metals

Article
Thermo-Mechanical Modelling of Wire-Arc Additive
Manufacturing (WAAM) of Semi-Finished Products
Marcel Graf 1, *, Andre Hälsig 2 , Kevin Höfer 2 , Birgit Awiszus 1 and Peter Mayr 2
1 Institute for Machine Tools and Production Processes, Professorship Virtual Production Engineering,
Chemnitz University of Technology, Reichenhainer Str. 70, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany;
birgit.awiszus@mb.tu-chemnitz.de
2 Institute of Joining and Assembly, Professorship Welding Engineering, Chemnitz University of Technology,
Reichenhainer Str. 70, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany; andre.haelsig@mb.tu-chemnitz.de (A.H.);
kevin.hoefer@mb.tu-chemnitz.de (K.H.); peter.mayr@mb.tu-chemnitz.de (P.M.)
* Correspondence: marcel.graf@mb.tu-chemnitz.de; Tel./Fax: +49-371-531-31796




Received: 23 October 2018; Accepted: 24 November 2018; Published: 1 December 2018


Abstract: Additive manufacturing processes have been investigated for some years, and are
commonly used industrially in the field of plastics for small- and medium-sized series. The use of
metallic deposition material has been intensively studied on the laboratory scale, but the numerical
prediction is not yet state of the art. This paper examines numerical approaches for predicting
temperature fields, distortions, and mechanical properties using the Finite Element (FE) software
MSC Marc. For process mapping, the filler materials G4Si1 (1.5130) for steel, and AZ31 for
magnesium, were first characterized in terms of thermo-physical and thermo-mechanical properties
with process-relevant cast microstructure. These material parameters are necessary for a detailed
thermo-mechanical coupled Finite Element Method (FEM). The focus of the investigations was on the
numerical analysis of the influence of the wire feed (2.5–5.0 m/min) and the weld path orientation
(unidirectional or continuous) on the temperature evolution for multi-layered walls of miscellaneous
materials. For the calibration of the numerical model, the real welding experiments were carried
out using the gas-metal arc-welding process—cold metal transfer (CMT) technology. A uniform
wall geometry can be produced with a continuous welding path, because a more homogeneous
temperature distribution results.

Keywords: wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM); multi-pass welding; FEA; MSC Marc; steel
G4Si1; magnesium AZ31

1. Introduction
Additive manufacturing processes have become very significant in recent years. They have many
advantages in comparison to conventional processes. The production of complex and individual
components is possible with additive manufacturing processes. In principle, the layer by layer
technology can use metals to produce almost any profile. The processes generate components by the
joining of meltable materials, where the geometry is continuously built [1]. Additive manufacturing
processes can also be classified by EN ISO17296-2-2015 into initial material, workpiece size, or energy
source [2]. In addition, metallic additive manufacturing processes are subdivided into powder-bed,
powder-feed, and wire-feed systems [3,4].
Compared to the powder-bed system, wire-based additive manufacturing processes have a higher
deposition rate, use cheaper filler materials, and require lower investment [5]. Additionally, the wire-arc
additive manufacturing (WAAM) process, in combination with a robot, also allows the production
of complex geometries [6–8]. A component manufactured by a wire-based additive manufacturing

Metals 2018, 8, 1009; doi:10.3390/met8121009 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2018, 8, 1009 2 of 10

technique can achieve the tensile strength of a forged or cast complex component [6]. However,
the surface finish and accuracy is poorer than with powder-bed or beam-melting additive
technologies [9]. In order to produce a high-quality product, it is important to determine the
interaction of each process parameter with the component properties (microstructure, residual stresses),
and to combine the process with other production technologies, if necessary [10]. An initial estimate
can be made using numerical methods that take different boundary conditions into consideration.
The current aim of the numerical simulation of additive manufacturing processes is the modelling of a
thermo-mechanical coupled simulation without microstructural properties at mesoscopic level. Various
numerical methods can be applied for this. On the one hand, the volume-of-fluid method is used
for the geometrical prediction—to consider the flow behaviour of the molten wire as a drop, and to
model its solidification and wetting behaviour to the nearest drop [3]. On the other hand, additive
technologies, such as WAAM or wire laser metal deposition (LMD-W), can also be modelled by a Finite
Element (FE) method based on the element-birth technique, for the determination of real temperature
fields and residual stresses. The focus for this simulation of the WAAM process has been on calculating
temperature distribution, displacement of components and residual stresses [11–16]. The focus of this
paper is not on powder-bed methods.

