulation faults
iv. Example
An electrical installation is realized according to the following diagram:
Figure 31: Electrical installation diagram

Page 29
a) Specify the earthing scheme used in this installation

b) The phase 2 is accidentally in contact with the metallic frame of appliance 1 creating
so a first fault. Given the line voltage (between phases) 𝑈𝐿−𝐿 = 400𝑉 and the neutral
impedance to earth of the network 𝑍 = 1000Ω, 𝑅𝑑 = 10Ω, 𝑅𝑢 is negligible; Calculate
the value of the fault voltage 𝑈𝑑1 of the frame of appliance 1 with respect to the ground.
What should the maintenance department do?
c) The first fault persists; the third phase is accidentally in contact with the metallic frame
of appliance 2. Represent on the figure the path of the new current 𝐼𝑑2 .
d) In this case, what device should be installed to protect the person against indirect
contact?
Solution:
a) IT earthing scheme
b)
380
𝐼𝑑1 = = 0.315 = 315𝑚𝐴
1010
𝑈𝑑1 = 0.315 × 10 = 3.15𝑉
The maintenance department should eliminate this fault. To detect the fault use
permanent insulator monitor.

Page 30
c)
d) Id2 is very high (limited by a very low resistance value (resistance of conductors).
Interruption must be done through circuit breaker.
2.4.8.4. Selection criteria for the TT, TN and IT systems
In terms of the protection of persons, the three system earthing arrangements (SEA) are
equivalent if all installation and operating rules are correctly followed. Consequently, selection
does not depend on safety criteria. It is by combining all requirements in terms of regulations,
continuity of service, operating conditions and the types of network and loads that it is possible to
determine the best system(s). Selection is determined by the following factors:
 Above all, the applicable regulations which in some cases impose certain types of SEA.
 Secondly, the decision of the owner if supply is via a private MV/LV transformer (MV
subscription) or the owner has a private energy source (or a separate-winding transformer).
If the owner effectively has a choice, the decision on the SEA is taken following
discussions with the network designer (design office, contractor). The discussions must cover:
 First of all, the operating requirements (the required level of continuity of service) and the
operating conditions (maintenance ensured by electrical personnel or not, in-house
personnel or outsourced, etc.)
 Secondly, the particular characteristics of the network and the loads.
The scope of the TT distribution scheme is mainly located in public networks because of
the length of lines bound to a small section and, secondly, because it dispenses the distributor of
permanent control of earth among subscribers.
The field of application of the IT and TN systems is in the industrial networks. The TN
system combines clarity in all situations with the simplicity of the means used. This results in
Page 31
greater ease in meeting protective measures. The cost price of its installation remains lower than
other types of network. Operational maintenance is easy.
v. Examples:
 TT Earthing scheme: very large network with high-quality earth electrodes for exposed
conductive parts (10 ohms max), secondary schools, LV distribution network, etc…
 IT Earthing scheme: The need for a continuous power supply is constantly increasing in
hospitals, on ships, in manufacturing plants, process plants, data centers, control rooms,
airports, railway systems, transport systems, heating systems, cooling systems, etc. In
tunnels and below ground, lighting and ventilation must work faultlessly; submarine crews
as well as astronauts in space equally depend on a reliable power supply.
 TN Earthing scheme: Distributed area (storms) (e.g. television or radio transmitter),
Network with high leakage currents (>500mA), very large network with low-quality earth
electrodes for exposed conductive parts (30 ohms)
2.4.9. Installation methods of the earthing:
There are three common types of installation of the earthing electrode:
i. Buried ring:
The ring (see Figure 2-32) should be buried around the perimeter of the excavation made
for the foundations. It is important that the bare conductor be in intimate contact with the soil. At
least four (widely-spaced) vertically arranged conductors from the electrode should be provided
for the installation connections and, where possible, any reinforcing rods in concrete work should
be connected to the electrode. The electrode must be at least 50 cm below the hard-core or
aggregate base for the concrete foundation. Neither the electrode nor the vertical rising conductors
to the ground floor should ever be in contact with the foundation concrete. For existing buildings,
the electrode conductor should be buried around the outside wall of the premises to a depth of at
least 1 meter. As a general rule, all vertical connections from an electrode to above-ground level
should be insulated for the nominal LV voltage (600-1000 V) (2).

