UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, JAMAICA

Faculty of Science and Sport

PHYSICS FOR COMPUTER STUDIES

(PHS1019)

LABORATORY MANUAL

Authors: N. Israel & L. McLish

Table of Contents
EXPERIMENT 1 11
EXPERIMENT 2 12
EXPERIMENT 3 13
EXPERIMENT 4 15
EXPERIMENT 5 17
EXPERIMENT 6 18
EXPERIMENT 7 19
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A few individuals contributed to this manual in some way. Mr Clive Simpson and Mr Chadwick Costley
both helped with testing the experiments in this manual to see that they can be performed smoothly.
They also both contributed to the ideas of the heating and cooling experiment in this manual. Mr Herter
Simpson reviewed and provided useful feedback on the experiments in this manual.
General format for writing up lab report
1. Student data - Name, ID#, Institution, Course of Study, Module, Module Code
2. Experiment Data: Title, Lab #
3. Labelled diagram as necessary.
4. Tabulated results – proper title and units
5. Graphs – Title, label axes, relevant symbols and units
6. Calculation - indicate relevant formulae and units..
7. Answers to questions.
8. Discussion/Conclusion – include specify sources of errors that may have affected the results.

Preparation for lab classes

Read the experiment from the lab manual before entering the lab. It will also be important to read the
relevant sections of the text along with any other literature on the experiment. This enables the you the
student to be completely familiar with the experiment and allows very smooth operation of the lab.
There will be no time allowed during the session to read the experiment. Failure to conduct adequate
preparation often leads to poor experiment and low grades.

General behaviour

1) Radios tapes and CD players are not allowed in the laboratory.

2) All cellular phones must be turned off during the lab session.

3) Students must not touch any equipment other than that involved in the experiment that they are
doing.

4) Visitors are not allowed to attend the class without the permission of the instructor.

5) All possible care must be taken with apparatus. A student will be called upon to pay for
anything broken as a result of carelessness, or mislaid during the period he/she is doing the
experiment. The apparatus is checked after each class and students will be held responsible for
anything found missing or broken.
Attendance

Prompt attendance at the specified hour is required. Each student is required to sign an attendance
register on entering the lab. No student is allowed to sign for another. Students must remain until the
end of the period unless they have written up the experiment completely and to the satisfaction of the
lecturer.

1) No student will be allowed to remain in the laboratory beyond the specified time for any reason
whatsoever.

2) Absence is excused only on medical grounds. In this case the student should obtain a medical
certificate to be shown to the lecturer in charge of the laboratory. Otherwise zero marks will be
awarded for the missed experiment.

3) The laboratory will not be open and experiments may not be performed outside of the
scheduled class hours.

Errors and order of accuracy

The errors in a particular experiment may be due to the observer, or to the instrument used or to a
combination of both. They may also be present by the very nature of the experiment; for example, the
heat lost by cooling in an experiment causes an error in the final temperature obtained. Special
techniques (precautions) can minimize or eliminate errors. An uncertainty or error in an experiment
maybe classified as follows:

1) Mistakes: These can be avoided by careful experimentation and occurs in reading

Instruments counting events, writing results or doing calculations.

2) Systematic Errors: This type of error affects a set of reading in the same manner. It may be due
to experimental technique or faulty apparatus.

3) Random Errors: If several measurements of a quantity are made as precise as possible each
reading will differ haphazardly from each other. This is called a random error and arises because
each reading is limited by uncontrollable factors, so that no two measurements are ever carried out
in exactly the same way .As a result of errors, an estimate of its precision should be included
whenever a result is presented. Although approximate, without such an estimate the result is
meaningless, since the reader has no idea of its reliability.

Graphical methods in physics:

The presentation of experimental results or theories in the form of a graph has two main advantages:

1) the variation of one quantity with another may be seen easily, and
2) the average value of a constant may be determined from the graph.

Before looking at graphs in detail you should realize that certain guidelines should be followed when
plotting graphs.

1) The axes should be labelled with both the quantity and units
 2) The graph should be given a title.
3) It should fill the space available on the graph paper or page as far as possible
4) Suitable scales should be chosen – something like 5 squares to 10 units, not 7 to 3!
5) The points should be plotted accurately and clearly.
6) The best fit line to the points should be drawn clearly but finely.

