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Structural Geology
CONTENTS
2. STRUCTURAL FEATURES
3. RELATIONSHIP OF STRUCTURES TO
GEOLOGICAL EVENTS
5. FURTHER LEARNING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
• Describe the main types of faults, and indicate how these structures relate to the
tectonic setting
• Describe typical fold geometries found in the main tectonic settings, and indicate
how these may relate to other structural features
• Identify structural features on cross sections, maps, and interpreted seismic lines
• Describe the causes of, and identify, situations leading to fault compartmentalisation
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Structural Geology 4
1.PURPOSE AND SCOPE
Structural Geology is a component of Petroleum Geology. It is closely linked to
Geophysics and Rock Mechanics, and there also are strong links to Sedimentation.
Structural Geology has historically been concerned with the study of rock deformation
over geological timescales - sometimes, this activity is also referred to as Tectonics.
Modern Structural Geology has evolved to include an appreciation of Rock Mechanics,
making it possible to produce predictions about the conditions of deformation, and
about the impact of that deformation on rock properties. Rock Mechanics also
includes a consideration of human timescales, and, particularly, how human activity
can influence rock deformation, and vice versa.
• Fracture production
• Fault properties - compartmentalisation, sub-seismic faulting
• Fault maps - juxtaposition diagrams, shale gouge ratio
• Stress effects
The Chapter begins by describing the geometries of important structures and the
associated terminology. The next section discusses the relationship of structural
features to other geological events. The following section focuses on practical issues
involving applications of the concepts presented previously. A final section suggests
some ways to learn more about this subject, including a set of exercises. Rock
Mechanics concepts are treated in an Appendix.
Because of the close links between Structural Geology and Rock Mechanics, this
Chapter and the Appendix should be studied in parallel.
2.1 Faults
A fault is a more-or-less planar surface or zone, across which the rocks on either side
have been moved by shear displacement (i.e. displacement parallel to the fault
surface). Faults can be sharp (infinitesimally-thick) planes, and they can also be wide
zones consisting of an array of complex deformation features. Faults represent a
yielding of the rock mass, and importantly, they indicate that deformation has become
localised (as opposed to distributed) at the scale of observation. Fault geometries, and
fault patterns, are used to infer large-scale deformation states.
The majority of faults are not vertical; instead, most are inclined. The angle “down”
from horizontal is called the dip of the fault plane, and the compass direction of the
horizontal line lying in the fault plane is called the strike (Fig. 1). A vertical fault has
a dip of 90o, and non-vertical faults have dips that range from very shallow (10-30o)
;
y ;
y
to moderate (40-60o) to steep (70-89o). The dip of the fault plane, along with the sense
of motion (see below), is used to categorise the types of faults.
y
; y
; ;
y ;
y
Angle of Dip (=22º) Top of Rock Layer
yyy
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y
;
N 300m
75º
y
;
200m
y
;y ;
y
Strike
;
y
100m
; y
0m
Dip
;
Horizontal Line
Left-Hand Rule:
If left thumb points down dip,
then left index finger points in strike direction.
Note: Structural Geology is intimately linked with geometries. The definitions and
explanations of structural features necessarily require drawings of these geometries.
There are three principal methods used to illustrate structural forms (Fig. 2). The 3-
D block diagram is perhaps the most readily understood of the three methods, since
it is “visual”. A cross section can be thought of as being the side of a block diagram
(even if the other side and top are not shown), and a map is simply the top of that
diagram projected onto a 2-D plane (a piece of paper). Although there are various
kinds of maps (see Chapter 7), structural features are usually described using either
geological maps or structure contour maps.
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Structural Geology 4
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Figure 2 Block Diagram Side of Block
(Showing a Dome)
Types of illustrations used
to depict structural features Cross Section
Each fault cuts the entire rock mass into two fault-blocks. In the case of non-vertical
faults, the fault-block lying below the fault plane is called the footwall, regardless of
the sense of displacement of the fault, and the block above the fault is called the
hangingwall (Fig. 3). The terms footwall and hangingwall derive from the mining
industry where fault planes are often encountered in underground workings (some
faults in orogenic belts are subject to mineralisation, implying that they were good
fluid conduits). The footwall (imagine a miner’s feet on the footwall) and hangingwall
(imagine a miner hanging from the roof of the mine) cannot be defined for a vertical
fault.
Hangingwall
Footwall
Figure 3 Hangingwall
Definition of the terms
footwall and hangingwall, Footwall
with respect to the dipping
fault plane, but independent
Normal Fault Reverse Fault
of the sense of movement
The types of faults are defined by the sense of movement along the fault plane (Fig.
4). In dip-slip faults (the slip motion is parallel to the dip direction), if the hangingwall
moves down (with respect to the footwall), this is called a normal fault. Normal faults
are associated with extension (lateral increase in dimension). If the hangingwall rises
over the footwall, this is called a reverse fault. Reverse faults (thrusts are reverse
faults whose dip is low - less than 25o) are associated with shortening (lateral decrease
in dimension). In the case of strike-slip faults (where the movement is parallel to
strike), we use the terms left-lateral and right-lateral to indicate the sense of relative
motion as seen looking down on a map.
REVERSE
Figure 4
contraction
Types of fault defined by
extension
displacement along the
STRIKE SLIP
fault plane A: Normal (dip-
slip) fault; B: Reverse (dip-
slip) fault; C: Strike-slip
Lateral Movement
fault (left-lateral shown)
Faults can be simple or complex zones of displacement (Fig. 5). In the petroleum
industry, faults are often represented as simple, single breaks (this is almost always the
case at the scale of a reservoir map), but they are in reality more likely to be complex
zones. A single fault break may well become a much more complex fault zone as the
scale of observation magnifies. Large, “intact” blocks of rock that are found within
a fault zone, surrounded by sheared and distorted rocks, are called “horses”. Synthetic
(similar dip) and antithetic (opposite dip) faults are names applied to minor faults that
are associated with larger faults.
