Module Detail and its Structure

Subject Name Sociology

Paper Name Methodology of Research in Sociology

Module Name/Title Probability Sampling: Principles and Procedures

Module Id RMS – 18

Prerequisites Some knowledge of qualitative and quantitative research, universe, sampling

and basic statistical techniques.

Objectives This module will focus on different types of probability sampling. The
problems associated with the techniques of various probability samplings are
also discussed to make the learners better equipped.
Keywords Universe or Population, Sampling, Probability, Qualitative Research,
Quantitative Research, Simple Random Sampling, Sample Size, Sampling
Error

Role in Content Name Affiliation

Development
Principal Investigator Professor Sujata Patel Department of Sociology,
University of Hyderabad
Paper Coordinator Professor Biswajit Ghosh Professor, Department of Sociology, The
University of Burdwan, Burdwan, West
Bengal - 713104
Email: bghoshbu@gmail.com
Mobile No.: +91 9002769014
Content Writer Dr. Soumyajit Patra Assistant Professor, Department of
Sociology, S.K.B. University, Purulia, West
Bengal – 723104
Mobile No.: +919474978911
Email: spatra.vu@gmail.com

Content Reviewer (CR) Professor Biswajit Ghosh Professor, Department of Sociology, The
University of Burdwan, Burdwan, West
Bengal - 713104
Email: bghoshbu@gmail.com
Mobile No.: +91 9002769014
Language Editor (LE) Professor Biswajit Ghosh Do

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Name of Paper: Methodology of Research in Sociology
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Name of Module: Probability Sampling: Principles and Procedures
 Contents
1. Objective ................................................................................................................................................... 3
2. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 3
3. Learning Outcome……………………………………………………………………………………….3
4. Sampling....................................................................................................................................................3
4.1 Statistic and parameter..........................................................................................................................4
5. Why do the researchers prefer sampling ................................................................................................... 4
6. Probability sampling and non-probability sampling.................................................................................5
6.1 Sampling in quantitative and qualitative research...............................................................................5
Self-check exercise - 1…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...5
7. Types of probability sampling .................................................................................................................. 6
7.1 Simple Random Sampling...................................................................................................................7
7.2 Stratified Random Sampling...............................................................................................................7
7.3 Cluster Sampling.................................................................................................................................9
7.4 Multi-stage Sampling..........................................................................................................................9
7.5 Multi-phase Sampling.........................................................................................................................9
7.6 Systematic Sampling .......................................................................................................................... 9
7.7 Area Sampling..................................................................................................................................10
8. Sample Size…………………………………………………………………………………………….10
9. Sampling Error ........................................................................................................................................ 10
Self-check exercise - 2…………………………………………………………………………………...11
10. Summary ............................................................................................................................................... 11
11. Some useful links and e-resources ........................................................................................................ 12
12. Glossary.. .............................................................................................................................................. 13
13. Bibliography ......................................................................................................................................... 14

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Name of Paper: Methodology of Research in Sociology
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Name of Module: Probability Sampling: Principles and Procedures
 1. Objective
This module you will teach about the importance of probability sampling in social science research. At
the end of this module you will find some digital resources and a bibliography for further study.

2. Introduction
In most of the empirical social researches, it is impossible to collect data from all potential informants
considering the time-cost-labour components that such a large scale study incurs. Time, labour and cost of
a study proportionately increase with the increase in the scale of research. If we want to know, for
example, the average monthly income of the adult males and females living in Kolkata municipal area, it
is impracticable to obtain data from each and every adult male and female residents of that area. So we
select a representative group from the population or ‘universe’ to predict the average monthly income of
the people living in Kolkata municipal area. This representative group is called sample. And the aggregate
of individuals or units from which a sample is drawn is known as population or ‘universe’. In fact, the
researchers may like to know about the population characteristics from the findings of the study of the
sample. No doubt the ideal way to have knowledge of the population is to conduct a study on each and
every member of the population. ‘Sample’ is the short cut way to understand the population
characteristics. So, in most of the quantitative researches, the researchers draw sample from a large
population in order to examine the characteristics existing in the population or universe.