2. FE Model

2.1. Material Data

For a transient thermo-mechanical simulation of the multi-layer welding process, it is essential
that the thermo-physical properties of the filler material be determined, taking the real microstructure
(dendritic microstructure) into consideration, and modelled as a function of the temperature
(see Figure 1) in addition to the real chemical composition. For the investigated filler materials
AZ31 (magnesium alloy) and G4Si1 (steel alloy), the necessary material data were partly taken
from the literature [17] and partly calculated in the JMatPro material simulation software Version
10 (Sente Software Ltd., Guildford, United Kingdom), or identified by experiments. The material
software JMatPro uses thermo-physical and thermo-dynamic correlations and calculations for the
determination of material properties in the material equilibria, under consideration of the chemical
composition [18]. It should be noted that the samples for the physical simulation were eroded
from a welding seam, so a comparable microstructural state to the WAAM process was used in
the characterisation. The physical simulation of the thermal expansion coefficient was determined
in the quenching and forming dilatometer Bähr DIL 805 A/T (Bähr Thermoanalyse GmbH now
TA Instruments, Hüllhorst, Germany). The specific heat capacities were measured by differential
scanning calorimetry. For the characterisation of magnesium and G4Si1, the DSC-60 from Mettler
Toledo (Mettler-Toledo International Inc., Columbus, OH, USA). and the Multi HTC96 from Setaram
(SETARAM Instrumentation, Caluire, France). were used respectively. The experimental data represent
the average of three measurements.
In the case of material data for steel, the point of phase transformation can be detected in
the temperature range of AC1 between 750 ◦ C and 800 ◦ C during the measurement of the specific
heat capacity. Therefore, the real thermal material behaviour is regarded in the Finite Element
Method (FEM).
For a holistic approach to the material behaviour in the numerical simulation, the elastic-plastic
material properties are necessary. Hence, the temperature-dependent Young’s modules (see Figure 2)
and the flow curves (see Figure 3) for both materials under technologically relevant parameters were
also established and implemented in the FE software MSC Marc (MSC Software Corporation now
Hexagon AB, Newport Beach, CA, USA), as tables [14].
 quenching and forming dilatometer Bähr DIL 805 A/T (Bähr Thermoanalyse GmbH now TA
Instruments, Hüllhorst, Germany). The specific heat capacities were measured by differential
scanning calorimetry. For the characterisation of magnesium and G4Si1, the DSC-60 from Mettler
Toledo (Mettler-Toledo International Inc., Columbus, OH, USA). and the Multi HTC96 from Setaram
(SETARAM
Metals Instrumentation, Caluire, France). were used respectively. The experimental 3data
2018, 8, 1009 of 10
represent the average of three measurements.

Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 10

In the case
Materials ofxmaterial
2018, 11, data for steel, the point of phase transformation can be detected
FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of in
10 the
temperature range of AC1 between 750 °C and 800 °C during the measurement of the specific heat
In the case of material data for steel, the point of phase transformation can be detected in the
capacity. Therefore, the real thermal material behaviour is regarded in the Finite Element Method
temperature range of AC1 between 750 °C and 800 °C during the measurement of the specific heat
(FEM).
capacity. Therefore, the real thermal material behaviour is regarded in the Finite Element Method
For a holistic approach to the material behaviour in the numerical simulation, the elastic-plastic
(FEM).
material properties
For a holistic are necessary.
approach to theHence,
material thebehaviour
temperature-dependent Young’s modules
in the numerical simulation, (see Figure
the elastic-plastic
2) and the
material flow curves
properties (see Figure
are necessary. 3) for
Hence, both materials
themagnesium under
temperature-dependent technologically
Young’s relevant
modules parameters
Figure
Figure 1.
1. Thermo-physical
Thermo-physical properties
propertiesof (a)
of (a) magnesium AZ31AZ31
and (b)
andfiller
(b) material G4Si1,(see
filler material
Figure
taken
G4Si1,
were2)also
and established
the
partiallyflow and
curves implemented
(see
from literature Figure 3)
for magnesium in
for the
both FE software
materials
[17], JMatPro MSC
under Marc (MSC
technologically Software
relevant Corporation
parameters
taken partially from literature for magnesium [17], for G4Si1 (calc),
JMatPro and partially
for G4Si1 from
(calc), and experiments
partially from
now were
Hexagon
(exp). AB
also established
, Newport
experiments (exp).
and implemented
Beach, CA, USA ).
inasthetables [14].
FE software MSC Marc (MSC Software Corporation
now Hexagon AB, Newport Beach, CA, USA). as tables [14].
2500000 500000
2500000 G4Si1 500000
G4Si1
Az31
Young's modules in MPa (G4Si1)

Young's modules in MPa (AZ31)

2000000 Az31 400000
Young's modules in MPa (G4Si1)

Young's modules in MPa (AZ31)

2000000 400000

1500000 300000
1500000 300000

1000000
1000000 200000
200000

500000
500000 100000
100000

0 0 0 0
0 150 300 450 600 750 900 1050 1200 1350 1500
0 150 300 450 600 750 900 1050 1200 1350 1500
Temperature in °C
Temperature in °C
Figure 2. Young’s modules as function of temperature for G4Si1 (blue) and AZ31 (orange).
Figure 2. Young’s
Figure modules
2. Young’s asasfunction
modules functionof
of temperature forG4Si1
temperature for G4Si1 (blue)
(blue) and
and AZ31
AZ31 (orange).
(orange).