Figure 5
Types of fault zones. A: a
simple, single surface of
shear; B: a fault zone
composed of a set of shear
surfaces; C: a distributed
(ductile) shear zone
Faults tend to form in groups, or arrays, giving rise to various geometric arrangements
that have the potential for trapping hydrocarbons. For an array of faults that have a
similar strike, it is common to find that some of the faults dip in one direction, while
some dip in the opposite direction (see Rock Mechanics for an explanation). When
seen in a cross-sectional view (Fig. 6), such an arrangement of normal faults produces
blocks that are uplifted or dropped down relative to one another. In this pattern, the
uplifted blocks are called horsts, and the down-dropped blocks are called grabens.
Curiously, deformations that shorten the layers seem to be less likely to produce equal
numbers of left-dipping and right-dipping faults; perhaps this is related to the idea that
such faulting is related to the spreading of a crustal-scale wedge of rocks, a process
which has a preferred direction.
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Structural Geology 4
Graben
Synthetic
Figure 6
Sketch of A: extensional;
and B: shortening
structural regimes CONTRACTION
Large faults are often not planar. A listric fault is a curved fault that is steeply-dipping
at shallow structural levels, and gently-dipping at deeper levels. Listric normal faults
are important in extensional domains because they provide for rotations of fault blocks
(Fig. 7). The tilting can provide a chance for new sediment deposition, which, in this
case, produces a wedge-shaped rock succession. Such a situation is called a half-
graben (it is a down-dropped block, but only on one side). The shallow portion (crest)
of a tilted fault block is a potential hydrocarbon trap, while the deep portions of large,
tilted fault blocks may subside far enough to become heated and thus turn into a
hydrocarbon kitchen. Listric faults are also important in shortening, where they may
be associated with folds (see below).
shales
erosion
unconformity
late-trapped
sourc late-mature
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Unit
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Small hydrocarbon
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Importance of extensional Res r
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ir U rce
nit ro from eroded
faulting relative to the ck
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sou
rce
Petroleum System roc
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along fault?
Fault displacements are not constant along a fault surface. Displacement varies
systematically along a fault and reaches a maximum near the centre of the fault
;;;
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;;yyy
yy
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yyy ;;;
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yyy ;;; Complex Fault Zone
Detail of Distorted Rocks and
Overlapping Fault Segments
Figure 8
Examples of fault zone
complexity
It has been observed that the larger (longer on a map or cross section) faults in a system
have the largest displacements. It is also noted that there tend to be more, smaller
faults, and fewer, large faults. This relationship is often expressed as a power-law
curve (Fig. 9). With such a relationship, the sub-seismic faults (those that are too
small to be identified on seismic data) can be modelled (but see below for cautions
against using this technique blindly).
100
"Sub seismic"
Cumulative fault density (/km2)
10
1
Figure 9
"Seismically
Resolvable" Fault population curve
0.1
exhibiting a power-law
0.01 relationship. Such curves
have been used to
1 10 100 1000 extrapolate fault
Maximum Throw (m) populations below the limit
of seismic resolution
The common fault types are sometimes interpreted to imply the orientation of the
principal stresses that existed when the fault was formed (see Appendix). In this
approach, ideal normal faults would have the maximum compressive pricipal stress
(σ1) vertical, ideal reverse faults would have the minimum principal stress (σ3)
vertical, and ideal strike-slip faults would have the intermediate principal stress (σ2)
vertical (Fig. 10). Although this simple relationship is a useful learning tool, real states
of stress are rarely as uniform and homogeneous as implied by this conceptual model
(this issue is treated further in the Rock Mechanics Appendix), and its over-
application is a common pitfall.
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Structural Geology 4
σ
1 σ3 σ
2
σ
2
σ
2
30º
Figure 10
Orientation of principal
σ3
stresses for the three ideal σ
1
σ
1
σ
3
types of faults
2.2 Folds
A fold can be defined as the deflection of a marker surface (e.g. from a planar shape
before folding to one that is non-planar after folding). The majority of situations of
interest to Petroleum Engineers involve layered, sedimentary rocks, so the “marker
surface” is usually bedding (but this is not always the case). Even if the rock
succession is a monotonous stack of the same layer on top of the same layer, the
bedding planes represent a significant element of heterogeneity. In the more usual
case where there are lithological variations (e.g. sand/shale/sand, etc), there is an even
greater degree of heterogeneity. These mechanical variations are what make “fold-
ing” a distinctive structural process.
You will probably be surprised if you consult a range of textbooks to get another point
of view concerning folding: none give a definition of folding that is any more definite
than that given in the preceding paragraph! The reason for this “hedging” is that most
geologists wish to classify folds according to their mode of origin: i.e. their genesis.
If it were possible to do this un-ambiguously, then the problem would be solved.
Unfortunately, folding processes are still the subject of research, and the genesis of
any particular fold cannot be determined with certainty, so this strategy cannot be
adopted. We will return to the topic of fold genesis, but first, we need to be sure that
we know the terminology of fold shapes.
Fold shapes
The first point to make concerns the word “surface”. Rock layers, and other-shaped
rock bodies, are bounded by surfaces. A surface is a curvi-planar entity that, in
mathematical jargon, has only two dimensions (a surface has infinitesimal thickness).
A large portion of the fold-shape naming scheme (Fig. 11) is based on the shape of
surfaces. In this context, the “surface” is usually the bedding plane bounding the top
of a rock layer. (But, remember, this bedding plane also bounds the bottom of the next-
higher layer.) The key words are: crest line (the line that represents the locally-highest
elevation), trough line (locally-lowest elevations), inflection line (boundary between
convex-upwards and convex-downwards), culmination (highest point of a crest or
trough line), and depression (lowest point of a crest or trough line). Note that the shape
variations of surfaces are distinctly three-dimensional (it is important that you don’t
forget that the 2-D cross-section drawings of folds that we use are illustrative, and not
very realistic!).
c i
D e pre s s io n
tion i
mina
Cul
i i
e c
ur fac
n ar S i
C u r v i- P la i Figure 11
t
t Terms that describe the
shape of a curvi-planar
Crest Lines (c), Trough Lines (t) and Inflection Lines (i)
surface
Much of the following material is based on how a cross section of a surface appears.