3. Learning Outcome
This Module will help you understand some basic concepts related to sampling and the principles and
procedures of probability sampling.

4. Sampling

According to Payne and Payne (2005: 200), ‘sampling is the process of selecting a sub-set, of people or
social phenomena to be studied, from the larger “universe” to which they belong.’ In the words of Bloor
and Wood (2006: 153), ‘a sample is representative of the population from which it is selected if the
characteristics of the sample approximate to the characteristics in the population’. This representativeness
of the sample is very important because it is presumed that the results obtained from the sample can be
used to describe the population or universe as such. The individuals selected for a sample are called
sampling units. In other words, a sample consists of sample units. When the research is conducted on the
entire universe, i.e. when information is collected from each and every individual of the population it is
called census. According to Bryman (2012:187), census is

‘the enumeration of an entire population. Thus, if data are collected in relation to all units in a
population, rather than in relation to a sample of units of that population, the data are treated as
census data’.

Hagood and Price (1952) have pointed out three important features of a good sample. These are –

The sample must represent the universe,

It should be unbiased,

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 Sample size must be adequate to produce reliable results.

There are different types of sample and the researcher has to pay sincere attention in selecting the
appropriate one. Otherwise, the results of the study will be misleading. Prior knowledge of the various
characteristics of the population is essential for selection of the right sampling design.

In order to draw a sample, a source list (the complete list of the units of the population is known as
source list or sampling frame) is required. Voters’ list, for example, can be used as source list for many
social science researches. But, in most of the cases, the researcher has to prepare the source list. It is
although not very easy always. Researchers face difficulties to prepare a source list if the population, for
example, is mobile.

Sometimes it is also impossible to identify the actual units of the population. If, for example, we want to
collect a sample from the student communities who have tendencies to commit crime, it would not be
very easy to identify the right persons and to collect a sample from them.

4.1 Statistic and Parameter

The value of a variable calculated from the sample is called ‘statistic’ and the value of a variable
existing in the population or universe is called ‘parameter’. For obvious reasons in most of the cases the
parameter is unknown. The researcher draws a sample from the population in order to know or guess the
parameter. For example, suppose a researcher has selected a sample of 10 students following a standard
sampling procedure from a batch of 100 students (population). She wants to know the average age of the
students of the said batch. So she calculated the average age of the students from the sample and found it
is 21.3 years (statistic).

Now suppose in this case the parameter is known and it is 21.6 years (the average age of 100 students).
Here 21.3 years is ‘statistic’ and 21.6 years is ‘parameter’. The difference between statistic and
parameter is due to sampling. As in most of the cases, the researchers do not know the parameter, they
only try to guess it with the help of statistic.

5. Why do the researchers prefer sampling?

Complete enumeration or what is called census, requires much time. Sampling, selection of a
representative part from the whole, saves it. Many social science researches are time-bound. So sampling
becomes inevitable to complete the work in time.

Sampling saves labour and money.

Sample study yields more precise results.

From the administrative point of view also sampling is preferred.

Concentration on a comparatively small group helps collect accurate data.

The magnitude of error can be calculated in most of the cases (particularly in case of probability
sampling).

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Name of Module: Probability Sampling: Principles and Procedures
 The degree of accessibility of the units of the study (respondents) is higher in case of sample study
than that of the population study.

6. Probability sampling and non-probability sampling

Sampling can be of two types – probability and non-probability. According to Das (2004: 61), ‘the
chance of being included in the sample is commonly known as probability.’ In case of probability
sampling each item of the universe has a determinate or fixed chance of being selected. The idea behind
probability sampling is that a sample will be representative of the universe from which it is selected if all
members of the universe have an equal chance of being selected (Babbie 2004). This sampling method is
sometimes called EPSEM (Equal Probability of Selection Method). You know that a good sample should
adequately represent the population. Probability sampling enhances the degree of representativeness. And
a random method of selection, in which each item has an equal probability of being included in the
sample, is the key to the probability sampling. A major advantage of probability sampling is that
sampling error, i.e. the degree of expected error for a given sample design, can be calculated.