150 150
900 °C_0.1 s-1 300 °C_0.1 s-1
150 G4Si1 1050 °C_0.1 s-1 150 AZ31 350 °C_0.1 s-1
125 900 °C_0.1 s-1 125 300 °C_0.1 s-1
G4Si1 1150 °C_0.1 s-1
1050 °C_0.1 s-1
AZ31 400 °C_0.1 s-1
350 °C_0.1 s-1
125 125
in MPa
flow stress in MPa

100
1150 °C_0.1 s-1 100
400 °C_0.1 s-1
in MPa
flow stress in MPa

100 100
75 75
flow stress

75 50 75
50
flow stress

50 25 50
25

25 0 0
25
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1

0 equivalent plastic strain 0 equivalent plastic strain

0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1
Figure 3.
Figure 3. Flow
Flow curves
curves
equivalent asas
function
strain of temperature
function
plastic for constant
of temperature strain
for constant rate
strain of 0.1of
rate s‒10.1
equivalent ((left) G4Si1;
s-1 strain
plastic (right)
((left) G4Si1;
AZ31).
(right) AZ31).
Figure 3. Flow curves as function of temperature for constant strain rate of 0.1 s‒1 ((left) G4Si1; (right)
2.2.
2.2. Boundary
Boundary Conditions
AZ31). Conditions
Some
Some numerical studies consider
numerical studies considereach
eachwelding
weldingseam
seamasas rectangular
rectangular cross-sections
cross-sections [11,12,19].
[11,12,19]. In
2.2. Boundary
In
thethe
Conditions
present
present investigation,
investigation, a realistic
a realistic simplified
simplified semi-circular
semi-circular crosscross section
section was modelled
was modelled in MSC
in MSC Marc
Marc
for thefor thelayers,
first first layers,
followedfollowed by a sickle-shape
by a sickle-shape for the subsequent
for theseam
subsequent layers,
layers, each eachby
shifted shifted by the
the [11,12,19].
resulting
Some numerical studies consider each welding as rectangular cross-sections In
resulting offsetto
offset relative relative to the previous
the previous position. position. The number
The number of the layers
of the layers for the wall
thewere the same,
the present investigation, a realistic simplified semi-circular crossfor the wall
section was were same,
modelled in but
MSC theMarc
but the volume
volume depended depended on the
on the wire wire
feed feed (Figure
(Figure 4). Increasing
4). Increasing wire
wire feed feed increased
increased thevolume
the seam seam volume
(cross-
for the first layers, followed by a sickle-shape for the subsequent layers, each shifted by the resulting
section increase) of each layer at constant welding/deposition speed. For the additive tubes, the wire
offset relative to the previous position. The number of the layers for the wall were the same, but the
feed and welding speed were not varied.
volume depended on the wire feed (Figure 4). Increasing wire feed increased the seam volume (cross-
section increase) of each layer at constant welding/deposition speed. For the additive tubes, the wire
feed and welding speed were not varied.
Metals 2018, 8, 1009 4 of 10

(cross-section increase) of each layer at constant welding/deposition speed. For the additive tubes,
the wire2018,
Materials feed11,and welding
x FOR speed were not varied.
PEER REVIEW 4 of 10

Figure 4. Finite
Figure 4. Finite Element
Element (FE)
(FE) models
models with
with the
the mesh:
mesh: (a)
(a) wall
wall with
with wire
wirefeed
feedof
of55m/min;
m/min; (b)
(b) wall
wall with
with
wire feed 2.5 m/min; (c) tube with wire feed 5 m/min.
wire feed 2.5 m/min; (c) tube with wire feed 5 m/min.