In mathematics, the key concept needed for evaluating the shape of a surface is
curvature. Curvature is actually the inverse of the radius ( 1 / r ) of the circle which
has the same shape as a small segment of the surface. If we determine the curvature
of a folded surface (via equations that are not important for our purposes), there will
usually be some places where the curvature is higher than in nearby regions (i.e. the
folding of the surface is “tighter” in the high-curvature sites). We call such high-
curvature parts of a fold “hinges”. The less-curved (straighter) portions of the fold
are called “limbs”. Both single-hinge and multi-hinge folds are possible. The fold
axis is the line that is formed from the intersection of the axial surface with some layer
boundary. The fold axis and the hinges are usually parallel (Fig. 12).
High-curvature sites
(Hinges)
Less-curved regions
(Limbs)
Interlimb
Angle
A useful geometric characteristic of a fold shape is its interlimb angle (Fig. 12). This
parameter has to do with the apparent tightness of the fold, or the angularity of the
hinges. The following table gives the descriptive terms that are applied to ranges of
the measured interlimb angle.
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Structural Geology 4
Other terms are used to describe fold patterns, including fold symmetries. Although
all folds do not occur in the form of wavetrains, the following definitions are most
easily visualised if we draw such a set of repeating fold forms. Enveloping surfaces
delimit the deflections of the surface about some median position. The fold amplitude
is half the distance between the enveloping surfaces. The median surface joins the
primary inflection points. The wavelength is the distance between comparable
inflection points. Note that the wavelength is shorter than is the distance between
inflection points measured along the layer. Symmetric folds have equal-length limbs,
and asymmetric folds have unequal-length limbs (Fig. 13).
As A As
i i i i Median Surface, m
W
As W= Wavelength
A = Amplitude
i = Inflection Points
As = Axial Surface
θ = Inclination of axial
surface relative to
enveloping surface
As
A
θ
i i i i m
Figure 13 W
Terms applied to repeating
fold shapes As As
Our real interest is in the (usual) case where there are stacks of layers. Imaginary
surfaces can be created (Fig. 15) to join up the various points defined on each layer
boundary. Axial surfaces bisect the limbs. For the types of folds usually encountered
in petroleum systems (e.g. approximately-constant layer thicknesses; see below), the
axial sx"Vace is essentially the same as the hinge surface, which joins all of the hinge
points. Inflection surfaces join all of the inflection points, and crest and trough
surfaces (not usually drawn) could join all of the high and low points, respectively.
Inflection surfaces define fold domains - within which the changes of fold shapes are
usually regular and predictable.
yyyy
;;;;
;;;;
yyyy
Cross section of multi-layer stack showing
complex array of axial surfaces
;;;;
yyyy
Inflection Surfaces
Define Fold domains
Figure 15
Imaginary surfaces
segmenting a folded
succession
12
Structural Geology 4
A fold may well have a fold axis that is not horizontal. Non-horizontal axes are said
to be plunging (Fig. 16). (A plunging line is specified by its trend - compass direction
of the downward-pointing end of the line, and its plunge angle - measured down from
horizontal). If a fold has a plunging axis, and a non-vertical axial surface, its axial trace
(where the axial surface intersects the ground), and its crestal trace (where the crestal
surface intersects the ground), may not coincide on a map. This is a point that seems
to greatly trouble many students! The fold profile is a section of the fold taken at right
angles to the fold axis. In plunging folds, the profile is not the same as the (vertical)
cross section.
Map Shape
Horizontal Line
Plunge Angle
Fold A
xis
Figure 16
A plunging fold
Axial Surface
t t
t
Figure 17
Parallel Fold Concentric (Parallel) Fold Parallel and concentric
Thickness (t) constant along layer Constant layer thickness folds
and constant curvature
Another classification scheme relies on the patterns of dip isogons as viewed in a fold
profile (Fig. 18). Isogons are lines joining points on different surfaces that have the
same dip. There are three classes, although the first class is sub-divided into 1A, 1B,
and 1C sub-classes. In a multi-layer sequence of rocks, and especially if there are
strong mechanical contrasts between the layers, mixed fold classes can occur. Most
of the folds of interest to Petroleum Engineers belong to Class 1B.
1A
1A 1B Parallel 1C
1B Parallel
1C
Class 2
2 Similar
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Structural Geology 4
Each combination of terms suggests a geometric image. A full description links these
terms together: e.g. an asymmetric, tight, inclined, plunging anticline. If the
descriptors are quantified (e.g. strike and dip of the axial surface, trend and plunge
angle of the hinge, etc), then the fold orientation is also communicated.
Figure 19
Fold orientations
Recumbent Horizontal
Types of flexure
Many geologists make a distinction between buckle folds and folds created by
bending. Buckles are supposed to result from the shortening of a layer, while bends
are created by displacements imposed normal to the layering. However, bending may
(and usually does) produce folds that are shorter (occupy less distance on a map) after
folding than the rocks were before the folding, so this view is inadequate to distinguish
between these types of fold.
A slightly more accurate notion about buckling is the one that states that the rock layer
is “pushed” along its length (Fig. 20). In practice (for natural folds), this statement
means that distant points on the layer are pushed closer together, and the layer deflects
(folds) away from its previous planar shape. The shape of the deflections (primarily
their wavelength) is controlled by a number of factors, including the thickness of the
layer, and its properties relative to the properties of the surrounding materials. This
sort of fold model is thought to produce a wavetrain of folds that have similar
geometric characteristics. Individual folds in the wavetrain grow by increasing their
amplitude, and, because the fold hinges are assumed to be “fixed” in the rock, the
wavelength decreases simultaneously.