Non-probability sampling, on the contrary, does not follow the rule of probability. Bryman (2012) points
out that non-probability sample is a sample that is not selected using a random selection method. That
means in case of non-probability sampling some units in the population are more likely to be selected
than others. In the words of Babbie (ibid.: 182), ‘any technique in which samples are selected in some
way not suggested by probability theory’ may be called non-probability sampling. In some social
researches, probability sampling does not seem feasible. In those cases, non-probability sampling is
preferred. For example, if we want to study homelessness, it is impossible to collect the list of such
people. In this case non-probability sampling would be appropriate (ibid.). In non-probability sampling,
there is no way to ensure that each item of the population has a chance of being included in the sample.
The selection here totally depends on the researcher and therefore the representativeness of the sample
cannot be guaranteed in most of the cases.

6.1 Sampling in quantitative and qualitative research

Sampling techniques vary with the nature of research. In quantitative research, the researcher generally
wants to focus on the numerical aspect of social life through the collection and analysis of some statistical
data like average age of the population, average income, level of education, dropout rate, etc. For this
purpose, s/he wants to draw a truly representative sample from a large population and tries to understand
the population parameter through sample statistic. According to Neuman (2007), probability sampling is
most appropriate for quantitative research because it produces more accurate result expressed in terms of
numerate data than the non-probability sampling and, hence, sampling error can be calculated.

Qualitative research, on the other hand, focuses on the peculiar features of social life, or on the meanings
created and transformed in course of inter-human interactions, or sometimes on the inter-subjective
feelings and emotions. These demand proper and in-depth understanding of the social reality that simple
numerals cannot express. Neuman (2007: 141) thus writes:

Qualitative researchers’ concern is to find cases that will enhance what the researchers learn
about the process of social life in a specific context. For this reason, qualitative researchers tend
to collect a second type of sampling: non-probability sampling.

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Name of Module: Probability Sampling: Principles and Procedures
 Self-check Exercise -1:

1. What is population?
The aggregate of individuals or units from which a sample is drawn is known as population. It is also
called universe.

2. What is census?

Complete enumeration is called census. In census all the units of population are covered, that means data
are collected from each and every member of the population.

3. What is sample?

Sample is the representative of the population. When a researcher selects some units from the population
or universe following some standardized procedures as representative of the population, this group is
called sample. Sample reflects the characteristics of the universe.

4. What is probability sampling?

Probability sampling is that type sampling in which each item of the universe has a determinate or fixed
chance of being selected. The idea behind probability sampling is that a sample will be representative of
the universe from which it is selected if all the members of the universe have an equal chance of being
selected.

5. What are statistic and parameter?

The value of a variable calculated from the sample is called statistic and the value of a variable existing in
the population or universe is called parameter. In most of the cases, the researcher cannot know directly
the value of the parameter. So he or she tries to have an idea about it from the statistic.

6. What is variable?

According to Bryman (2012: 48), “a variable is simply an attribute on which cases vary. ‘Cases’ can
obviously be people, but they can also include things such as households, cities, organizations, schools,
and nations. If an attribute does not vary, it is a constant”. In other words variables are characteristics that
can have different values like age, height, income etc. These can both be qualitative and quantitative. The
qualitative variables like caste, sex are often called ‘attributes’. The quantitative variables like age,
income, family size are simply called ‘variables’.

7. Types of probability sampling

You know that in case of probability sampling each item of the population has a chance of being selected
in the sample. So the sample becomes unbiased. There is no question of preferring one over another in
the selection procedure. The researcher does not bother who or which item of the population will come in
the sample. Researchers’ objectivity and value neutrality are ensured when they go for probability
sampling.

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Name of Module: Probability Sampling: Principles and Procedures
 There are different types of probability sampling. The researchers adopt any one of them according to the
purpose and nature of their study. However, they should be very cautious in selecting the type of
sampling because any wrong decision may jeopardize their research project. Before taking the final
decision regarding the type of sample to be adopted for a particular study, the researcher should gather
sufficient knowledge about the characteristics of the universe or population on which he or she would
conduct the research in detail. It is also true in case of non-probability sampling.