Thus, the re-melting of the previous layer can be regarded to have a volume of 40–50% [20].
Thus, the re-melting of the previous layer can be regarded to have a volume of 40–50% [20].
However, the introduced power/heat remained constant, so the temperature field and the thermally
However, the introduced power/heat remained constant, so the temperature field and the thermally
resulting component properties could be simulated. The geometry or volume used for each layer
resulting component properties could be simulated. The geometry or volume used for each layer
mainly depended on the wire diameter, wire feed and welding speed. All welding layers had
mainly depended on the wire diameter, wire feed and welding speed. All welding layers had gluing
gluing contacts between them, for the purposes of observing the heat transfer between them.
contacts between them, for the purposes of observing the heat transfer between them. In order that
In order that the temperature distribution could be calculated properly, the base plate was also
the temperature distribution could be calculated properly, the base plate was also modelled and, on
modelled and, on the lower surface, a heat-transfer coefficient to the welding table was defined by
the lower surface, a heat-transfer coefficient to the welding table was defined by the Thermal Face
the Thermal Face Flux condition (for steel with 2αG4Si1 = 2000 W/m2 /K, and for magnesium with
Flux condition (for steel with αG4Si1 = 2000 W/m /K, and for magnesium with αAZ31 = 100 W/m22/K)
αAZ31 = 100 W/m2 /K) [14,21]. The heat-transfer coefficient to the environment was αair = 35 W/m /K
[14,21]. The heat-transfer coefficient to the environment was αair = 35 W/m2/K for all numerical
for all numerical investigations.
investigations.
In the numerical model, the double-ellipsoidal heat source according to Goldak [22] was
In the numerical model, the double-ellipsoidal heat source according to Goldak [22] was
considered. This is a typical approach for common arc-welding simulations, and replicates the
considered. This is a typical approach for common arc-welding simulations, and replicates the
thermal energy input well [13,14,19,22]. The underlying energy density function subdivides the weld
thermal energy input well [13,14,19,22]. The underlying energy density function subdivides the weld
pool along the welding path (z-axis) into the front (cf ) and rear areas (cr ), and is primarily dominated
pool along the welding path (z-axis) into the front (cf) and rear areas (cr), and is primarily dominated
by the welding power [22].
by the welding power [22].
For the simulation, the geometrical dimension of the melt pool was necessary for modelling the
For the simulation, the geometrical dimension of the melt pool was necessary for modelling the
generated heat flow (see Table 1), which was influenced by the material-specific adjustments (process
generated heat flow (see Table 1), which was influenced by the material-specific adjustments (process
efficiency, current and voltage).
efficiency, current and voltage).
Table 1. Geometric parameters for describing the melt pool.
Table 1. Geometric parameters for describing the melt pool.
Parameter Symbol Unit G4Si1 AZ31
Parameter Symbol Unit G4Si1 AZ31
Wire feed vwire m/min 2.5 5 5
Wire feed vwire m/min 2.5 5 5
Welding speed vwelding cm/min 40 40 40
Welding
Half width speed a vwelding cm/min
mm 40
2 403 40 3
Half width
Depth b a mm
mm 22 33 3 3
Front length
Depth cf b mm
mm 22 32 3 2
Rear length
Front length c r cf mm
mm 32 2 3 2 6
Rear length cr mm 3 3 6
The ‘element birth and death’ method was applied to the investigated deposition process,
The ‘element
for which birthtemperature
the melting and death’ method was applied
was employed as thetoactivation
the investigated deposition
criterion. A melting process,
point for of
ϑwhich the = 630 ◦ C temperature
melting [17] was was
defined employed
for the as
AZ31 the activation
alloy, and criterion.
JMatPro A melting
calculated a point
melting of ϑ
point of
melt,AZ31
melt,AZ31
= 630 °C [17] was ◦ defined for the AZ31 alloy, and JMatPro calculated a melting
ϑmelt,G4Si1 = 1503 C for G4Si1 based on chemical composition [14]. This modelling method deactivates= point of ϑ melt,G4Si1

1503
all °C for of
elements G4Si1 basedseam
the weld on chemical
until the composition
melting point[14]. This modelling
is reached, at whichmethod
point alldeactivates
elements are all
elements of
activated andthetheir
weld seam until
material the melting
properties point is reached,
are considered. at whichispoint
If an element all elements
activated, are activated
it remains
andtotheir
up materialcriteria—here
the defined properties arethe
considered. If an element is activated, it remains activated up to the
melting point.
defined
As incriteria—here the melting
reality, the clamping point.
devices were also taken into account within the FEM by defining a fixed
As in reality,
displacement at thethe clampingposition
appropriate devices to
were also taken
calculate into account
the residual within
stresses, the FEM the
and therefore by defining
distortion, a
fixed
of the displacement at theproducts.
final semi-finished appropriate position to were
All components calculate the with
meshed residual stresses, andisoparametric,
the eight-noded, therefore the
distortion, of the final semi-finished products. All components were meshed with the eight-noded,
isoparametric, three-dimensional brick element type 7 (8-layer wall model with around 150,000
elements, and 46-layer pipe model with around 220,000 elements). For the numerical analyses of the
thermal behaviour of the semi-finished products, the number of elements was reduced in some
Metals 2018, 8, 1009 5 of 10