Page 32
Figure 2-32: Conductor buried below the level of the foundations,

i.e. not in the concrete (2)
The conductors may be copper, a bare cable of section ≥ 25 mm2

The approximate resistance R of the electrode in ohms:
𝜌
𝑅 =2×
𝐿
Where:
– L = length of the buried conductor in metres
– ρ = soil resistivity in ohm-metres
ii. Earthing rods:

Vertically driven earthing rods are often used for existing buildings, and for improving (i.e.
reducing the resistance of) existing earth electrodes. The rods may be of copper or copper-clad
steel. The latter are generally 1 or 2 meters. An example of earthing rod is shown in Figure 2-33.
Figure 2-33: Earthing rods (2)

Page 33
It is often necessary to use more than one rod, in which case the spacing between them
should exceed the depth to which they are driven, by a factor of 2 to 3. The total resistance is then
equal to the resistance of one rod, divided by the number of rods in question. The approximate
resistance R obtained is:
1 𝜌
𝑅= ×
𝑛 𝐿
Where:
– L = the length of the rod in meters
– ρ = resistivity of the soil in ohm-meters (see “Influence of the type of soil” below)
– n = the number of rods
iii. Vertical plates

Rectangular plates, each side of which must be ≥ 0.5 meters, are commonly used as earth
electrodes, being buried in a vertical plane such that the center of the plate is at least 1 meter below
the surface of the soil. The plates may be of copper of 2 mm thickness. (2)
The resistance R in ohms is given (approximately), by:
Where:
𝜌
𝑅 = 0.8 ×
𝐿
Where:
– L = the perimeter of the plate in meters
– ρ = resistivity of the soil in ohm-meters
iv. Influence of the type of soil

Measurements on earth electrodes in similar soils are useful to determine the resistivity
value to be applied for the design of an earth electrode system. Table 2-2 and Table 2-3 show the
influence of the nature of the soil on the resistivity of the earth electrode (2).

Page 34
Table 2-2: Resistivity (Ωm) for different types of soil (2)
Table 2-3: Average resistivity (Ωm) values for approximate earth-elect (2)
2.4.10. How the current propagate in the earth:
Consider a buried electrode, where the surrounding area is supposed to be hemispherical

as shown in Figure 2-34.

Page 35
Figure 2-34: rod buried in the ground (4)

The current being injected in the earth through this buried electrode goes out from it in all
directions, with a uniform density, and it must later go through the various layers illustrated in
Figure 2-35.
Figure 2-35: current directions in the earth (4)

Each layer offers a resistance to the passing current, which is proportional to the ground
resistivity and to the layer thickness and inversely proportional to the layer's area. Then, the total
resistance is the sum of many small resistances in series. This would be similar to the structure of
an onion, made up of a great number of very thin layers, each of which represents one of the
resistances of the series. When the surface increases, the resistance decreases in the same
proportion and therefore the contribution made by the remote layers to the total resistance tends to
be insignificant. Calculations for the case of a hemispherical electrode show that in the nearest
region, up to a distance equivalent to 10 times the electrode radius, the 90% of the total resistance
is concentrated. In other words, the contribution made to the resistance by the layers located
outside this area, is not significant. And as there is no resistance, there is no fall-of-potential either.

Page 36
Consequently, outside the region closest to the electrode (called resistance area), all the ground is
at the same potential (see Figure 2-34).
Figure 2-36: Electric current flow line in earth

Figure 2-36 shows the electric current flow lines in the earth between 2 ground rods
connected to a DC source. As shown voltage gradients are formed in the earth as current travels
through it overcoming the natural resistance of the earth.
2.4.11. Measurement of the earth-electrode resistance
Due to the fact that earthing is a system designed to guarantee safety, its effectiveness
should be verified. The diffusion resistance value is the parameter normally considered to be the
most relevant one to test grounding system quality and its capacity to carry out its function
properly. The earth’s ground resistance impacts the effectiveness of shunting high voltage surges
from lightning and other sources to the earth. The generally accepted practice is to have the earth’s
ground resistance not exceed 25 ohms. However, to protect communication systems (cell phone
sites) and sensitive electronic installations (computers), the voltage dissipation capability of the
earth (earth ground resistance) might be required to be less than 3 ohms and in some cases less
than 1 ohm. Earth Resistance is the resistance existing between the electrically accessible part of
a buried electrode and another point of the earth, which is far away (see Figure 2-37). There must
always be removable links which allow the earth electrode to be isolated from the installation, so
that periodic tests of the earthing resistance can be carried out. To make such tests, two auxiliary
electrodes are required, each consisting of a vertically driven rod (2).

