Fundamentals of Microelectronics

 CH1 Why Microelectronics?

 CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors
 CH3 Diode Circuits
 CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors
 CH5 Bipolar Amplifiers
 CH6 Physics of MOS Transistors
 CH7 CMOS Amplifiers

1
Chapter 2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors

 2.1 Semiconductor materials and their properties

 2.2 PN-junction diodes

 2.3 Reverse Breakdown

2
 2.0. Introduction
Semiconductor Physics

 Semiconductor devices serve as heart of microelectronics.

 PN junction is the most fundamental semiconductor device.
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 3
 2.1. Semiconductor Materials and their Properties (1/18)
Charge Carriers in Semiconductor

 To understand PN junction’s characteristics, it is important to

understand charge carriers’ behavior in solids, how to modify carrier
densities, and different mechanisms of charge flow.
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 4
2.1. Semiconductor Materials and their Properties (2/18)
2.1.1. Periodic Table

 This abridged table contains elements with three to five

valence electrons, with Si being the most important.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 5

 2.1. Semiconductor Materials and their Properties (3/18)
2.1.1. Silicon

 Si has four valence electrons. Therefore, it can form covalent bonds

with four of its neighbors.
 When temperature goes up, electrons in the covalent bond can
become free.
 In intrinsic silicon, ni free electrons are created at a given temperature:

5.2 10

k = Boltzmann’s constant= 1.38x10‐23 JK‐1
T = Temperature in degree Kelvin in °K
q = charge of an electron= 1.602x10‐19 C
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 6
Eg= Bandgap Energy; for Si Eg= 1.12 eV
 2.1. Semiconductor Materials and their Properties (4/18)
2.1.1. Electron-Hole Pair Interaction

 With free electrons breaking

off covalent bonds, holes are
generated.

 Holes can be filled by

absorbing other free electrons,
so effectively there is a flow of
charge carriers.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 7

2.1. Semiconductor Materials and their Properties (5/18)
2.1.2. Doping (N type)
 Pure Si can be doped with other elements to change its
electrical properties.

 For example, if Si is doped with P (phosphorous), then it

has more electrons, or becomes type N (electron).
 Other N-dopant: arsenic (As), and antimony (Sb)
 Donors, concentration or density ND
 Density of electrons= n ≈ ND.
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 8
2.1. Semiconductor Materials and their Properties (6/18)
2.1.2. Doping (P type)

 If Si is doped with B (boron), then it has more holes, or

becomes type P
 Other P-dopant: Aluminum (Al)
 Acceptors, concentration or density NA
 Density of holes= p ≈ NA.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 9

2.1. Semiconductor Materials and their Properties (7/18)
2.1.2. Electron and Hole Densities
2
np  ni
Majority Carriers : p  NA
2
n
Minority Carriers : n i
NA
Majority Carriers : n  ND
2
n
Minority Carriers : p i
ND

 In thermal equilibrium (no external voltage applied), the

product of electron and hole densities is ALWAYS equal to
the square of intrinsic electron density regardless of
doping levels.
 Not valid in non-thermal equilibrium (voltage applied).

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 10

 2.1. Semiconductor Materials and their Properties (8/18)
2.1.2. Summary of Charge Carriers

pp np

N niN
nn pn

N niN

 

A
D

2 2
 
D

A
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 11
2.1. Semiconductor Materials and their Properties (9/18)
2.1.3. Transport of Carriers
First Charge Transportation Mechanism: Drift
 
vh   p E
 
ve    n E

 The process in which charge particles move because of an

electric field is called drift.
 Charge particles will move at a velocity that is proportional
to the electric field.
 n and p are the mobility of electron and hole respectively.
 Example: n= 1350 cm2/(V.s) ; p = 480 cm2/(V.s)

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 12

2.1. Semiconductor Materials and their Properties (10/18)
2.1.3. Transport of Carriers

n= 1350 cm2/(V.s) ; p = 480 cm2/(V.s)

Ex. 2.5. First Charge Transportation Mechanism: Drift

 
vh   p E
 
ve    n E

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 13

2.1. Semiconductor Materials and their Properties (11/18)
2.1.3. Transport of Carriers
Current Flow: Drift

J n  vn  n  q , J p  vp  p  q
J n   n  E  n  q, J p  p  E  pq
J tot   n E  n  q   p E  p  q
 q(  n n   p p) E

 J is the current density (A/m2)