three-dimensional brick element type 7 (8-layer wall model with around 150,000 elements, and 46-layer
pipe model with around 220,000 elements). For the numerical analyses of the thermal behaviour
of the semi-finished products, the number of elements was reduced in some simulations to reduce
Materials 2018, 11,
computation x FOR
time (thePEER REVIEW
46-layer 5 of 10
tube required 82 h on a 12-core processor). The base plate was meshed
very coarsely compared to the seam.
simulations to reduce computation time (the 46-layer tube required 82 h on a 12-core processor). The
3.base plate was meshed
Experimental Setup very coarsely compared to the seam.
A six-axis robotic
3. Experimental Setuphandling system was used in combination with short-arc controlled gas–metal
arc-welding (GMAW) process. Due to the low heat input combined with the highest possible amount
A six-axis
of filler materialrobotic handling
per time, system
the cold metalwas used(CMT)
transfer in combination with short-arc
welding process controlled
from Fronius gas–metal
International
arc-welding
GmbH (Wels,(GMAW) process.
Austria) was usedDue to WAAM
as the the low process.
heat input combined
Regarding thewith the highest
difference possible
in base amount
material, two
of filler material per time, the cold
types of solid filler material were used: metal transfer (CMT) welding process from Fronius International
GmbH (Wels, Austria) was used as the WAAM process. Regarding the difference in base material,
•two G4Si1 (1.5130)
types of steel material
solid filler with a diameter of 1.2 mm; shielding gas 15 L/min (82% Ar and 18% CO2 )
were used:
•• AZ31 magnesium alloy with a diameter
G4Si1 (1.5130) steel with a diameter of 1.2 of 1.2
mm; mm; shielding
shielding gasgas 15 L/min
15 L/min (82%pure argon.
Ar and 18% CO2)
• During
AZ31 magnesium alloy with a diameter of 1.2 mm; shielding
the investigation, the welding speed was constant (v gas 15 L/min pure argon.
= 40 cm/min) throughout the
welding
experiments,
During the the wire feed vthe
but investigation, varied between
wirewelding speed was 2.5constant
m/min and 5.0 =m/min.
(vwelding The offset
40 cm/min) per layer
throughout the
was set to 1.7 mm, with no intermediate time between the single layers for cooling or to reach
experiments, but the wire feed vwire varied between 2.5 m/min and 5.0 m/min. The offset per layer was a defined
layer
set totemperature.
1.7 mm, withDuring the discontinuous
no intermediate wall welding,
time between there
the single wasfor
layers a break of approximately
cooling 2 s for
or to reach a defined
the robot
layer to move toDuring
temperature. the startthe
position. Various wall
discontinuous samples were thus
welding, thereproduced
was a break (seeofFigure 5):
approximately 2s
for the robot to move to the start position. Various samples were thus produced (see Figure 5):
• 200-mm-long walls with minimum of 20 layers, produced by a continuous process from both
• 200-mm-long walls with minimum of 20 layers, produced by a continuous process from both
sides or by discontinuous welding from one side.
sides or by discontinuous welding from one side.
• Pipes with 20 layers and a diameter of 60 mm, produced by continuous process by a combination
• Pipes with 20 layers and a diameter of 60 mm, produced by continuous process by a combination
of circles, where the z-level shift was done immediately after completing the circle below.
of circles, where the z-level shift was done immediately after completing the circle below.

Figure5.5.Scheme
Figure Schemeof ofthe
thehandling
handlingprocesses
processeswith
withcontinuous
continuous or
ordiscontinuous
discontinuous movement
movement (left
(left side:
side:
wall,right
wall, rightside:
side:pipe).
pipe).

The
Thewelding
weldingparameters
parametersmeasured
measuredwere
werethethe
average current
average andand
current voltage, which
voltage, depended
which on the
depended on
filler material and the wire feed speed:
the filler material and the wire feed speed:
•• G4Si1with
G4Si1 withvvwire
wire =
= 2.5
2.5 m/min
m/minand
andcurrent
currentII==90–110
90–110A,A,voltage
voltageUU==11.5–13
11.5–13V;V;
•• G4Si1with
G4Si1 withvvwire
wire =
= 5.0
5.0 m/min
m/minand
andcurrent
currentII==135–165
135–165A,A,voltage
voltageUU==13–14.5
13–14.5V;V;
•• AZ31 with v
AZ31 with vwire = 2.5 m/min and current I = 35–40 A, voltage U = 9–11V;V;
wire = 2.5 m/min and current I = 35–40 A, voltage U = 9–11
•• AZ31with
AZ31 withvvwire
wire =
= 5.0
5.0 m/min
m/minand
andcurrent
currentII==45–55
45–55A,
A,voltage
voltageUU==11–12
11–12V;V;
To analyse
To analyse the
thetemperature
temperaturelevel, several
level, type-K
several thermocouples
type-K were were
thermocouples integrated into theinto
integrated sample.
the
The drilled thermocouples were pushed into the weld pool immediately after the welding
sample. The drilled thermocouples were pushed into the weld pool immediately after the welding arc. The
recording time of the thermocouples started after the solidification of the filler material. This allowed
the temperature–time behaviour to be analysed for defined layers and positions in the semi-finished
product during welding, cooling, and reheating by the following layers.