Page 37
Figure 2-37: Erath resistance (4)

Below the general methods for measuring the earth resistance, are explained.
 Ammeter method
Applied as shown in the Figure 2-38:
Figure 2-38: Measurement of the resistance to earth of the earth electrode of an

installation by means of an ammeter (2)
𝑈𝑇𝑡1
𝐴 = 𝑅𝑇 + 𝑅𝑡1 =
𝑖1
𝑈𝑡1𝑡2
𝐵 = 𝑅𝑡1 + 𝑅𝑡2 =
𝑖2
𝑈𝑡2𝑇
𝐶 = 𝑅𝑡2 + 𝑅𝑇 =
𝑖3
When the source voltage U is constant (adjusted to be the same value for each test) then:
𝑈 1 1 1
𝑅𝑇 = ( + − )
2 𝑖1 𝑖3 𝑖2

Page 38
 Use of a direct-reading earthing-resistance ohmmeter

These instruments use a hand-driven or electronic-type AC generator, together with two
auxiliary electrodes, the spacing of which must be such that the zone of influence of the electrode
being tested should not overlap that of the test electrode (C).
The test electrode (C) furthest from the electrode (X) under test passes a current through
the earth and the electrode under test, while the second test electrode (P) picks up a voltage. This
voltage, measured between (X) and (P), is due to the test current and is a measure of the contact
resistance (of the electrode under test) with earth. It is clear that the distance (X) to (P) must be
carefully chosen to give accurate results. If the distance (X) to (C) is increased, however, the zones
of resistance of electrodes (X) and (C) become more remote, one from the other, and the curve of
potential (voltage) becomes more nearly horizontal about the point (O). In practical tests, therefore,
the distance (X) to (C) is increased until readings taken with electrode (P) at three different points,
i.e. at (P) and at approximately 5 meters on either side of (P), give similar values. The distance (X)
to (P) is generally about 0.68 of the distance (X) to (C). This test is illustrated in the Figure 2-39
and Figure 2-40.
Figure 2-39: Measurement of the resistance to the mass of earth of electrode (X) using
an earth electrode- testing ohmmeter (2)

Page 39
Figure 2-40: testing for an earth electrode using a direct-reading earthing-resistance

ohmmeter
 SGM: Smart ground millimeter

The Smart Ground Millimeter, or SGM, is a computer controlled multifunction instrumen
t for measuring grounding systems. It consists of hardware (see Figure 2-41) and software
(WinSGM). The software is capable of modeling the grounding system under study and correlates
the measurements obtained by the SGM hardware for the purpose of identifying the parameters of
the grounding system. The SGM provides 10 measurement functions as follows (5):
Figure 2-41: SGM Hardware (5)

1. Ground Impedance Measurement:
It measures the ground impedance of the system consisting of all interconnected groundin
g electrodes. The principle of operation of this function is illustrated in the Figure 2-42.

Page 40
Figure 2-42: Ground Impedance Measurement (5)

The SGM generates an alternating polarity voltage across the black and the red terminals.
The black terminal is connected to the ground system under test and the red terminal is connected
to an auxiliary ground probe, as a result a current circulate between the ground under test and the
axillary electrode. The circulating current creates a potential distribution on the soil. The SGM
samples soil potential at six locations via six voltage probes installed at six locations in the vicinity
of the ground under test. From these data, the impedance of the grounding system under test is
extracted using estimation methods and error correction techniques. Note that the measured ground
impedance is the combination of the impedance of the grounding system under test, in parallel
with the impedance to ground of all shield wires, neutral wires and other grounded metallic
structures connected to the grounding system under test (5).
2. Soil Resistivity Measurement:

The SGM is capable of taking simultaneous measurements on nine probes uniformly
spaced along a line on the soil surface. The measurement arrangement is illustrated in Figure 2-43.
The measurements obtained from the nine pins are processed in order to construct a two-layer soil
model. The resistivity of the two soil layers and the upper soil layer thickness are reported (5).