7.1 Simple Random Sampling

When each unit or element in the population has an equal chance of being selected in the sample, it is
called Simple Random Sampling (SRS). According to Young (1988), the term ‘random’ here ‘does not
mean haphazard, careless, unplanned or hit-and-miss. Rather, according to accepted standard of statistical
sampling, every effort should be made to control the choice of items so that every item in the universe
shall have the same probability of being included in the sample.’ Generally each unit in the population is
identified by a number, and these numbers are printed on metal or cardboard discs. These discs are placed
in a container and after through shuffling sample units are selected by simple lottery method. Random
number tables are also used instead of this procedure to select the sample.

Simple Random Sampling may be of two types –

A. Simple Random Sampling with replacement – In case of Simple Random Sampling with
replacement, the units selected at each draw are reinserted in the container before the next draw is
made. So the size of the population remains same at each draw. Simple Random Sampling with
replacement is often termed as unrestricted random sampling. Most of the statistical theories are
based on Simple Random Sampling with replacement.

B. Simple Random Sampling without replacement – Here the units selected are not replaced or
returned to the original population. So the size of the population or universe changes at each draw. It
should be noted that in both types of sampling, each unit of the population has an equal probability
to be selected in the sample if the units appear once in the population (Majumdar 2005).

When the population is homogeneous Simple Random Sampling can be a very good option. Suppose you
are conducting a study on the beliefs and practices of the adult tribal women of a particular area that have
a bearing on their health. You have to prepare a source list first. This source list would indicate the
universe of your study. Voters’ list can be helpful for this. You can put a number before each name
present in the list and then conduct a lottery to collect the sample. This sample would be unbiased and
would represent your population.

7.2 Stratified Random Sampling

Though it is said that Simple Random Sampling is representative of the population, as no personal choice
of the researcher in selection of the sample units enters in the process, in reality all the characteristics of
the population may not be reflected in the sample. This is particularly true if the population is
heterogeneous. Simple Random Sampling does not ensure the inclusion of every segment of the
population as it is based on random (generally lottery) method on which no one has control.

To make sure the true reflection of the characteristics of the population in the sample, often the entire
population is divided into some strata on the basis of some criteria relevant to the study, and then sub-

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Name of Module: Probability Sampling: Principles and Procedures
 samples are collected from each stratum following random method. This type of sampling is known as
Stratified Random Sampling. According to Babbie (2004: 206),

...the ultimate function of stratification, then, is to organize the population into homogeneous
subsets (with heterogeneity between subsets) and to select the appropriate number of elements
from each.

For example, suppose you want to conduct a study on the environmental awareness of the students of a
university. If you prefer a Stratified Random Sampling, at first you have to divide the population of the
student faculty wise. Then you can proceed in the following manner: Faculty of Science and Faculty of
Arts and Commerce may be divided into different academic departments; departments may be divided
into different classes, classes may be divided according to the sex of the students. Ultimately from these
last strata (males and females of each class) sub-samples can be collected through Simple Random
Sampling technique. All these sub-samples together constitute the total sample. By doing so, various
categories/strata present in the universe may get represented in the sample.

There are two types of Stratified Random Sampling – Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling and
Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling. In case of proportionate Stratified Random Sampling the
specified characteristics of the population are reflected in the sample in the same proportion in which
they are distributed in the population.

Suppose the researcher wants to draw a proportionate stratified sampling from among the students of an
Engineering college. The calculations for proportionate stratified sampling are given below.

Departments Sex No. of students Proportion in population Size of the sub-sample*

IT M 70 70/500 = .14 100x.14 = 14
F 60 60/500 = .12 100x.12 = 12
Civil M 85 85/500 = .17 100x.17 = 17
F 50 50/500 = .1 100x.1 = 10
Electronics M 50 50/500 = .1 100x.1 = 10
F 50 50/500 = .1 100x.1 = 10
Mechanical M 75 75/500 = .15 100x.15 = 15
F 60 60/500 = .12 100x.12 = 12
Total 500 (Size of the 1 100 (Size of the sample)
population)
* Suppose the researcher has decided to collect a sample of 100 students.