4. Simulation and Experiments for WAAM

 Metals 2018, 8, 1009 6 of 10

arc. The recording time of the thermocouples started after the solidification of the filler material.
This allowed the temperature–time behaviour to be analysed for defined layers and positions in the
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER
semi-finished REVIEW
product during welding, cooling, and reheating by the following layers. 6 of 10

The 4. Simulation andof

investigations Experiments
the influencefor WAAM
of weld path orientation and wire feed were carried out for
G4Si1 and AZ31 by using a constant welding
The investigations of the influence speed.
of weld Due
path to the different
orientation materials,
and wire feed different
were carried out forcurrents
G4Si1resulted.
and voltages and AZ31Figure
by using6ashows
constant welding examples.
selected speed. Due to
Inthe differenttomaterials,
contrast different
other studies incurrents
the literature,
and voltages resulted. Figure 6 shows selected examples. In contrast to other studies in the literature,
these investigations represent fast additive manufacturing, because during the layer-by-layer
these investigations represent fast additive manufacturing, because during the layer-by-layer welding
welding there wasnono
there was break
break timetime to achieve
to achieve a specific
a specific intermediate
intermediate layer temperature.
layer temperature.

Figure 6. Figure
Semi-finished products,
6. Semi-finished (a,b)(a,b)
products, wall and
wall and(c,d)
(c,d)pipe, madebyby
pipe, made WAAM
WAAM withwith different
different materials,
materials,
(a,c) G4Si1 and (b,d)
(a,c) G4Si1 and (b,d) AZ31. AZ31.

• G4Si1 Results
• G4Si1 Results
The basis for the calibration of the simulation models used was provided by real measured
The temperature
basis for the calibration
profiles of the simulation
during welding of G4Si1. In models
order to used
be ablewasto provided
validate thebyFEreal measured
model,
thermocouples were placed not only in the weld seam (approx. 50 mm
temperature profiles during welding of G4Si1. In order to be able to validate the FE model,after the beginning or 50 mm
before the end of the seam), but also in the respective base plates, so the defined heat-transfer coefficient
thermocouples were placed not only in the weld seam (approx. 50 mm after the beginning or 50 mm
to the welding table could be verified. In the middle of the 5 mm thick base plates, 25 mm after the
before the end ofofthe
beginning the seam), but also
seam (position in mm
1), 100 the after
respective base of
the beginning plates, so (=middle)
the seam the defined
and 25 heat-transfer
mm
coefficient
before the seam end (position 3), holes with a diameter of 1.6 mm were drilled up to half of the width 25 mm
to the welding table could be verified. In the middle of the 5 mm thick base plates,
after the of
beginning of the
the base plate, seam (position
to measure 1), 100 the
directly in/under mm after the beginning
heat-affected of the seam
zone. The measured (=middle) and
and simulated
temperature
25 mm before profiles
the seam end for (position
G4Si1 are shown in Figure
3), holes with7 a(FEM used a 6-layer
diameter of 1.6 wall
mmmodel;
were the experiment
drilled up to half of
used a 15-layer wall). It was not always possible to insert the thermocouples at the same position
the width of the base plate, to measure directly in/under the heat-affected zone. The measured and
for the measurement, because it was done manually. In any case, this had no negative impact on the
simulatedcalibration
temperature
of the profiles
FEM. for G4Si1 are shown in Figure 7 (FEM used a 6-layer wall model; the
experiment used a 15-layer
The aim wall). It the
was to investigate wasinfluence
not always
of thepossible to movement
handling or insert thetechnology
thermocouples at the same
numerically
position for the measurement, because it was done manually. In any case, this had no negative impact
using the calibrated FE model (see Figure 8).
on the calibration of the FEM.
25 mm before the seam end (position 3), holes with a diameter of 1.6 mm were drilled up to half of
the width of the base plate, to measure directly in/under the heat-affected zone. The measured and
simulated temperature profiles for G4Si1 are shown in Figure 7 (FEM used a 6-layer wall model; the
experiment used a 15-layer wall). It was not always possible to insert the thermocouples at the same
position for the measurement, because it was done manually. In any case, this had no negative impact
Metals 2018, 8, 1009 7 of 10
on the calibration of the FEM.

Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 10

Figure
The
Figure 7.
aim Comparison
7. was of measured
measured
to investigate
Comparison of (solid line)
the influence
(solid line)
of the and
and simulated
handling (dotted
or (dotted
simulated movement line) technology
line) temperatures of
of the
temperaturesnumerically
the
discontinuous welding
welding process
process for
for G4Si1
using the calibrated FE model (see Figure 8).
discontinuous G4Si1 with
with vvwire
wire
=
= 5.0
5.0 m/min
m/min and
and v vwelding
welding = =
40 40 cm/min.
cm/min.