Page 41
Figure 2-43: Soil Resistivity Measurement (5)
3. Tower Ground Resistance Measurement 

The tower ground resistance meter option measures the ground resistance of an energized
or de-energized transmission line tower. A typical measurement arrangement is illustrated in
Figure 2-44. The SGM injects a current into the tower ground and measures the ground potential
differences between the tower ground and six voltage probes installed around the tower (5).
Figure 2-44: Tower Ground Resistance Measurement (5)

Page 42
4. Touch Voltage Measurement

First let us define what the touch voltage is. If the ground connection between the tower
and the soil is high resistance, the tower itself (and any conductive item touching the tower) can
be energized. Touch potential is the voltage between the energized object and the feet of a person
in contact with the object (see Figure 2-45). Touch voltage measurement function measures the
actual touch voltage at a substation as a function of the fault current. The measurement is
performed at up to six points near a grounding system. A typical measurement arrangement is
illustrated in Figure 2-46. A required input for this function is the fault current available at the
location of the grounding system. Additional required input data are the coordinates of the voltage
probes, current return electrode and the approximate size and shape of the grounding system.
Figure 2-45: Touch potential

Page 43
Figure 2-46: Touch Voltage Measurement (5)

5. Step Voltage Measurement 
It is the voltage between the feet of a person. When current is flowing from the tower to
the earth ground, the ground potential rises at the tower and a voltage gradient will occur based on
the resistivity of the soil, resulting in a potential difference between two points on the ground (see
Figure 2-47). This is called a step Potential as it can cause voltage between a person’s feet. Step
voltage measurement function measures the actual step voltage at a substation as a function of the
fault current. The measurement is performed at a user-selected point near a grounding system. A
typical measurement arrangement is illustrated in Figure 2-48. Required input data are the fault
current available at the location of the grounding system, the coordinates of the voltage probes,
current return electrode, and the approximate size and shape of the grounding system.
Figure 2-47: Step potential

Page 44
Figure 2-48: Step Voltage Measurement (5)

6. Ground Mat Impedance Measurement 
This function measures the ground mat impedance without disconnecting the shield or
neutral wires which may be bonded to the ground mat. Setup and connections are similar to the
ground impedance measurements. A typical measurement arrangement is illustrated in Figure
2-49. The measurement provides the ground mat impedance as a function of frequency over a user
selected frequency range.
Figure 2-49: Ground Mat Impedance Measurement (5)

7. Transfer Voltage Measurement 
This function measures the transfer voltage at a user-selected point or ground near the
grounding system under test as a function of the fault current. A typical measurement arrangement
is illustrated in Figure 2-50. Required input data are the available fault current at the location of
the grounding system, the coordinates of the current return electrode, and the approximate size and
location of the grounding system.

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Figure 2-50: Transfer Voltage Measurement (5)

8. Low Impedance/Continuity Measurement 
This function measures the impedance between any two user selected points of a grounding
system. The measurement can be performed on energized grounding systems. Accurate results can
be obtained even in the presence of substantial external electromagnetic noise. A typical
measurement arrangement is illustrated in Figure 2-51. This function requires a current limiting
resistor inserted in series with the red electrode.
Figure 2-51: Low Impedance/Continuity Measurement (5)
9. Fall of Potential Method Measurement 

This function allows using the SGM to perform a ground impedance measurement using
the fall-of-potential method. The required setup for this function is the standard fall-of-potential
probe arrangement. Specifically, the current probe is placed at a distance D from the center of the
system under test. A typical measurement arrangement is illustrated in Figure 2-52. The distance
Page 46
D must be at least four to five times the longest dimension of the system under test. One or more
voltage probes are placed at a distance from the center of the system under test equal to 0.62 times
D. The meter displays the ratio of the probe voltage (with respect to the grounding system under
test over the injected current.
Figure 2-52: Fall of Potential Method Measurement (5)

10. Oscilloscope Function
The oscilloscope function allows the SGM to be used as a general purpose six channel
waveform data acquisition system. This function can be used to measure existing voltages on
grounding systems due to induced voltages, imbalances, cathode protection equipment, etc.
Therefore, this function can be an excellent tool for investigating various electromagnetic
interference problems. The utilization of the oscilloscope function is quite simple. It involves the
following steps:
 Install the voltage probes (yellow and green assemblies) and connect them to the desired
locations to be monitored.
 Connect the green terminal to the voltage reference point (typically to ground).
 Setup and connect the Smart Ground Multimeter and computer via the RS232 (serial port)
cable.
 Turn on the SGM power switch, turn on the personal computer and execute the SGM
program.
 At this point, the existing voltages at the monitored points will be continuously displayed
on the PC screen.
2.5. Grounding Requirements for Residential Services – NEC Article 250

In this section we will have an example of the earthing requirements for residential services
according to NEC (National electrical code) standards article 250. According to this article you
must ground alternating current systems of 50 to 1000 volts supplying premises wiring systems so
the maximum voltage to ground on ungrounded conductors does not exceed 150 volts. In the