In the words of Majumdar (2005: 175),

The number of units selected from each stratum may be proportional to the stratum size to the
population. That is, if Ni is the stratum size or the size of the ith sub-population and N the size of
the population (∑Ni = N), and if ni is the size of the sample in the ith stratum and n the total
sample size (∑ni = n), then for a proportionate stratified sample the relation Ni / N = ni / n must
hold.

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 In Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling, the size of the sub-samples is not proportional to the
respective population strata. Here, generally, equal number of units is selected through Simple Random
Sampling from each stratum. The specified characteristics of the population may not be reflected in the
same proportion in which they are distributed in the population, in case of disproportionate Stratified
Random Sampling. So there is a chance of sub-samples being overrepresented or underrepresented.

7.3 Cluster sampling

According to Bryman (2012: 709), cluster sampling is a ‘procedure in which at an initial stage the
researcher samples areas (i.e. clusters) and then samples units from these clusters, usually using a
probability sampling method’. So (2007) says that a cluster is a unit that contains the final sampling
units, but as the cluster is chosen through Simple Random Sampling it itself is a sampling unit. For
example, in order to select a sample of women voters from a town, we can divide the town ward wise and
then select a sample of wards by Simple Random Sampling. The final sample of women voters, then,
may be selected from each selected ward again by Simple Random Sampling or by Stratified Random
Sampling. Cluster sampling is less expensive. Babbie (2004) writes that cluster sampling may be used
when it is either impossible or impractical to compile an exhaustive list of the elements of the population.

7.4 Multi-stage sampling

In multi-stage sampling, the researcher proceeds through a number of stages (from a large macro unit to a
small micro unit), selecting a predetermined size of sample from each stage by Simple Random
Sampling (Majumdar: 2005). For example, if we want to select a sample of urban people of West Bengal,
we have to divide the state on the basis of districts; then we can select a sample of districts by Simple
Random Sampling. These selected districts may again be divided into different urban areas. In the second
stage, we may select a few towns from those by the same random method. These randomly selected
towns may again be divided into different wards and a sample of wards may be selected by using similar
sampling method. The final sample may be selected from the list of the residents of these wards. In this
multi-stage sampling, a random method is applied at every stage. For a large population, this kind of
sampling is very useful.

7.5 Multi-phase sampling

When some general information is collected from all the units of the sample and some specific
information from sub-samples of the original sample, it is called multi-phase sampling. This sampling
technique is also based on random methods and it can be combined or used with other types of sampling
techniques. For obvious reasons, multi-phase sampling saves time and money. It is time consuming and
unnecessary to ask every question to everyone. Multi-phase sampling also reduces the burden on the
informants.

7.6 Systematic sampling

According to Babbie (2004), systematic sampling is a kind of probability sampling in which every kth
unit or person in the list of the population is selected for the inclusion in the sample. Generally k is
calculated by dividing the population size by the desired sample size. K is called sampling interval. So we
can obtain sampling interval in the following way:

Sampling interval (k) = population size ÷ sample size

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Name of Module: Probability Sampling: Principles and Procedures
 The first unit is selected at random. Then every kth unit is selected from the list of the population. In
order to select a systematic sampling, a complete list of the population with proper numbering of the units
is essential. But any purposeful arrangement or rearrangement of the units in the list may produce biased
sample.

For example, suppose you have decided to conduct a study on the reading habits of the students of a
particular class, in which there are altogether 100 students. You also have decided to take a sample of 10
students for this. You can use the attendance register of the students as the source list. Every student in
that register has a roll number like 1, 2, 3. Sampling interval K here is 10 (100/10). To start with you have
to prepare 10 discs numbering 1 to 10 and then select the first number by lottery. Say, the first number
comes 6 (through the lottery). Roll no. 6 is then included in the sample. The other sample units would be
the students having Roll no. 16, 26, 36, 46, 56, 66, 76, 86 and 96 (notice the sampling interval is 10). So
the final sample would consist of Roll no. 6, 16, 26, 36, 46, 56, 66, 76, 86 and 96.