Figure 8. Comparison
Figure 8. Comparison of measured and
of measured and simulated
simulated temperatures
temperatures depending
depending on
on welding
welding orientation
orientation
for G4Si1 with v = 5.0 m/min and v = 40 cm/min: (a) discontinuous/unidirectional;
for G4Si1 with vwire = 5.0 m/min and vwelding = 40 cm/min: (a) discontinuous/unidirectional;
wire welding (b)
continuous/multidirectional.
(b) continuous/multidirectional.

The continuous process was significantly faster, because there was no need to move back to the
subsequent starting position after finishing the welding welding of of each
each layer.
layer. The comparison between
simulation and experiment shows—particularly
shows—particularly in in the
the tests with steel filler material—that the
maximum temperature
temperaturecannotcannotreally
reallybebeidentified,
identified,because
because thethe
thermocouples
thermocouples were notnot
were designed
designedfor
the melting
for the point
melting of the
point ofsteel, and the
the steel, andinertia of theof
the inertia measuring sensors
the measuring meantmeant
sensors they did notdid
they even notrecord
even
the short-term
record maximum
the short-term maximumtemperature. However,
temperature. the thermocouples
However, the thermocouples werewerevery very
important
importantfor the
for
description
the description of the cooling
of the cooling and reheating
and reheating behaviour
behaviour ofofeach
eachlayer.
layer.Thereby,
Thereby,the the thermal
thermal behaviour
could be detected and compared with the simulated results. The analysis of the temperatures in the
base plate shows that the thermal cycle oscillates more at the lower layer level. During During the
the processes,
processes,
the heating and cooling lay on a near steady state level, because the heat-affected zone was moved to
higher layers and an increasing heat flow took took place
place via
via the
the outside
outside of of the
the wall.
wall.
The quality of the FE results compared to the real tests was good in all cases. One result is that
the welding orientation has an influence on the temperature profile and the wall geometry. During
continuous multi-layered welding, the beginning and the end—depending on position—are exposed
to the
the heat
heat input
inputtwice
twicewithin
withina ashort
shorttime
time and
and this input
this inputis symmetrical
is symmetrical in both sides.
in both In contrast,
sides. the
In contrast,
welding
the weldingspeed and and
speed locallocal
heatheat
inputinput
in discontinuous
in discontinuous welding is theissame
welding in each
the same in layer, but the
each layer, butweld
the
is notissymmetrical.
weld not symmetrical.The The
basebase
layerlayer
is colder at the
is colder beginning
at the beginning of of
the
theweld.
weld.As Asaaresult,
result, the
the wetting
behaviour isisdecreased
decreasedand andthethe viscosity
viscosity is higher.
is higher. The build-up
The local local build-up ratez-direction
rate in the in the z-direction is
is therefore
therefore
high. Duringhigh.welding,
During welding, the base
the base layer getslayer getsSimultaneously,
hotter. hotter. Simultaneously,
the heat the heat accumulation
accumulation at the endat
the endhighest.
is the is the highest.
Since Since the welding
the welding powerpower is constant,
is constant, thetheweldweld actsononaacontinuously
acts continuously increasing
base-material temperature level. The wetting behaviour therefore increases and the viscosity
decreases. The local build-up rate in the upwards direction is therefore lower. The real samples
therefore look different depending on the welding path direction, especially at the beginning, or
rather, the end (see Figure 9).
Metals 2018, 8, 1009 8 of 10

base-material temperature level. The wetting behaviour therefore increases and the viscosity decreases.
The local build-up rate in the upwards direction is therefore lower. The real samples therefore look
different depending on the welding path direction, especially at the beginning, or rather, the end
(see Figure 9).
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 10
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 10

Figure 9. Comparison
Comparisonof geometry
geometrydepending onon
thethe
welding orientation, (a) (a)
discontinuous andand
(b)
Figure
Figure 9.
9. Comparison ofofgeometry depending
depending on the welding
welding orientation,
orientation, discontinuous
(a) discontinuous and (b)
continuous, with v = 2.5 m/min and v = 40 cm/min for G4Si1.
(b) continuous, vwirevwire
with = 2.5=m/min
2.5 m/min
and vand v = 40 cm/min
= 40 cm/min for G4Si1.
wire welding
continuous, with weldingwelding for G4Si1.