 Since velocity is equal to E, drift characteristic is obtained
by substituting V with E in the general current equation.
 The total current density consists of both electrons and
holes.
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 14
2.1. Semiconductor Materials and their Properties (12/18)
2.1.3. Transport of Carriers

Current Flow: Drift

J n  vn  n  q , J p  v p  p  q
J n   n  E  n  q, J p   p  E  p  q

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 15

2.1. Semiconductor Materials and their Properties (13/18)
2.1.3. Transport of Carriers
Second Charge Transportation Mechanism: Diffusion

 Charge particles move from a region of high concentration

to a region of low concentration.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 16

 2.1. Semiconductor Materials and their Properties (14/18)
2.1.3. Transport of Carriers
Current Flow: Diffusion

dn dp
J n  qDn J p  qD p
dx dx
dn dp dn dp
J tot  q ( Dn  Dp ) I tot  Aq( Dn  Dp )
dx dx dx dx

 Diffusion current is proportional to the gradient of charge

(dn/dx or dp/dx) along the direction of current flow.
 Dn and Dp= Coefficient of Diffusion of electrons and holes
respectively (cm2/s)
 Its total current density consists of both electrons and
holes.
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 17
 2.1. Semiconductor Materials and their Properties (15/18)
2.1.3. Transport of Carriers
Linear vs. Nonlinear Charge Density Profile

dn N dn  qDn N x
J n  qDn   qDn  J n  qD  exp
dx L dx Ld Ld
 Linear charge density profile means constant diffusion
current.
 Whereas nonlinear charge density profile means varying
diffusion current. n(x)= Nexp(-x/Ld)
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 18
 2.1. Semiconductor Materials and their Properties (16/18)
2.1.3. Transport of Carriers

Example: Linear vs. Nonlinear Charge Density Profile

dn N
J n  qDn   qDn 
dx L

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 19

2.1. Semiconductor Materials and their Properties (17/18)
Problem 2.5

34 ⁄
12 ⁄

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 20

 2.1. Semiconductor Materials and their Properties (18/18)
2.1.3. Transport of Carriers
Einstein's Relation

D kT

 q

 While the underlying physics behind drift and diffusion

currents are totally different, Einstein’s relation provides a
mysterious link between the two.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 21

 2.2. PN Junction (Diode) (1/25)

 When N-type and P-type dopants are introduced side-by-

side in a semiconductor, a PN junction or a diode is formed.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 22

 2.2. PN Junction (Diode) (2/25)
Diode’s Three Operation Regions

 In order to understand the operation of a diode, it is

necessary to study its three operation regions:
– Equilibrium

– reverse bias

– Forward bias

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 23

 2.2. PN Junction (Diode) (3/25)
2.2.1. pn Junction in Equilibrium
Current Flow Across Junction: Diffusion

 Because each side of the junction contains an excess of

holes or electrons compared to the other side, there exists
a large concentration gradient. Therefore, a diffusion
current flows across the junction from each side.
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 24
 2.2. PN Junction (Diode) (4/25)
2.2.1. pn Junction in Equilibrium

Current Flow Across Junction: Diffusion

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 25

 2.2. PN Junction (Diode) (5/25)
2.2.1. pn Junction in Equilibrium
Depletion Region

 As free electrons and holes diffuse across the junction, a

region of fixed ions is left behind. This region is known as
the “depletion region.”

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 26

 2.2. PN Junction (Diode) (6/25)
2.2.1. pn Junction in Equilibrium
Current Flow Across Junction: Equilibrium
I drift , p I diff , p
Idrift, p  Idiff , p  0
Idrift,n  Idiff ,n  0

Idrift, p  Idiff , p
Idrift,n  Idiff ,n

 At equilibrium, the drift current flowing in one direction

cancels out the diffusion current flowing in the opposite
direction, creating a net current of zero.
 The figure shows the charge profile of the PN junction.
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 27
 2.2. PN Junction (Diode) (7/25)
2.2.1. pn Junction in Equilibrium
Built-in Potential
Idrift, p  Idiff , p
dp dV dp
qμ p pE  qD p  μp p  Dp
dx or Idrift, p  Idiff , p  0
dx dx
x2 pp
dp Dp p p
 μ p  dV D p  V ( x2 )  V ( x1 )   ln 0
x1 pn
p μp pn
kT p p kT N A N D
V0  ln , V0  ln 2
q pn q ni

 Because of the electric field

across the junction, there
exists a built-in potential. Its
derivation is shown above.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 28