7.7 Area sampling

P. V. Young (1988) has defined area sampling as a type of sampling in which small areas are designated
as primary sampling units (PSUs), and the households interviewed include all or a specified fraction of
those found in these areas. Area sampling is similar to multi-stage sampling; the only difference is that
here the total area under study is divided into some smaller areas and then a sample is selected following
random method. After the selection of areas, all the households may be studied (like cluster sampling) or
further sub-samples may be selected again classifying those areas. In agricultural and market surveys this
type of sampling design is used.

8. Sample Size

The most frequently asked question is ‘what would be the size of sample?’ If it is a probability sample,
the researchers can determine it with the help of a statistical method. But this statistical procedure is not
easy and it requires prior knowledge of the population, which often the researchers do not have. Neuman
(2007) has informed us about a convention that can help the researchers in deciding the sample size. It
should be noted that large sample size does not always ensure the representativeness of the sample if the
population is a heterogeneous one and the sample is poorly crafted. In case of qualitative research even a
very small sample can produce accurate and fascinating information. But this cannot be said of
quantitative researches.
On the basis of the principle, ‘smaller the population, bigger the sampling ratio’ (ibid.: 162) suggests the
following (sampling ratio is the ratio of sample size and population size):

For a small population (about 1,000), sample size would be 300 (i.e. 30%).
For a moderately large population (about 10,000), sample size would be 1,000 (i.e. 10%).
For a large population (about 1,50,000), sample size would be 1,500 (i.e. 1%).
For a very large population (about 10 million) sample size would be 2,500 (i.e. 0.025%).

9. Sampling Error

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 According to Bryman (2012: 187), sampling error is the error in the findings deriving from research due
to the difference between a sample and the population from which it is selected. This may occur even
when probability sampling is employed. This error creeps in the result of your research because of the
fact that you have conducted the study on the sample instead of the population. In census, sampling error
is zero. In case of probability sampling, the more the sample is a representative one, the less is the
sampling error.

Self-check Exercise – 2:

1. What is Simple Random Sampling (SRS)?

When each unit or element in the population has an equal chance of being selected in the sample, the
sample is called Simple Random Sampling (SRS). It is usually done with the help of lottery method.
Sometimes Random number table is also used to select sample units.
2. Define Stratified Random Sampling.
Often the entire population is divided into some strata on the basis of some criteria relevant to the
study, and then sub-samples are collected from each stratum following random method. This type of
sampling is known as Stratified Random Sampling. If population is heterogeneous, Simple Random
Sampling does not ensure that each segment of the population has been included in the sample. A
Stratified Random Sample attempts to include all the segments of the population to make the sample
truly representative.
3. What does cluster sampling mean?
Cluster sampling is a one-stage sampling. Here the researcher selects the areas (i.e. clusters) by
Simple Random Sampling and then samples the units from these clusters again by using Simple
Random Sampling or Stratifies Random Sampling.
4. What is multistage sampling?
In multi-stage sampling the researcher proceeds through a number of stages (from a large macro unit
to a small micro unit), selecting a predetermined size of sample from each stage by Simple Random
Sampling (Majumdar 2005).
5. What is sampling error?
Sampling error is the error in the findings deriving from research due to the difference between a
sample and the population from which it is selected.

10. Summary

In quantitative sociological research, sociologists often have to understand the population parameters by
collecting and analyzing data. If the population size is quite large, it becomes impossible to collect data
from each and every member of the population. In such cases, the researchers collect a sample from the
population using standard sampling procedures. There are two types of sampling – probability sampling
and non-probability sampling. Probability sampling ensures the chance for each unit of the population to
be included in the sample. This prevents any kind of bias to creep in the research and thus some sort of
objectivity is guaranteed. On the contrary, in case of non-probability sampling, the selection of sample
units depends to a large extent on the knowledge and expertise of the researchers. One of the advantages
of probability sampling is that sampling error can be measured statistically. However, with the increasing
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Name of Module: Probability Sampling: Principles and Procedures
 popularity of qualitative research in delving the issues concerning social life, the use of probability
sampling is on the decline.