Page 47
Lebanese case the maximum voltage to ground on ungrounded conductors must not exceed 240
volts. Below are listed some of the sections of this article.
2.5.1. Section 250.24 (A)
Residential wiring system supplied by a grounded alternating current service must have a
grounding electrode conductor connected to the grounded service conductor (6).
2.5.2. Section 250.24(B)
Grounded (neutral) conductor of a residential service must run to the service disconnecting
means and be bonded (attached) to the disconnecting means enclosure (see Figure 2-53) (6).
Figure 2-53: Grounded (neutral) conductor of a residential service

2.5.3. Section 250.52(A)
Section 250.52 (A) includes the details and descriptions of grounding electrodes that are
required to be used for the grounding electrode systems (when present) as shown in Figure 2-54(6).
 (A)(1) Metal underground water pipe in direct contact with the earth for 10 ft. or
more (3.0 m or more).
 (A)(2) Metal frame of a building or structure, where effectively grounded, can be
used as a grounding electrode.
 (A)(3) Concrete-encased electrode; it is an excellent choice

Page 48
 (A)(4) Ground ring encircling the house, in direct contact with the earth, consisting
of at least 20 feet (6.0 m) of bare copper conductor (at least 2 AWG) must be used.
 (A)(5) Rod and pipe electrode commonly called “ground rods,” can be used.
 (A)(6) Other listed electrodes
 (A)(7) Plate electrodes can be used, but rarely are used in residential work.
 (A)(8) Other local metal underground systems or structures.
Figure 2-54: Grounding Electrode System-Section 250.50

If available, each item in 250.52 (A)(1) through (A)(6) must be bonded together to form
the grounding electrode system. Where none of these electrodes are available, one or more
electrodes specified in 250.52 (A)(1) through (A)(7) must be installed and used (6).
2.5.4. Section 250.52(B)
The following systems and materials shall not be used as grounding electrodes (6):
 Metal underground gas piping systems
 Aluminum
2.5.5. Section 250.53
 If a ground ring is installed as the grounding electrode, bury it at least 30” (750 mm) deep.
 Install rod and pipe electrodes so that at least 8 feet (2.44 m) of length is in contact with
the soil.
 Bury plate electrodes at least 30” (750 mm) below the surface of the earth (6).

Page 49
2.5.6. Section 250.53(A) (2)
A single rod, pipe or plate shall be supplemented by an additional electrode of the type
listed in 250.52 (A). NEC provides an exception: If a single rod, pipe or plate electrode has a
resistance to earth of 25 ohms or less, the supplemental electrode shall not be required (6).
2.5.7. Section 250.53 (G)
The electrode shall be installed such that at least 2.44 m (8 ft) of length is in contact with
the soil. It shall be driven to a depth of not less than 2.44 m (8 ft) except that, where rock bottom
is encountered, the electrode shall be driven at an oblique angle not to exceed 45 degrees from the
vertical or, where rock bottom is encountered at an angle up to 45 degrees, the electrode shall be
permitted to be buried in a trench that is at least 750 mm (30 in.) deep. The upper end of the
electrode shall be flush with or below ground level unless the aboveground end and the grounding
electrode conductor attachment are protected against physical damage as specified in other
sections. Figure 2-55 shows grounding rods installation (6).
Figure 2-55: Installation requirements for rods as specified by 250.53 (G)

Page 50
2.5.8. Section 250.56
Augment a single electrode that is a rod, pipe, or plate and does not have a resistance to
ground of 25 ohms or less, by one additional electrode of a type specified in 250.52 (A)(4) through
A(8) (see Figure 2-56) (6).
Figure 2-56: Supplemental electrode

2.5.9. Section 250.64
Install grounding electrode conductor in one continuous length without a splice. Splicing
is allowed only by irreversible compression-type connectors listed for the purpose or by the
exothermic (CAD Weld) welding process (see Figure 2-57) (6).

Page 51
Figure 2-57: Example of rods and earthing cables

2.5.10. Section 250.66
It specifies how to determine the size of the grounding electrode conductor. Table 250.66
of NEC (refer to Table 2-4) is used to size the grounding electrode conductor of a grounded AC
system and is based on the largest size service entrance conductor (6).
Table 2-4: Sizing of Grounding Electrode conductor (6)

Page 52
2.6. Conclusion
In this chapter we have studied about earthing system which is an essential element for the
electrical system security and safety. It is required to allow for protective devices to be activated
when there is an insulation fault. It ensures equipotentiality of conductive parts that can be accessed
simultaneously, with the potential in the surrounding soil in order to prevent people from being
exposed to hazardous voltages. Earthing system also helps to reduce electromagnetic interferences
and allows the lightning strike energy to be safely dissipated. Thus protection of person and
property is achieved as per the recommendations of the electric standards and regulations.