Loading Examples
Block Fault
Figure 20
Bending Differences in loading: (a)
buckle folds and (b)
Diapir Differential
Compaction bending
In map view, buckle folds are associated with a strain ellipse (refer to Rock Mechanics
Appendix) that has its short semi-axis oriented in the “push” direction, and its long
semi-axis oriented along the fold axes. Most real buckle folds are not infinite along
their axis, but instead transfer their shortening to neighbouring folds. The length-to-
width ratio of most buckle folds (as seen on a map) is about 10:1.
It is appropriate here to introduce a notion that applies to all sorts of structures, but
16
Structural Geology 4
which is particularly well illustrated by the image of fold wavetrains. As noted above,
folds tend to be elongated. In a map view, this orientation of this elongation is referred
to as the longitudinal direction, or the trend. These words are also used to indicate the
“long” direction of any structural type. The perpendicular orientation on the map is
called the transverse direction, or, less-precisely (but more commonly), the “dip
direction”. Although cross sections can be constructed along any alignment, it is most
common to draw them in the transverse or “dip” direction, since this orientation
illustrates most-effectively the major changes in shape. For specific purposes, other
cross-section alignments can be used.
A point not (yet) recognized in the literature is that, in a stack of layers, with each
having its own mechanical properties, one layer might buckle whilst the others are
subjected to bending because of the deflection associated with the controlling buckle.
In regions that have been shortened, there are important genetic associations between
thrust faults and bedding-plane faults, and folds (see later in this Chapter).
Regardless of the cause of the folding, flexures in the upper crust of the earth (i.e. those
of interest to Petroleum Geoscience) are highly dependent on the fact that the rocks
are layered. The bedding planes between rock layers are mechanical discontinuities
that are available for slip. When folding occurs, some (but not all) bedding planes do
slip, and this process (called flexural slip folding) dramatically alters the pattern of
deformation - as compared to the folding of a single thick layer that does not have
internal bedding planes. Bedding-plane slip is extremely important in terms of
limiting the magnitude of the strains that are created at any point in the flexed
succession of layers (e.g. fracture intensity), and in controlling the extent of fractures
that may be induced. When flexural slip occurs (this is the “normal" case for the upper-
crustal flexures of interest to Petroleum Engineers), the fractures that are created are
distributed differently than would be predicted by power-law relationships (see
above). Because of the partitioning of strain associated with flexural slip, sequences
of rock layers can be considerably bent without undergoing extreme internal distor-
tion (Fig. 21).
To-be-Activated
Slip Surface
B.
New Bending Strains
Now-Active
Slip
C. Surfaces
Figure 21
Resulting
Deformation in flexural- Superposed
D. Fracture Strains
slip folds
Contractional structures
There is a major chicken-and-egg question that arises in the interpretation of folds and
thrusts. It is common in fold/thrust belts (see below) to observe large-scale,
asymmetric folds whose overturned limbs are faulted (Fig. 22). Is the faulting a
consequence of the folding, or is the folding a consequence of the faulting?
100's of m
Reverse fault
cutting overturned
forelimb
?
Figure 22
It has been possible to develop kinematic models of the development of folds that are
related to fault movements. The various types of model include: fault-bend folds,
fault-propagation folds, detachment folds, and break-thrust folds. Now, some twenty
years into this process of creating these kinematic models, they have become very
sophisticated (but not necessarily right!). There are models that address variations in
limb dips, interlimb angles, fault dips, displacement gradients on faults, fixed versus
moving hinges, layer thickness changes, etc, etc. The hope has been that different
modes of formation could be distinguished on the basis of differences that could -
ostensibly - be measured in a given structure. Unfortunately, clever people keep
finding a new parameter that allows them to develop another model to permit them to
interpret their favourite fold as being of type X. Although the initial motivation - to
distinguish the mode of formation - may not be met, these kinematic models are useful
in that they provide us with hypotheses about how these types of structures form and
evolve.
Some important aspects of these kinematic models of contractional structures are (Fig. 23):
18
Structural Geology 4
2θ
h
Fold geometry produced
by motion along fault
tf γ
f
α
Flat
Ram
p
Shape of Fault
Flat
Figure 23
In recent works, various researchers use the kinematic models to calculate an apparent
strain state in the resulting structures. If the inferred strains are thought to relate to
deformation (e.g. fractures), then there is potential to use such models to aid in
reservoir management. However, we do not yet have good forward simulations that
are based on proper rock mechanics, so any such predictions about the mechanical
state should be treated cautiously. Probably the most crucial shortcoming of these
efforts is that none (to date) consider the bending of the layers, or the impact of
flexural-slip folding.
Extensional structures
In contrast to the situation with fold/thrust structures, there has been considerably less
attention paid to fault/fold relationships in extensional settings. Although this
statement is true, a major example of such a relationship has been known for a very
long time: roll-over anticlines (Fig. 24). However, the kinematics of such features
have been studied and understood for only a short time.
Note truncations
(tracing from
seismic image)
Rollover
anticline
listr
ic n
orm
al fa
Figure 24 ult
• Angle of layering relative to local fault orientation (many extensional faults are listric)
• Constancy / variability of displacement on the fault
• Presence/absence of ‘weak’ units to permit flow, and related detachment of
overlying layers
• Strong potential for syn-deformation deposition of sediments, and their
immediate involvement in further deformation
There are different terms that can be used to refer to structural discontinuities —
roughly distinguished by the scale of the feature and the amount of displacement.
Although other authors may propose very specific definitions, we recommend a
pragmatic approach (Fig. 25). We suggest that the terms fracture (preferred) or joint
be used for sharp, localised breaks or discontinuities, and that the term fault be used
to refer to a plane or zone across which there is considerable shear (relative
displacement parallel to the plane/zone). There is inevitably a difficulty in judging
between the use of the terms fracture or fault in some cases. (Many geoscientists wish
to use the term joint for fractures with little discernable movement, but any supposed
distinction between the terms joint and fracture is of little or no practical use.)