11. Some useful links and e-resources

Digital Library http://www.dli.ernet.in/ The largest digital library in India consisting of over a
of India million books. Many of them from a time long past.

Research http://www.socialresearchme You will find a discussion of different types of sample.

Methods thods.net/kb/sampling.php Some basic concepts related to sampling are also
Knowledge available here.
Base

Jstor http://www.jstor.org/ Digital library of academic journals and books.

Types of http://psychology.ucdavis.ed A detailed discussion of probability and non-

Sample u/faculty_sites/sommerb/som probability sampling will enrich you.
merdemo/sampling/types.ht
m

Explorable https://explorable.com/popul You will be able to gather some additional knowledge

ation-sampling from the material available here.

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Name of Module: Probability Sampling: Principles and Procedures
 12. Glossary
Census Complete enumeration of the population is called census. In census, each and
every member of the population is covered by the study.
Non- Non-probability sampling is a type of sampling in which each member of the
probability population do not have equal chance of being selected in the sample. This
sampling sampling is not based on the theory of probability.
Parameter The value of a variable existing in the population or universe is called parameter.
Population The aggregate of individuals or units from which a sample is drawn is known as
population. It is also called universe.
Probability When each and every member of the population has an equal chance of being
sample selected in the population it is called probability sample.
Qualitative It is a kind of research that focuses on the qualitative aspect of social life,
research particularly on the meanings social actors create through their interactions in
concrete situations. According to Bryman (1988), this kind of research
emphasizes on participant observation, unstructured and in-depth interviewing.
Case study method is also important for qualitative research.
Quantitative Quantitative research focuses on the quantitative aspect of social life through the
research collection and analysis of some numerate statistical data like average age of the
population, average income, dropout rate etc.
Sample Sample is a miniature form of the universe or population which represents the
universe or population.
Sampling Complete list of the population from which sample is drawn. It is also called
frame source list.
Sampling Sampling error is the error that enters into the findings of the research due to
error sampling. It is the difference between population and sample. In census, there is
no sampling error.
Sample unit The elements or individuals who comprise a sample are called sample units.
Source list Complete list of the population from which sample is drawn. It is also called
sampling frame.
Statistic The value of a variable calculated from the sample is called statistic.
Variables are characteristics that can have different values like age, height,
income etc. These can both be qualitative and quantitative. The qualitative
Variables variables like caste, sex are often called attributes. The quantitative variables like
age, income, family size are simply called variables.
Universe The aggregate of individuals or units from which a sample is drawn is known as
universe. It is also called population.

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Name of Paper: Methodology of Research in Sociology
Sociology
Name of Module: Probability Sampling: Principles and Procedures
 13. Bibliography

Babbie, E. The Practice of Social Research. Australia: Thomson Wadsworth, 2004.

Bloor, M. and Wood, F. Key words in Qualitative Methods. London: Sage Publications, 2006.

Bryman, A. Quantity and Quality in Social Research. London: Routledge, 1988.

...... Social Research Methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.

Das, D. K. L. Practice of Social Research. Jaipur: Rawat Publications, 2004.

Hagood, M. J. and Price, D. O. Statistics for Sociologists. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc.,

1952.

Majumdar, P. K. Research Methods in Social Science. New Delhi: Viva Books Pvt. Ltd., 2005.

Neuman, L. W. Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Boston: Pearson
Education Inc., 2007.

Payne, G. and Payne, J. Key Concepts in Social Research. London: Sage Publications, 2005.

Young, P. V. Scientific Social Surveys and Research. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., 1988.

14
Name of Paper: Methodology of Research in Sociology
Sociology
Name of Module: Probability Sampling: Principles and Procedures