•• AZ31
AZ31 Results
AZ31Results
Results
In addition
additiontoto
In addition the
tothe walls,
thewalls,
walls, multi-layered
multi-layered tubes
tubes
multi-layered were
were
tubes alsoalso
were produced
produced
also and
and numerically
and numerically
produced simulated
simulated
numerically using
simulated
using
WAAM WAAM technology.
technology. In In
Figure Figure
10, 10,
the the temperature
temperature profiles
profiles are are compared
compared between
between
using WAAM technology. In Figure 10, the temperature profiles are compared between experiment experiment
experiment and
and
and numerical simulation, based on the example of AZ31. However, the simulation was carried out
numerical
numerical simulation,
simulation, basedbased
on on
the the example
example of of
AZ31.AZ31. However,
However, the the simulation
simulation was was carried
carried out with
out
with
only only
with 10 10
10 layers,
layers,
only whereas
layers, whereas the
the experiment
the experiment
whereas had 20
experiment had 20
20 layers.
layers.
had layers.

Figure 10. Comparison of measured (solid line) and simulated (dotted line) temperature for AZ31 in
Figure 10.
Figure 10. Comparison
Comparison of of measured
measured (solid
(solid line)
line) and
and simulated
simulated (dotted
(dotted line)
line) temperature
temperature for
for AZ31
AZ31 in
in
the base plate and layer 6 with vwire = 5.0 m/min and vwelding = 40 cm/min.
and layer
the base plate and layer 66 with
with vvwire
wire ==5.0
5.0m/min
m/minand andvwelding = 40= cm/min.
vwelding 40 cm/min.

On the
On the one
one hand,
one hand, there
hand, there is
is aaa minimal
there is minimal time
minimal time difference
time difference between
difference between
between thethe experimental
the experimental and
experimental and numerical
and numerical
numerical
results. This partly results from the inconsistent time steps of the recording device,
results. This partly results from the inconsistent time steps of the recording device, which did which did not
not
achieve the set measuring rate of 0.025 s. However, in the simulation, the boundary
achieve the set measuring rate of 0.025 s. However, in the simulation, the boundary conditions were conditions were
ideal and
ideal and constant.
constant. The
The small
The small deviations
small deviations in
deviations in the
in the temperature
the temperature level,
temperature level, as
level, as well
as well as
well as in
as in the
the reaction
reaction time,
time,
resulted mainly from the
from the
resulted mainly from inertia
the inertia
inertia of of the
of the thermocouples.
thethermocouples. Nevertheless,
thermocouples. Nevertheless, summarising
Nevertheless, summarising all temperature
summarising all temperature
temperature
curves, aa high
curves, high accuracy
accuracy and consistency
accuracy and consistency between
consistency between them
between them can
them can be
can be seen.
be seen.
seen.

5.
5. Conclusions
Conclusions
The
The experimental
experimental and
and numerical
numerical investigations
investigations on
on walls
walls and
and tubes
tubes of
of G4Si1
G4Si1 and
and AZ31,
AZ31, using
using
CMT for WAAM, have shown that the welding orientation has a critical influence on the temperature
CMT for WAAM, have shown that the welding orientation has a critical influence on the temperature
field
field as
as well
well as
as on
on the
the component
component geometry.
geometry. The
The aim
aim was
was the
the experimental,
experimental, but
but especially
especially the
the
numerical, investigations of welding parameters and their influence on temperature development.
numerical, investigations of welding parameters and their influence on temperature development.
Metals 2018, 8, 1009 9 of 10

5. Conclusions
The experimental and numerical investigations on walls and tubes of G4Si1 and AZ31, using CMT
for WAAM, have shown that the welding orientation has a critical influence on the temperature field
as well as on the component geometry. The aim was the experimental, but especially the numerical,
investigations of welding parameters and their influence on temperature development. For realistic
numerical simulation, all temperature-dependent material data were first determined without database
material but with samples, which have comparable microstructure to the WAAM process. On the basis
of these thermal material behaviours followed modelling, and then final implementation in the MSC
Marc software. Based on this, it was possible to simulate the temperature profile in the semi-finished
products very well, when the seam geometry and heat source according to Goldak were defined.
Purely for convenience, the welding table was not modelled, but its heat-transfer coefficient was taken
into account. The simulated temperatures in the components can be the basis for the prediction of
distortion, residual stresses and, if necessary, coupling to microstructural phenomena (e.g., multiple
phase transformation according to t8-5 -time for steel grades). These effects are being analysed and
described in ongoing research work.

Author Contributions: M.G., A.H. and K.H. designed and realized the experiments; A.H. and K.H. identified
and modeled the material properties; M.G. made the numerical simulation of WAAM processes; M.G. wrote the
paper; B.A. and P.M. are the project coordinators and supervisors.
Funding: This research was funded by German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) grant number 57347629.
Acknowledgments: These results are part of the subproject “Digital Engineering in Different Cultures” from the
German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) project “Higher Education Dialogue with People from Islamic
Countries”. The authors thank DAAD for the financial support. The authors thank also the colleagues from the
Institute of Metal Forming and Professorship of Technical Thermodynamics of TU Bergakademie Freiberg for
their support with material characterization.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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