LESSON 3: MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND LOCATION

UNIT 1 – NOTATIONS AND SYMBOLS

Introduction:
A simple method for indicating the sum of a finite (ending) number of terms in a sequence
is the summation notation. This involves the Greek letter sigma, Σ. When using the sigma
notation, the variable defined below the Σ is called the index of summation. The lower number
is the lower limit of the index (the term where the summation starts), and the upper number is the
upper limit of the summation (the term where the summation ends).

Learning Objectives:
After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. identify common statistical notations.
2. compute the summation of certain variables.

Course Materials:
Statistics involves summation of several numbers, which necessitates the use of
symbols to express numerical ideas, minimizing the excessive use of words. The symbols used
are referred to as standard notation.

SUMMATION
The capital Greek letter sigma ∑ is used in mathematics to indicate the
summation of a set of addends.
𝑛

The ∑𝑥
𝑖=1
reads “ the summation of x; i is from 1 to n”

Examples:

a. ∑𝑖
𝑖=1

Solution:
By letting x take on successive value from 1 to 6, we obtain
6

∑𝑖
𝑖=1 = 1+2+3+4+5+6 = 21
 5
1
b. ∑( )
𝑖
𝑖=1

Solution:
By letting x take on successive value from 0 to 5, we obtain
5
1
∑( ) 1 1 1 1 137
𝑖
𝑖=1 =1+ + + + =
2 3 4 5 60

PROPERTIES OF SUMS

A. Sum of the Product of a Constant and Variable

𝒏 𝒏

∑(𝒄𝒙𝒊 ) = 𝒄 ∑(𝒙𝒊 )
𝒊=𝟏 𝒊=𝟏

c is a constant

B. Sum of a Constant
𝒏

∑(𝒄𝒊 ) = 𝒄𝟏 + 𝒄𝟐 + 𝒄𝟑 + … … + 𝒄𝒏
𝒊=𝟏

C. Summation of Sum
𝒏

∑(𝒙𝒊 + 𝒚𝒊 ) = (𝒙𝟏 + 𝒚𝟏 ) + (𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 ) + (𝒙𝟑 + 𝒚𝟑 ) + … … . + (𝒙𝒏 + 𝒚𝒏 )

𝒊=𝟏

D. Summation of a Variable and a Constant

𝒏 𝒏

∑(𝒙𝒊 + 𝒄) = ∑ 𝒙𝒊 + 𝒏𝒄
𝒊=𝟏 𝒊=𝟏

E. Sum of the Squares Variables

𝒏

∑(𝒙𝟐𝒊 ) = 𝒙𝟐𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐𝟑 + … … + 𝒙𝟐𝒏

𝒊=𝟏
 F. Sum of a Product

∑(𝒙𝒊 )(𝒚𝒊 ) = (𝒙𝟏 )(𝒚𝟏 ) + (𝒙𝟐 )(𝒚𝟐 ) + (𝒙𝟑 )(𝒚𝟑 ) + … … + (𝒙𝒏 )(𝒚𝒏 )
𝒊=𝟏

Watch:
 Summation Formulas and Sigma Notation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XJkIaw2e1Pw
LESSON 3: MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND LOCATION
UNIT 2 – CENTRAL TENDENCY

Introduction:
Central Tendency is the point about which the scores tend to cluster. It is the center of
concentration of scores in any set of data. It is single number that represents the general level of
performance of a group.

Learning Objectives:
After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. calculate the mean, mode, median and range for a set of discrete data
2. determine the appropriate measure of central tendency for a given set of data.
3. discuss the characteristics and uses of mean, median and mode.

Course Material:
̅) is the average of the set of data. It is the center of the gravity of a
Mean (𝒙
distribution. (Ungrouped data)
∑𝑥
̅=
𝒙
𝑛

Suppose we have the data below, what is the mean?