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Structural Geology 4
yyyyyy
;;;;;;;;;
yyyyyy
;;;
Figure 25
Fracture Fault
Displacement distinguishes (Joint)
between fractures and
faults Same, Unspecified Scale
Fractures and/or joints often occur in systematically-aligned groups such that there is
a similar dip and strike to each of the fractures in the group. Such a group is called
a fracture set or joint set (Fig. 26), and sometimes the word “ systematic” is added (e.g.
systematic fracture set). Multiple sets of fractures/joints (each set being characterised
by a different strike and dip) also commonly occur; these groupings of sets are called
fracture assemblages if they are thought to be causally (genetically) related.
;
yy
;
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;;;; ;
y
;
y;
y
;;;yyy
yyy
;;;
y;
y
;
y yyyy
;;;;
; yyyy;;;
yyy
;
y
;
y;
y
Figure 26
Illustration of fracture sets
and assemblages
;;;yyy
yyy
;;; ;;;;
;;;
yyy A Fracture Set
Fr
actu
re
s
This knowledge can lead to the creation of a genetic model for the formation of the
fractures, from which predictions can be made concerning the distribution in areas that
cannot be sampled.
The typical spacing between fractures in a set is often seen to be a function of lithology
and bed thickness (Fig. 27).
Sandstones
0.6
Limestones
Figure 27
Relationships between
1 2
fractures and bed thickness
Spacing Between Fractures (m)
in sandstones and
limestones
Features on the surface of a fracture can provide important information about its origin
(Fig. 28). A set of curvilinear ribs, defining a feather-like (“plumose”) structure, is
evidence of an extensional fracture (Mode I; see Appendix). Mineralised surfaces
with lineations are called “slickensides”, and these are indicative of shear movement
(usually Mode II). Crystal growth on the surface of a fracture is an indication that the
fracture has been a void (open space) at some point in its history, allowing minerals
to grow from circulating fluids. A special case of fracture-surface mineralisation is
the “crack-seal” arrangement, from which we can infer that mineral deposition was
concurrent with fracture opening. In carbonate rocks, fractures can become zones of
dissolution, leading to open fissures. The nature of fracture surfaces is an important
consideration for the performance of the fractures during production of a reservoir.
Partly-mineralised, uneven fracture surfaces are less likely to close up (as fluid is
withdrawn) than may be the case with simple, co-planar extensional fractures.
Fracture Surface
Figure 28
Direction of Sense Features on fracture
Fracture of She
ar surfaces: Left) plumose
Propagation
structure indicating brittle,
extensional fracture;
Centre) slickensides
indicating shear; Right)
mineralised surface
Plumose Structure Slickensides Crystal Growth indicating an open fracture
22
Structural Geology 4
Occurrence of fractures
Fractures represent the distortion (e.g. a state of strain) that accumulates in rocks
undergoing cataclastic deformation. Therefore, they can occur anywhere that
conditions favour cataclastic deformation mechanisms. They often occur as subsidi-
ary elements associated with larger structural features, such as faults (Fig. 29). They
can also occur in a distributed fashion throughout a body of rock; this case would
suggest a style of deformation that is not localised.
Synthetic Fractures
Figure 29
Fractures associated with a Antithetic Fractures
normal fault
There are important cautions concerning the interpretation of fractures seen in rock
outcrops. Some of the visible fractures may have been produced by processes that are
active at the earth’s surface (e.g. thermal distortions caused by heating/cooling
cycles). Others may represent the breakage of rocks related to the relief of stress as
the rocks have been brought to the surface (e.g. by erosional removal of overlying
rocks). Still others may represent ‘true’ deformation caused during the uplift (this
might happen in tectonically-active regions). Of course, some of the fractures that are
observed in outcrops were created by tectonic processes, and these are the ones that
are representative of the subsurface distribution that we are interested in.
Fractures are also important in rock successions that have been folded, or flexed (Fig.
30). In folded rocks, fracture density (the inverse of fracture spacing) is sometimes
thought to be related to the curvature of the rock layers. The highest fracture density
seems to occur where there is maximum curvature of the rock layers (such as in fold
hinges), and this relationship is often exploited to assist in targeting fracture produc-
tion in reservoirs.
Figure 30
Fractures associated with
folding. Note the different
fracture patterns associated
with the inner and outer
surfaces of the layer in the
crestal region
2.6 Diapirs
The Earth’s gravitational attraction is one of the most important factors in creating the
loads that cause deformation. The mass of the rocks that comprise basins, when acted
on by the gravitational acceleration, produces large forces. Variations in density can
lead to significant force anomalies, and these, in turn, can produce deformational
responses.
An important type of structural feature is the diapir (Fig. 31). A diapir is a body of
‘flowable’ rock that migrates upwards due to its lower density (compared to the
surrounding rocks). Rock salt commonly forms diapirs, but under-consolidated
mudstones also can become diapiric. (Large granitic intrusions that rise into the
middle crust are also diapiric - while molten, their density is less than that of the
country rock around them.)
Truncation of
Layers at Figure 31
Depth Diapir that pierces lower
layers and flexes upper
layers
Diapir
Salt and shale diapirs are commonly treated as ‘closed systems’, meaning that we
assume that there is no loss or gain of material. Thus, when the diapir rises, it leaves
a virtual void somewhere below. Such voids do not, of course, actually exist. Instead,
the surrounding rocks subside into the space vacated by the upward movement of the
diapir. Because such a process can be long-lived (perhaps a hundred million years),
and because sedimentation occurs during this time period, and because the process of
sagging and movement can cause serious distortions of the rock succession (including
both normal and reverse faulting), diapirs can be structurally very complex. However,
diapirs are often good for trapping hydrocarbons. This is because the diapir itself often
serves as a seal, so that rock layers that are depositionally-truncated against the diapir,
or structurally-truncated by its movement, can serve as reservoirs.