Probably the most useful form of graph is one in the form of a straight line and so we will begin by
considering this type.
y = mx + c (Equation)

This is the general equation for a straight line, where y and x are variables and m and c are constants. A
general example of the graph produced by such an equation is shown in figure 1. You should notice the
following points:

(a) When x = 0 the intercept on the y-axis is c.

(b) When y = 0 the intercept on the x-axis is –c/m.
(c) The slope of the line (the change in y with x (dy/dx) is m.

C
x
m

Figure 1
There are of course a large number of graphs but we will consider just a few other basic types. The
equations and the relevant graphs are shown below.

y = mx2 + c (figure 2)

This is a basic quadratic; if c = 0 the graph passes through the origin. An example of this would be the
variation of the kinetic energy of a body with its velocity.

y = Kex (Figure. 3) x
This shows an exponential increase in y with respect to x; k is a constant. An example of this would be
the increase in the pressure of air with depth.
y

x
-x
y = ke (Figure 4)
A rather more common form is the exponential decrease of y with respect to x. Once again k is a
constant. This equation applies to radioactive decay the discharge of a capacitor and many other
physical phenomena

y k

Figure 4
It is much more useful to plot the results of an experiment in the form of a straight line and so a means
has to be found by which the equations above can be altered to give a linear relation between function
of y and a function of x. This is quite simply done:

For y = mx2 + c: plot y against x2

 y

x2
Figure 5

For y = kex : plot y against ex (figure 6)

y y

ex

Figure 1

For y = ke-x: plot y against e-x (figure 7)

y
y

k
k

e-x
e-x
Figure 7

For y = kecx (figure 8)

Here c is another constant. Taking natural loss gives: In y = 1nk + cx

Plotting 1n y against x gives a straight line with slope c and intercept on the ln y axis of ln k (figure 8)
 ln y

gradient = c

ln k

x
Figure 8

Notice that if we have an exponential decrease, c is negative.

An alternative method is to take logs of both sides of the equation; this is also useful when one is
attempting to derive an unknown equation form a set of experimental results. We will consider first
two versions where the equation is known and then one where it is not.

y = kx2
Taking logs gives:
Log y = log k + 2 log
x

Plotting log y against log x (figure 9) will give a straight line of slope 2, with intercept on the log y axis
of log k.

log y

gradient = 2

log k

log x

Figure 9

For y = axb (fig 10)

Here a and b are constants but both are unknowns. Once again take logs of both sides
Log y = log a +b log x
Plotting log y against log x will give a straight line of slope b and intercept on the log y-axis of log a.
Hence both a and b may be found and the form of the equation determined.
log y

gradient
=b

log
a

log x
 EXPERIMENT: 1

TOPIC: LABORATORY INSTRUMENTS

AIM: To gain proficiency in the use of basic laboratory instruments.

DISCUSSION

Scientific measurements have progressed to a high state of refinement. However it is still not
possible, and never will be, to make exact measurements, because all measurements are made
with instruments that have an inherent degree of error. The error associated with a measuring
instrument is usually taken as a half of the smallest division or the smallest division. For this
course the errors involved in measurements will be taken as the smallest division on our
measuring instrument. The amount of error is reflected in the uncertainty of the measurement.
In this experiment you will become familiar with several measuring instruments and the errors
associated with them.

Instruments used to measure length

The following instruments are used to measure length, meter rule 15 cm rule, 30 cm rule, vernier
calipers and micrometer screw gauge.

Procedure for length measurement using rules

1. Use the meter rule to determine the length and width of the top of the table you are
using.
2. Use the 30 cm rule to determine the average thickness of the table top.
3. Calculate the volume of the table top.
4. Calculate the fractional and absolute error in the volume of the table top.

Procedure for length measurement using the vernier calipers

1. Use the vernier caliper to determine the average length, width and thickness of the glass
block provided.
2. Calculate the volume of the glass block.
3. Calculate the fractional and absolute error in the volume of the glass block.