65 55 89 56 35 14 56 55 87 45 92

65 + 55 + 89 + 56 + 35 + 14 + 56 + 55 + 87 + 45 + 92
̅=
𝒙
11

̅ = 𝟓𝟗
𝒙
Grouped Data

∑ 𝑓𝑥
̅=
𝒙
𝑛
Where:
f = frequency x = class marks n = number of samples
Example:
 Class Intervals Frequency Class Mark fx

80-84 1 82 82
75-79 1 77 77
70-74 1 72 72
65-69 4 67 268
60-64 4 62 248
55-59 7 57 399
50-54 6 52 312
45-49 6 47 282
40-44 6 42 252
35-39 3 37 111
30-34 0 32 0
25-29 1 27 27
n = 40 2130

∑ 𝑓𝑥
̅=
𝒙
𝑛
2130
̅=
𝒙
40
̅ = 53.25
𝒙

̃) is a positional value. It is the midpoint of the distribution when data

Median ( 𝒙
are ranked according to size. (Ungrouped data)
In order to calculate the median, suppose we have the data below:
65 55 89 56 35 14 56 55 87 45 92

We first need to rearrange that data into order of magnitude (smallest first):

14 35 45 55 55 56 56 65 87 89 92

Our median mark is the middle mark - in this case, 56 (highlighted in bold). It is the
middle mark because there are 5 scores before it and 5 scores after it. This works fine when
you have an odd number of scores, but what happens when you have an even number of
scores? What if you had only 10 scores? Well, you simply have to take the middle two scores
and average the result. So, if we look at the example below:

65 55 89 56 35 14 56 55 87 45

We again rearrange that data into order of magnitude (smallest first):

14 35 45 55 55 56 56 65 87 89

Only now we have to take the 5th and 6th score in our data set and average them to get
a median of 55.5.

Grouped Data
𝒏
−𝑭 ≤
̃ = 𝑳𝑳𝑹 + [𝟐
𝒙 ]×𝒊
𝒇

Where: f = frequency
𝐿𝐿𝑅 = lower real limit n = sample
𝐹 ≤ = cumulative less than frequency i = class size
Example
Class
Class
Frequency Boundaries ≤ CF
Intervals
lower
80-84 1 79.5 40
75-79 1 74.5 39
70-74 1 69.5 38
65-69 4 64.5 37
60-64 4 59.5 33
55-59 7 54.5 29
50-54 6 49.5 22
45-49 6 44.5 16
40-44 6 39.5 10
35-39 3 34.5 4
30-34 0 29.5 1
25-29 1 24.5 1
 n = 40
40
Since = 20, then find the possible position of 20 in the cumulative frequency. And it
2

will fall under 22 which has the interval of 50-54.

Using the interval (50-54)
Given:

𝐿𝐿𝑅 = 49.5 n = 40
𝐹 ≤ = 16 i=5
f=6

𝒏
−𝑭 ≤
̃ = 𝑳𝑳𝑹 + [𝟐
𝒙 ]×𝒊
𝒇

𝟒𝟎
− 𝟏𝟔
̃ = 𝟒𝟗. 𝟓 + [ 𝟐
𝒙 ]×𝟓
𝟔

̃ = 𝟓𝟐. 𝟖𝟑
𝒙

̂) is a frequency value. It is the value that occurs most frequently. (Ungrouped data)
Mode ( 𝒙

Suppose we have the data below, what is the mean?

65 55 89 56 35 14 55 55 87 45 92

We first need to rearrange that data into order of magnitude (smallest first):

14 35 45 55 55 55 56 65 87 89 92

The most frequent number in a given set of data is 55.

Grouped Data

𝒅𝒖
̃ = 𝑳𝑳𝑹 + [
𝒙 ]×𝒊
𝒅𝒖 + 𝒅𝒍
Where:

𝐿𝐿𝑅 = lower real limit

du = difference between the highest frequency and the frequency of the interval below it.
dl = difference between the highest frequency and the frequency of the interval above it.
i = class size
Example

Class Intervals Frequency

80-84 1
75-79 1
70-74 1
65-69 4
60-64 4
55-59 7
50-54 6
45-49 6
40-44 6
35-39 3
30-34 0
25-29 1
n = 40

Since the highest frequency in the given grouped data is 7, then the interval; 55-59 will be
used.
Solution
𝒅𝒖
̃ = 𝑳𝑳𝑹 + [
𝒙 ]×𝒊
𝒅𝒖 + 𝒅𝒍
Given:
𝐿𝐿𝑅 = 54.5
du = (7-6) = 1
dl = (7-4) = 3
i=5
 𝟏
̃ = 𝟓𝟒. 𝟓 + [
𝒙 ]×𝟓
𝟏+𝟑
̃ = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟕𝟓
𝒙