24
Structural Geology 4
3. RELATIONSHIP OF STRUCTURES TO GEOLOGICAL EVENTS
A
A'
B
A B'
Figure 32
Syn-depositional faulting A'
can lead to different rock
thicknesses in the footwall
(eg, layer A) and
hangingwall (layer A’)
blocks
In basins (i.e. where sediments are depositing and accumulating), structures are often
very important in terms of localising where deposition takes place. For example, a
fault at depth might move, producing a sea-floor bathymetric expression (e.g. a low-
to-high change in sea-floor elevation). Something similar might happen in a river
valley in an area of active tectonism. Currents that are carrying sediment would
preferentially flow into the lower places, and their sediment load would tend to be
deposited there. Such a sequence of events can be responsible for causing a
lithological change in the resulting rock sequences: e.g. a lateral change from
sandstone to shale.
The tops of tilted fault blocks, or the crests of folds that are caused by faults beneath,
can also have an impact on the distribution of the sediment that is deposited. In a basin,
such crests can actually extend above the water, and be subject to erosion. The debris
that is produced during erosion may be deposited locally, leading to anomalous coarse
sediments amongst finer-grained materials. If the tops of the structures are not
exposed, but instead are at an elevation to cause them to be covered by only shallow
waters, there may be little or no deposition on their crests. If the waters are clear and
warm, reefs might form on the tops of such blocks. Such spatio-temporal variations
in lithology are quite common in sedimentary rocks deposited in tectonically-active
basins.
3.2 Unconformities
In the preceding section, we noted that tectonism can cause rocks to be uplifted and
therefore subject to erosion. If allowed to continue, erosion produces horizontal
surfaces (mountains become plains). This process will truncate rock layers that are tilted.
Later in time (perhaps very much later), the horizontal surface, and the rocks that lie
beneath it, may once again subside and become a site of deposition. The new rock
layers will be essentially horizontal when deposited, and thus there will be an angular
difference between the younger rock layers and the older, truncated layers that lie
below the old erosion surface (Fig. 33). We use the word unconformity to refer to such
a surface. An unconformity (which is just a boundary) represents missing geological
time. The time is “missing” because there is no depositional record of what happened.
Create Structure
Erosion
Angular
Unconformity
Deposit New Layer(s)
Figure 33
Development of an
unconformity
Because there are other ways that unconformities can occur, we actually call the
situation in the previous paragraph an angular unconformity. Another type of
unconformity is a heterolithic (“different rocks”) unconformity. When an orogenic
belt is uplifted an eroded, the intrusive rocks and metamorphic rocks that characterise
the middle crust become the uppermost rocks in that area. If later deposition occurs,
the sedimentary rocks above the old erosion are very different from the crystalline
rocks below. This situation is found within most basins, where sediments lie above
“basement”.
26
Structural Geology 4
3.3 Intrusions (Dykes / Sills), Hydrofracture, Veins
Molten rock can be injected into pre-existing rocks, forming an intrusion. Here, we
are primarily concerned with intrusions that occur in thin sheets (Fig. 34). These are
yyyyy
;;;;;
called dykes (when they cut across the layering; because layering is usually more-or-
less horizontal, dykes are sub-vertical) or sills (which are more-or-less parallel with
y
;
the layering; sills usually have shallow dips). Dykes and sills may have thicknesses
;;;;;
yyyyy
ranging from a few 10s of cm to kilometres. Their areal extent can be anywhere from
a few square metres to many thousands of square kilometres.
;;;;;
yyyyy
;;;;;
yyyyy
;;;;;
yyyyy
;;;;;
yyyyy
Layers
;;;;;
yyyyy
yyyy
;;;;
Lifted Up
Figure 34
Sill
;;;;;
yyyyy
A dyke crosses the layers. A
sill is intruded parallel to
the layering (but has a
feeder dyke)
Dyke Feeder Dyke
These features are of interest because of their mode of formation. They do not fill a
pre-existing void; instead, they make space for themselves. The pressure associated
with the molten rock overcomes the least compressive principal stress (σ3), and the
sharp tip of the intrusion serves to concentrate stresses. In combination, these two
effects cause a crack (Mode I) to open in the host rocks, and the molten rock flows
forward into the space. Dykes and sills that are very thick are the product of continued
injection, and the subsequent widening of the space. Because these injection features
represent new “external” material, they result in an increase in the bulk dimension of
the rock mass in the direction that is perpendicular to the intrusion. Sometimes, there
are “swarms” of dykes - many, many individual dykes that have similar strike - that
are associated with major crustal extension.
Pressure
Lithostatic Pressure
Leak-Off Pressure
"Seal"
Depth
Fluid Pressure
(showing overpressure
below seal)
Figure 35
Hydrostatic and lithostatic
profiles with an
Hydrostatic Pressure overpressure zone and leak-
off data.
There are two ways that veins can form. In the first, a fracture is opened slightly.
Fluids then circulate through the open crack, leaving behind minerals that were in
solution. In the second type, there is very little opening at any time. Circulating fluids
repeatedly deposit minerals that fill the small opening, and then these minerals are
cracked to re-form another small opening, with continued fluid movement. The
minerals that are deposited form fibres that are elongated in the direction of crack
opening. The process is known as “crack-seal”. It is more common in high-pressure/
high-temperature environments (metamorphism). The crack-seal process gives a
record of actual motion, which is usually not known in the more common types of veins.
3.4 Inversion
In basins, structures are important in terms of creating space within which new
sedimentation can occur. In many basins, listric normal faults, and associated growth
faulting, are very common. If at a later time, the basin is the location of a different type
of tectonic event (such as shortening), it is possible that the previous growth faults may
28
Structural Geology 4
become re-activated as thrust faults. There would be a thickened rock succession in
the hangingwall of the new thrusts, as well as, potentially, a change from reverse to
normal motion on the fault surface (depending on the magnitude of the displacements).
This process is called “inversion”. It is not certain if the tectonics works in exactly
this fashion, or if there is a different “true” interpretation that merely appears to be the
one described here. There is considerable debate about this notion, but it is important
to know what is being implied by the discussions that may occur around you.