Procedure for length measurement using the micrometer screw gauge

1. Use the micrometer screw gauge to determine the diameter of the sphere.
2. Calculate the volume of the sphere.
3. Calculate the surface area of the sphere.
4. Calculate the fractional and absolute error in the volume of the sphere.
5. Calculate the fractional and absolute error in the surface area of the sphere.

Procedure for measurement of mass and volume

1. Determine the mass of the empty beaker using the triple beam balance.
2. Using a measuring cylinder pour 70 ml of water into the beaker.
3. Determine the mass of the beaker and the water.
4. Calculate the density of the water.
5. Calculate the absolute error in the density of the water.
6. Comment on the accuracy of your result given that the density of water is 1000 Kg/m 3

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 EXPERIMENT: 2

TOPIC: HEAT TRANSFER

AIM: To investigate the process of heat transfer and its role in the cooling of electric circuits.

APPARATUS: Heat sink, 10 Ω resistor, fans, DC power supply, LabQuest temperature probe, scotch
tape

METHOD:

1. Set up an electric circuit with a 10 Ω resistor as shown in Figure 1 above.

2. Attach the LabQuest temperature probe to the resistor using scotch tape and monitor the
temperature of the resistor.
3. The resistor will heat up. Allow it to heat until it reaches about 80ºC, then flip the
switch to the OFF position so as to stop current from flowing through the circuit.
4. The resistor will start to cool. Generate a cooling curve (Temperature vs Time
plot) using LabQuest and save it.
5. Repeat steps 1 to 4 with ONLY a heat sink added to the resistor.
6. Repeat steps 1 to 4 with ONLY the fan cooling the resistor.
7. Repeat steps 1 to 4 with the heat sink AND the fan cooling the resistor.
8. Send the data to yourselves for analysis. To do this, you can connect LabQuest to a lab
computer and email the result to yourselves.
9. Using Excel, plot all 4 results on a single graph.
10. In your discussion, compare all 4 plots. Which of the 4 shows more efficient
cooling? Which would you use when building a computer and why?

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EXPERIMENT: 3

TOPIC: REFLECTION OF LIGHT

AIM: To investigate the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of
reflection.

PreLab Questions:
1. When is reflection said to occur?
2. Draw a fully labelled diagram showing the boundary, normal, incident ray, reflected ray, angle of
incidence, angle of reflection.
3. Where are the angles measured from?
4. List three precautions associated with this experiment.

APPARATUS:

Ray box, channel, protractor, mirror

Figure 1
Photo credit: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qr8exoX-uE0

PROCEDURE:

1. Plug the ray box to the power source.

2. Set-up the mirror as shown in Figure 1 above. Notice the surface of the mirror is on the line.
3. Adjust the rotating protractor on the channel to different incident angles (from 0 to 30 degrees)
and record the reflected angle for each incident angle.

4. Plot a graph of angle of incidence versus the angle of reflection.

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DATA ANALYSIS:

1. Discuss the results you have obtained, stating clearly what you have found out about the
relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection.

2. What is the slope of the graph plotted? Does the value of the slope obtained make sense? Why or
why not?

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EXPERIMENT: 4

TOPIC: REFRACTION OF LIGHT

AIM: To investigate the relationship between the angle of incidence and the corresponding angles of
refraction for a glass block.

PRELAB QUESTIONS:

1. What is refraction?
2. Draw a fully labelled diagram showing the boundary, normal, incident ray, refracted ray, angle of
incidence, angle refraction
3. Where are the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction measured from?

APPARATUS

Glass block, ray box, protractor, channel

Figure 2
Photo credit: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yfawFJCRDSE

PROCEDURE

1. Plug the ray box to the power source.

2. Set-up the glass block as shown in Figure 2 above. Notice the surface of the glass block is on the
line.

3. Adjust the rotating protractor on the channel to different incident angles (from 0 to 30 degrees)
and record the refracted angle for each incident angle.

4. After you do question 5 in the data analysis section below, go back to the experimental set-up and

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 check that your value for the critical angle make sense.