Watch:
 Mode, Median, Mean, Range, and Standard Deviation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mk8tOD0t8M0

Read:
 Data Description
Bluman, A. G. (2012). Descriptive and Inferential Statistics. In Bluman, A. G.,
ELEMENTARY STATISTICS: A STEP BY STEP APPROACH, EIGHT EDITION (pp.
105-116). New York: McGraw-Hill Education
LESSON 3: MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND LOCATION
UNIT 3 – MEASURES OF LOCATION

Introduction:
There are measures of position or location. These measures include standard scores,
percentiles, deciles, and quartiles. They are used to locate the relative position of a data value in
the data set. For example, if a value is located at the 80th percentile, it means that 80% of the
values fall below it in the distribution and 20% of the values fall above it. The median is the value
that corresponds to the 50th percentile, since one-half of the values fall below it and onehalf of
the values fall above it.

Learning Objectives:
After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Identify the position of a data value in a data set, using various measures of position,
such as percentiles, deciles, and quartiles.

Course Material:
The measures of position or Quantiles are used to describe the location of a
specific of data in relation to the rest of the sample.

a. Quartiles are number values of the variables that divide the ranked data into quarters
(four). Each set data has 3 quartiles.
UNGROUPED DATA
𝒊 (𝒏 + 𝟏)
𝑸𝒊 =
𝟒
Where:
𝑄𝑖 = quartile n = number scores i = position
Example.
Given the data, 26 51 44 23 25 61 45 65 23 43 41 55. Find Q 3.
𝑸𝟑
Solution:
Arrange data, 23 23 25 26 41 43 44 45 51 55 61 65
𝟑 (𝟏𝟐 + 𝟏)
𝑸𝟑 =
𝟒
𝟑𝟗
𝑸𝟑 =
𝟒
 𝑸𝟑 = 𝟗. 𝟕𝟓 𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟎
GROUPED DATA

𝒏
𝒑( ) − 𝑭 ≤
𝑸𝒑 = 𝑳𝑳𝑹 + ( 𝟒 )𝒊
𝒇

Where:
𝑄𝑝 =quartile 𝐹 ≤ = cumulative frequency (less than)
𝐿𝐿𝑅 = lower limit 𝑖 = class size
𝑓 = frequency p =part
𝑛 = sample

Example. Find Q3
Class
Class ≤ CF
Frequency Boundaries
Intervals
lower
80-84 1 79.5 40
75-79 1 74.5 39
70-74 1 69.5 38
65-69 4 64.5 37
60-64 4 59.5 33
55-59 7 54.5 29
50-54 6 49.5 22
45-49 6 44.5 16
40-44 6 39.5 10
35-39 3 34.5 4
30-34 0 29.5 1
25-29 1 24.5 1
n = 40
n 𝟑(𝟒𝟎)
First find the p( ), which is = 30. Then identify the class interval where 30 falls ( focus
4 𝟒

on cumulative frequency, in what frequency will 30 falls). In the given table 30 will fall under the
interval of 60-64.
 𝒏
𝒑( ) − 𝑭 ≤
𝑸𝒑 = 𝑳𝑳𝑹 + ( 𝟒 )𝒊
𝒇

𝟑𝟎 − 𝟐𝟗
𝑸𝟑 = 𝟓𝟗. 𝟓 + ( )𝟓
𝟒
𝑸𝟑 = 𝟔𝟎. 𝟕𝟓
b. Deciles are number values of the variable that divide a set of ranked data into 10 equal
parts. Each set of data has 9 deciles.
UNGROUPED DATA
𝒊 (𝒏 + 𝟏)
𝑫𝒊 =
𝟏𝟎
𝐷𝑖 = decile n = number scores i =part
Example.
Given the data, 26 51 44 23 25 61 45 65 23 43 41 55. Find D 8.