 2.2. PN Junction (Diode) (8/25)
2.2.1. pn Junction in Equilibrium

Built-in Potential
kT p p kT N A N D
V0  ln , V0  ln 2
q pn q ni

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 29

 2.2. PN Junction (Diode) (9/25)
2.2.2. pn (Diode) Junction Under Reverse Bias

 When the N-type region of a diode is connected to a higher

potential than the P-type region, the diode is under reverse
bias, which results in wider depletion region and larger
built-in electric field across the junction.
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 30
 2.2. PN Junction (Diode) (10/25)
2.2.2. pn (Diode) Junction Under Reverse Bias
Voltage-Dependent Capacitance

C j0
Cj 
VR
1
V0
 si q N AN D 1
C j0 
2 N A  N D V0

 The equations that describe the voltage-dependent

capacitance are shown above.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 31

 2.2. PN Junction (Diode) (11/25)
2.2.2. pn Junction (Diode) Under Forward Bias

 When the N-type region of a diode is at a lower potential

than the P-type region, the diode is in forward bias.
 The depletion width is shortened and the built-in electric
field decreased.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 32

 2.2. PN Junction (Diode) (12/25)
2.2.3. Diffusion Current in Forward Bias

VF
I tot  I s (exp  1)
VT
2 Dn Dp
I s  Aqni (  )
N A Ln N D Lp

 A= Cross section (m2)

 Ln and Lp are electron and hole diffusion lengths
respectively (meter).
 VT Thermal voltage = 25.8 mV≈ 26 mV at room temperature

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 33

 2.2. PN Junction (Diode) (13/25)
2.2.3. Diffusion Current in Forward Bias

Dn
2 Dp
I s  Aqni (  )
N A Ln N D Lp

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 34

 2.2. PN Junction (Diode) (14/25)
Minority Charge Gradient

 Minority charge profile should not be constant along the x-

axis; otherwise, there is no concentration gradient and no
diffusion current.
 Recombination of the minority carriers with the majority
carriers accounts for the dropping of minority carriers as
they go deep into the P or N region.
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 35
 2.2. PN Junction (Diode) (15/25)
Forward Bias Condition: Summary

 In forward bias, there are large diffusion currents of

minority carriers through the junction. However, as we go
deep into the P and N regions, recombination currents from
the majority carriers dominate. These two currents add up
to a constant value.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 36

 2.2. PN Junction (Diode) (16/25)
2.2.4. IV Characteristic of PN Junction

VD
I D  I S (exp  1)
VT

 The current and voltage relationship of a PN junction is

exponential in forward bias region, and relatively constant
in reverse bias region.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 37

 2.2. PN Junction (Diode) (17/25)
2.2.4. Parallel PN Junctions

 Since junction currents are proportional to the junction’s

cross-section area. Two PN junctions put in parallel are
effectively one PN junction with twice the cross-section
area, and hence twice the current.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 38

 2.2. PN Junction (Diode) (18/25)
2.2.3. Diffusion Current in Forward Bias

 IS from example 2.17

VD
I D  I S (exp  1)
VT

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 39

 2.2. PN Junction (Diode) (19/25)
2.2.3. Diffusion Current in Forward Bias

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 40

 2.2. PN Junction (Diode) (20/25)
2.2.3. Diffusion Current in Forward Bias

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 41

 2.2. PN Junction (Diode) (21/25)
2.2.4. Constant-Voltage Diode Model

Approximation

 Diode operates as an open circuit if VD< VD,on and a

constant voltage source of VD,on if VD tends to exceed VD,on.
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 42
 2.2. PN Junction (Diode) (22/25)
Example: Diode Calculations

IX
VX  I X R1  VD  I X R1  VT ln
IS
I X  2.2mA for VX  3V
I X  0.2mA for VX  1V

 This example shows the simplicity provided by a constant-

voltage model over an exponential model.
 For an exponential model, iterative method is needed to
solve for current, whereas constant-voltage model requires
only linear equations.
 We will not use this model in this course

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 43

 2.3. Reverse Breakdown, Zener (1/1)

 Very Briefly

 When a large reverse bias voltage is applied, breakdown

occurs and an enormous current flows through the diode.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 44

 2.2. PN Junction (Diode) (23/25)
Problem 2.17

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 45

 2.2. PN Junction (Diode) (24/25)
Problem 2.18

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 46

 2.2. PN Junction (Diode) (25/25)
Problem 2.23

Calculate VD1 for IX= 0.2 and 0.5 mA.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 47