4.1 Tilting
Most of the processes that form structures result in tilting of the rocks. (As noted in
the Appendix, rigid-body rotation is a component of deformation.) Surprisingly, this
aspect of deformation is often not emphasised in descriptions of Structural Geology.
The surprise factor is because the tilting of rocks is almost essential for migrating
hydrocarbons from their source region to any available traps.
The most important point to extract from this section is that structures produce
differences in elevation (Fig. 36). This difference can be produced by flexure of the
layers (into an anticline), or by faulting. Rotation (tilting) is frequently observed in
traps, but traps can be formed where the rock layers remain horizontal. Flexure can
be produced by faulting, by buckling, by diapirism, and by differential compaction of
underlying rocks (e.g. sand compacts less than shale, so a sand “pod” will produce a
bump in the overlying rocks following compaction).
Flexure Faulting
Figure 36
A range of trap shapes
sand
produced by structures
Not all trap-shapes result in petroleum reservoirs. If hydrocarbons have not migrated
to the trap, or if the timing of formation of the structure is later than migration, no
reservoir is created. In other cases, the failure to accumulate hydrocarbons is a
consequence of the lack of a seal. For example, a seal may be removed by erosion of
the crest of a fault block. In other cases, deformation may impair the integrity of the
seal.
As noted in the Appendix, many rocks yield by dilatant fracturing. The fractures
produced this way tend to be conduits for fluid flow. If a fault damage zone consists
of fractures of this type, there can be a permeability enhancement - generally aligned
with the orientation of the fault. Other rocks, or perhaps the same rocks that are
deformed under different conditions, can yield by compactant modes of failure. For
example, in porous sandstones, shear fractures and small faults are characterised by
arrays of small-scale (up to about a mm in width) slip surfaces that have offsets of a
few millimetres to perhaps a few centimetres. These features can be observed in core
as well as outcrop, and they have been produced in the laboratory. They are called
cataclastic slip bands (CSBs), or granulation seams, or microfaults. In the usual case,
CSBs are characterised by breakage of the original detrital grains (and the limited
cement that is present in the rock), so that there is a grain-size reduction within the zone
leading to a permeability decrease (Fig. 37).
30
4
yy
;;
Structural Geology
;y;;
yy ;y
yyyy
;;;;;;
yy
;;;
yyy
;;;;
yyyy
;
y ;;
yy
;
y
yy
;; ;;
yy 0.1m 0.002 m
yy
;;
;yyy
yy
;;;
yyy
;;;;
yyyy;y;
;; ;;
yy
0.1m
;;;
yyy
;;;;
yyyy
y;yy
y;
;; ;;
yy
Figure 37
Granulation seams, or
cataclastic slip bands, in
clean sandstones Outcrop Core Thin Section
Example of fault
juxtaposition diagram Distance Along Fault
yyyyy
;;;;;
situations in the local area.
;;;;;
yyyyy
;;;;;
yyyyy
;;;;;
yyyyy
Figure 39
Shale smear in a sand-
shale sequence
4.5 Overpressure
A condition of overpressure is said to occur when the fluid pressure at depth is higher
than the “expected”, normal hydrostatic pressure (e.g. Fig. 35). There are a number
of mechanisms that can cause this situation to occur:
For rocks that are undergoing compaction, overpressure stops the compaction
(deformation ceases, or slows). For consolidated rocks, overpressure can create
fractures, or cause existing fractures to open, or perhaps to slip. Thus, there are
significant impacts on rock mechanics whenever overpressure occurs. Overpressure
is a dynamic phenomenon that can be found in nearly every basin.
High pore pressures cause difficulties in drilling, and if they are encountered without
proper precautions, a blowout can occur.
32
Structural Geology 4
hence to be lost during drilling operations. The resulting oval borehole shape can be
measured with four-arm caliper tools, and from the direction of the long dimension,
the horizontal maximum stress direction can be inferred. Hydrofracturing, and packer
tests, can provide additional information.
There is an empirical observation that the in situ stress state affects the production of
a reservoir. Fractures, and perhaps pores, are subject to distortion due to the in situ
stress. Fractures that are parallel to the σ1 - σ2 plane are most favoured for being open
(because their opening is resisted by the smallest stress, σ3). This directional character
of flow can be used to infer the stress orientation. Similarly, it is possible to develop
reservoir management plans that exploit this phenomenon (Fig. 40). The anisotropy
of seismic shear waves may also be used to detect the preferential opening of fractures.
Figure 40 N
Example of a fractured Well
reservoir in which the FMS Fracture
direction of the “open” Orientations
• TYPE III: Fractures add to the permeability. Fractures enhance the reservoir
performance, significantly improving the otherwise poor-quality reservoir.
• TYPE IV: These are normal matrix reservoirs where fractures may introduce
some anisotropy or compartmentalisation. Fractures of some sort are to be
expected in all reservoirs.
All
Fractures
100 %
Fractures
II
% of Total Permeability
III
Figure 41
IV
Crossplot showing the
100 %
Matrix relative contributions of
All 100 % 100 %
Matrix Matrix % of Total Porosity Fractures matrix and fractures in of
fractured reservoirs (after
Nelson, 1992)
Effective flow properties in a realistic fractured rock mass depend on the geometry and
intersections of fractures belonging to multiple sets. Fracture porosity is usually <1%
in reservoirs. Fracture permeability can range from a few mD to several Darcies.
There are two useful expressions for estimating fracture permeability and porosity, as
a function of fracture aperture and spacing, for sets of parallel fractures:
a3 .
kf = 8.35.109
d
a .