Solution:
Arrange data, 23 23 25 26 41 43 44 45 51 55 61 65

𝟖 (𝟏𝟐 + 𝟏)
𝑫𝟖 =
𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟒
𝑫𝟖 =
𝟏𝟎
𝑫𝟖 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟒 𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟎

GROUPED DATA
𝒏
( )−𝑭 ≤
𝑫𝒑 = 𝑳𝑳𝑹 + ( 𝟏𝟎 )𝒊
𝒇

Where:
𝐷𝑝 = decile 𝐹 ≤ = cumulative frequency (less than)
𝐿𝐿𝑅 = lower limit 𝑖 = class size
𝑓 = frequency p =part
𝑛 = sample

Example. Find D8
 Class
Class ≤ CF
Frequency Boundaries
Intervals
lower
80-84 1 79.5 40
75-79 1 74.5 39
70-74 1 69.5 38
65-69 4 64.5 37
60-64 4 59.5 33
55-59 7 54.5 29
50-54 6 49.5 22
45-49 6 44.5 16
40-44 6 39.5 10
35-39 3 34.5 4
30-34 0 29.5 1
25-29 1 24.5 1
n = 40

n 𝟖(𝟒𝟎)
First find the p( ), which is = 32. Then identify the class interval where 32 fall ( focus
10 𝟏𝟎

on cumulative frequency, in what frequency will 32 falls). In the given table 32 will fall under the
interval of 60-64.
𝒏
𝒑( )−𝑭≤
𝑫𝒑 = 𝑳𝑳𝑹 + ( 𝟏𝟎 )𝒊
𝒇

𝟑𝟐 − 𝟐𝟗
𝑫𝟖 = 𝟓𝟗. 𝟓 + ( )𝟓
𝟏𝟎
𝑫𝟖 = 𝟔𝟏

c. Percentiles are number values of the variable that divide a set of ranked data into 100
equal parts. Each set of data has 99 percentiles.
UNGROUPED DATA
𝒊 (𝒏 + 𝟏)
𝑷𝒊 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑃𝑖 = percentile n = number scores i = part
Example.
Given the data, 26 51 44 23 25 61 45 65 23 43 41 55. Find P75.
Solution:
𝑷𝟕𝟓
Arrange data, 23 23 25 26 41 43 44 45 51 55 61 65
𝟕𝟓 (𝟏𝟐 + 𝟏)
𝑷𝟕𝟓 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟗𝟕𝟓
𝑷𝟕𝟓 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝟕𝟓 = 𝟗. 𝟕𝟓 𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟎

GROUPED DATA
𝒏
𝒑( )−𝑭 ≤
𝑷𝒑 = 𝑳𝑳𝑹 + ( 𝟏𝟎𝟎 )𝒊
𝒇

Where:
𝑃 =percentile
𝐿𝐿𝑅 = lower limit
𝑓 = frequency
𝑛 = sample
𝐹 ≤ = cumulative frequency (less than)
𝑖 = class size
p =part
Example. Find P75
Class
≤ CF
Class Intervals Frequency Boundaries
lower
80-84 1 79.5 40
75-79 1 74.5 39
70-74 1 69.5 38
65-69 4 64.5 37
60-64 4 59.5 33
55-59 7 54.5 29
50-54 6 49.5 22
45-49 6 44.5 16
40-44 6 39.5 10
35-39 3 34.5 4
30-34 0 29.5 1
25-29 1 24.5 1
n = 40

n 𝟕𝟓(𝟒𝟎)
First find the p( ), which is = 30. Then identify the class interval where 30 fall (
100 𝟏𝟎𝟎

focus on cumulative frequency, in what frequency will 30 falls). In the given table 30 will fall under
the interval of 60-64.
𝒏
𝒑( )−𝑭 ≤
𝑷𝒑 = 𝑳𝑳𝑹 + ( 𝟏𝟎𝟎 )𝒊
𝒇

𝟑𝟎 − 𝟐𝟗
𝑷𝟕𝟓 = 𝟓𝟗. 𝟓 + ( )𝟓
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝟕𝟓 = 𝟓𝟗. 𝟓𝟓
Watch:
 Percentiles, Quantiles and Quartiles in Statistics

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ky7QeVgv-BA
Read:
 Measures of Position
Bluman, A. G. (2012). Descriptive and Inferential Statistics. In Bluman, A. G.,
ELEMENTARY STATISTICS: A STEP BY STEP APPROACH, EIGHT EDITION (pp.
143-152). New York: McGraw-Hill Education