Page 53
References
1. Electric, Schneider. Earthing System How To Choose The Right System Earthing Arragement.
France : Schneider Electric Industries SAS, 2009.
2. Electrical Installation Guide According to IEC International Standards. France : Schneider

Electric Industries SAS, 2015.
3. Dalziel, Professor C.F. Deleteriouis Effects of Electric Sosk. Geneva : s.n., 1961.
4. http://www.duncaninstr.com/Gr_article.htm. [Online]
5. http://www.ap-concepts.com/win_sgm_func.htm. [Online]
6. 70, NFPA. National Electrical Code. 2014.

Page 54

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Chapter 2.

Chapter 2 . Earthing Systems

2.2. Insulation faults and consequences

EENG465-handout Eng. Amani SAIED, Dr. Imane MAATOUK

2.2.2. Causes of insulation faults

2.2.3. Hazards linked to insulation faults

2.2.3.1. Risk of electric shock

i. Definition of electric shock

Figure 2-1: Human body becoming a part of an electric circuit

Figure 2-2: Direct and indirect contact

ii. Effect of AC current when passing in a human body

EENG465-handout Eng. Amani SAIED, Dr. Imane MAATOUK

EENG465-handout Eng. Amani SAIED, Dr. Imane MAATOUK

Figure 2-4: Some serious effect of a current on human body

Figure 2-5: Series and parallel paths for current

EENG465-handout Eng. Amani SAIED, Dr. Imane MAATOUK

Figure 2-6: Example 1 of current flow in human body

Figure 2-7: Example 2 of current flow in human body

EENG465-handout Eng. Amani SAIED, Dr. Imane MAATOUK

Figure 2-8: Example 3 different cases of electric shock

EENG465-handout Eng. Amani SAIED, Dr. Imane MAATOUK

2.2.3.2. Fire hazards

Large number of fires is caused by high temperatures or by an electric arc generated by an

2.2.3.3. Unavailability of electrical power

2.3. Managing the electrical hazard

2.3.1. Direct contact protection measures

Figure 2-10: High sensitivity RCD (2)

EENG465-handout Eng. Amani SAIED, Dr. Imane MAATOUK

 First level: The earthing of all exposed-conductive-parts of electrical equipment in the

Figure 2-11: Indirect contact-fault voltage and contact voltage

2.4. Earthing systems

There is a lot of confusion surrounding earthing and grounding, perhaps because –

EENG465-handout Eng. Amani SAIED, Dr. Imane MAATOUK

EENG465-handout Eng. Amani SAIED, Dr. Imane MAATOUK

Figure 2-12: Equipotential Bounding Planes

All people living or working in residential, commercial and industrial installations,

2.4.5. How earthing protects a person against electric shock?

EENG465-handout Eng. Amani SAIED, Dr. Imane MAATOUK

Figure 2-14: Proper grounding in case of insulation fault

EENG465-handout Eng. Amani SAIED, Dr. Imane MAATOUK

Figure 2-15: GFCI in case of an insulation fault

2.4.6. Application for an earthing system of a building:

EENG465-handout Eng. Amani SAIED, Dr. Imane MAATOUK

Figure 2-16 Example of application for an earthing system of a building [2]

2.4.7. Technical earthing systems

There are fundamentally two types of earthing systems:

2.4.8. Earthing schemes

Figure 2-17: TT System (2)

ii. Fault current calculation

EENG465-handout Eng. Amani SAIED, Dr. Imane MAATOUK

Figure 2-18: Fault current in TT system (2)

EENG465-handout Eng. Amani SAIED, Dr. Imane MAATOUK

Figure 2-19: TN-C system (2)

Figure 2-20: TN-S system (2)

EENG465-handout Eng. Amani SAIED, Dr. Imane MAATOUK

 TN-C-S system (see Figure 2-21)

Figure 2-21: TN-C-S system (2)

EENG465-handout Eng. Amani SAIED, Dr. Imane MAATOUK

Figure 2-22: Fault current in TN-S system (2)

EENG465-handout Eng. Amani SAIED, Dr. Imane MAATOUK

Figure 2-24: IT system (isolated neutral) (2)

Figure 2-25: IT system (isolated neutral) (2)

Figure 2-26: impedance equivalent to leakage impedances in an IT system (2)

3. Tower Ground Resistance Measurement 

9. Fall of Potential Method Measurement 