Data Collected
Draw a table showing the values of i, r, sin i and sin r.
Data Analysis
1. How do your observations show that light is refracted?
2. Plot a graph of sin i against sin r.
3. From your graph find the value of the angle of incidence when the angle of refraction is 25 o.
4. Use your graph to determine the refractive index of the glass.
5. Given that n = 1/sin c, where c is the critical angle of glass, find the value of c the critical angle of
glass.
6. Discuss any precautions and sources of error in this experiment.

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EXPERIMENT: 5

TOPIC: OHM’S LAW

AIM : To determine the relationship between current and voltage for a fixed resistor.

APPARATUS : Voltmeter (0 – 12 V), ammeter (0 – 1 A), switch, resistor, rheostat (2 A, 80 ), power
source (12V)

PROCEDURE :

Figure 3
Connect the circuit using the circuit diagram in Figure 3. Vary the voltage across the resistor (R)
by moving the slider while noting the current. This should be done such that six values of the
voltage and the corresponding values of the current can be tabulated.

ANALYSIS:

1. Plot a graph of current against voltage.

2. From your graph determine the gradient.
3. What is the relationship between current and voltage?
4. Write an equation for the relationship between current and voltage.
5. According to Ohm’s law the current through an ohmic conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across it provided there is no change in the physical conditions. Was Ohm’s
law verified in this experiment? Explain.
6. Using your gradient determine the resistance(R) of the resistor.

DISCUSSION
Discuss your results be sure to include sources of error and any precautions taken.

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EXPERIMENT: 6

TOPIC: Transformers

AIM: To investigate the relationship between the primary and secondary voltage of a
transformer.

APPARATUS: Two (2) transformer coils of different turns, wires, AC power supply, two (2)
multimeter capable of reading AC, laminated core.

METHOD:

Figure 4

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 4.

2. Vary the AC power supply for seven different primary voltages shown in Table 1.
3. For each primary voltage, record and tabulate the corresponding secondary voltage.

Primary Voltage (Vp/V) Secondary Voltage (Vs/V)

10.2
8.7
7.7
6.6
5.3
4.3
2.9

Table 1

DATA ANALYSIS:

1. Plot a graph of the secondary voltage vs the primary voltage.

2. Using the graph, determine the ratio of the secondary turns to that of the primary turns.
3. Calculate the actual turn ratios (secondary to primary).
4. What is the percent difference between the actual and the measured.
5. State two sources of error in this experiment.

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EXPERIMENT: 7

TOPIC: Rectification

AIM: To investigate full-wave and half-wave rectification.

APPARATUS: 1 AC-Power supply (5 V – 25 V, depending on type of diode), 4 diode (e.g.

1N4001, 1N4004), 1 kΩ resistor, 1 oscilloscope, cables

METHOD:

Half-wave rectification

Figure 5
photo credit: https://www.elprocus.com/half-wave-rectifier-circuit-working-
principle-and- characteristics-2/

1. Setup the circuit as shown in Figure 5 above.

2. Connect the oscilloscope probes appropriately to obtain the:
i. Input waveform from AC voltage source.
ii. Output waveform (across the load).
3. Sketch the waveforms obtained from (2) above indicating the voltage and time values.
4. Determine and compare the input and output frequencies.
5. Explain any differences in your observed input and output waveforms.

Full-wave rectification

Figure 6

photo credit: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode_6.html

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 1. Setup the circuit as shown in Figure 6 above. The load resistor is 1 kΩ.
2. Connect the oscilloscope probes appropriately to obtain the:
i. Input waveform from AC voltage source.
ii. Output waveform (across the load).
3. Sketch the waveforms obtained from (2) above indicating the voltage and time values.
4. Determine and compare the input and output frequencies.
5. Explain any differences in your observed input and output waveforms.

Full-wave rectification with smoothing

Figure 7

photo credit: http://www.circuitstoday.com/full-wave-bridge-rectifier

1. Connect a 220 uF capacitor across the load resistor R1 as shown in Figure 7 above.
2. Use the oscilloscope to obtain the output waveform (across the load).
3. Sketch the waveform observed clearly indicating voltage and time values.
4. Compute and compare the input and output frequencies.
Explain the differences in the output waveforms obtained in the experiment for full-wave
rectification without smoothing and with smoothing

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