ϕf = 100
a+d
where
kf = fracture permeability (mD)
ϕf = fracture porosity
a = fracture aperture (cm)
d = fracture spacing (cm)
34
Structural Geology 4
4.8 Structural Observations and Interpretations from Typical Data
Seismic reflection data (see Chapter 5) represent the primary information source on
the structural forms that are present in petroleum basins. After the seismic reflections
are correlated with specific rock layers, it is possible to determine the strikes and dips
of those layers (in a grid of 2D seismic lines, this process can be error-prone!). Where
the orientations change, we can expect the rocks to be damaged. Where layers are not
continuous, we can interpret faults. Where seismic attributes change, we can
(possibly) infer a change in fracture intensity, etc. Because faults are often steeply-
dipping, they are usually not well imaged on seismic data. Instead, faults are
interpreted as the junction between regions of the reflection section where layers are
observed to be intact. Very good seismic data can be subjected to fault-plane mapping,
which identifies faults ‘directly’.
Geological maps and cross sections are also used to identify structural features. These
data forms are particularly valuable for determining the structural style of an area.
Subsurface maps and cross sections (see Chapter 7) are also used to interpret the style.
However, a caution is in order. Many maps and sections are made to address a specific
need. They may not be appropriate for another need. For example, a regional-scale
structural-contour map produced from widely-spaced 2D seismic lines may reveal
major anticlines (exploration stage), but that same map is probably unsuitable for
determining curvatures, and hence fracture intensities (production stage). Wherever
possible, the history of a map or cross section should be investigated before its
information is used.
Faults can be identified on wireline logs by constructing correlation panels, and from
these, determining missing or repeated portions of the stratigraphic succession. This
effort is made considerably more difficult if the rock layers are dipping, or if the
wellbore is highly deviated. This is because the true thicknesses are stretched on the
wireline logs. Dipmeter logs can be used to produce True Stratigraphic Thickness
corrections to the log suite, so enabling an improved correlation and identification of
faults.
4.9 Balancing
The principle of structural balance is merely a geologically-phrased version of the
classic law of physics: the conservation of mass. To paraphrase: structural balance
means that the materials that existed before deformation are still present afterwards,
although they are re-arranged (and possibly may have left the local area!). In practice,
balancing is used to assist in judging the validity of structural interpretations of
deformed rocks. Since we always lack complete exposure, alternative ways of
interpreting the missing (unseen) parts of structures can be compared through this
approach. This is done by attempting to restore the deformation, and then assessing
Although structural balance sounds like a panacea, in practice, there are many
potential pitfalls. These are related to the simplifications of the concept that are
routinely adopted (such as: line-length balancing, area balancing, etc). For our
purpose, we can accept that balancing has the potential for assisting in developing
geometric interpretations of structural features, and in deriving interpretations of the
development history of those structures. However, the actual techniques require
specialist training, and are not presented here; Petroleum Engineers should consult the
geological staff to assist in any balancing work.
Fold/thrust belts
Fold and thrust belts are long (100’s to 1000’s of km), curvi-linear zones of
deformation within which there is substantial shortening (typically, the belt is only
half of the original width). These belts usually occur in zones where major plates
converge. In a major orogenic system, there may be two sub-parallel thrust belts: one
on each ‘margin’ of the orogenic belt. Some key characteristics of fold/thrust belts are
(Fig. 42):
36
Structural Geology 4
Cover
Basement
Horizontal reference
Figure 42
Structures typical of fold/
thrust belts
;yy;y;y;y;y;y;y;y;y; Nappes
Wrench provinces
Wrench provinces in continental terrains can be broad (1000’s of km in each direction)
regions produced by the lateral movements of major plates. In oceanic regions,
wrench zones typically are more narrow (100’s of km), but possibly very long.
Because the wrench faults are usually not ‘perfect’, but instead are irregular (jogs,
changes in strike, etc), there is a considerable degree of associated deformation
necessary to allow rock masses to move past one another. Some key characteristics
of wrench provinces are (Fig. 43):
Wrench Structures
Map expression of wrench zone
Mountains
Sediment supply
Fault continues
Do aul
f
wn ting
monocline
dr or
Depositional
op fle
pi xu
area
ng re
Slide block
via
Fault tip
Fault tip
Erosion =
sediment supply Figure 43
Block diagram of local uplift (Restraining bend or jog)
Structures typical of
wrench terranes
38
Structural Geology 4
• Tilted fault blocks, often with considerable asymmetry
• Volcanics
Half-Graben
Half-Graben tilted right
tilted left
Rifting Structures
Transfer fault
Detachment fault
Antithetic
fault
Faulting/folding of
List ric normal fault shallow layers above
fault-block edges
Headwall
Core complex Extreme tilting
• Predictability is proving less good than was thought only a short time ago
• Toes of major sheets may show contractional structures that are contemporaneous
with headwall extension
Oceanic crust
Continental crust
Crustal-scale view
0 50 km "weld"
Figure 45
Structures typical of
Salt
Salt “passive margins”
40
Structural Geology 4
In other words, these structures do not follow the rule of ‘structural balance’. (What
is actually going on is that there are significant volume strains that affect line-lengths
and areas of cross sections. Such strains are not, typically, included in balancing
methods. In addition, there is a considerable lateral motion associated with flow of
ductile rocks.) The transition from fault to fold is accomplished via the ‘flowable’ unit
within the sedimentary succession.
Structures of this type are actually quite common. They characterise the style of intra-
cratonic basins and many shallow-shelf and platform regions. There is a growing
appreciation of this style in rift environments. This style probably occurs in many
other places, but the structures may have been interpreted to be some other structural
type. Some key characteristics of this style are (Fig. 46):
strong
basement
weak
Normal Fault
nearly continuous
strong layer strong
weak
basement
Vertical Fault
Figure 46
Structures typical of stretching and strong
faulting of strong
platform areas layer
weak
basement
Reverse Fault
Exercises
1. Collect together sketches and/or photographs of faults from: local outcrops, the
geological data you have around your office, or published examples in the literature.
In each case identify the hangingwall, footwall, sense of displacement, and throw. If
possible consider the 3-D aspects of the features. Try to classify the type of faults, and
explain their structural settings. You should have between 10 and 20 examples at a
range of scales.
4. Read several papers that describe a field. Identify the structural elements that are
important to create the trap, or that have a significant effect on production. Do all of
the features seem compatible within interpretated structural setting?
42