8 AC MOTORS

AC motors are supplied with singe, two or three phase supplies. As with all
electric motors, AC or DC, the principle is the transfer of electrical energy into
mechanical torque and this is achieved magnetically. With few exceptions, the
operation of an AC motor relies on the production of a rotating magnetic field,
therefore, we will examine the production of a rotating field first.

8.1 ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD

Alternating Current supplies are generally available in one of three forms, single
phase, two phase or three phase. Any of these three supplies can be used to
produce a rotating magnetic field, but there are differences in how it is achieved,
so they will be examined individually.

8.2 SINGLE-PHASE SUPPLY

A single-phase motor cannot produce a rotating field. The field merely alternates
with the frequency as in Figure 1.

STATOR
CURRENT
(FIELD)

Single Phase Motor

Figure 1

The field changes polarity every half cycle and induces currents in the rotor which
try to turn it through 180° but is unable to do so as there is no turning force.

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To produce a rotating field from a single-phase AC supply requires a minimum of
two pairs of field windings and a four- pole stator, as shown in Figure 2.

SINGLE-PHASE
AC SUPPLY

TWO PAIRS
OF WINDINGS
GIVING 4 POLES

Single-Phase Supply
Figure 2

However, a single-phase supply connected to the windings shown will only

produce an alternating field positioned at 45 degrees to the pole pieces. To
create a rotating field, the current in one pair of field windings must be 90 degrees
out of phase with the current in the other pair of field windings.

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8.2.1 Split Phase Motor

To produce turning moment for starting a single-phase motor a split phase

system may be used. Figure 3 shows how the phase may be split.

SINGLE-PHASE
AC SUPPLY

CAPACITOR TWO PAIRS

CREATES 90° OF WINDINGS
PHASE-SHIFT GIVING 4 POLES

Single Phase Motor Phase Splitting

Figure 3

If an auxiliary winding electrically displaced by 90° is introduced, it will produce a

quadrature flux. Connecting a capacitor into the arrangement as shown produces
phase displacement. Remember that in a capacitive circuit the current will lead
the voltage by up to 90°. The quadrature flux produced, provides sufficient
turning moment to start a single-phase motor.

Other methods of splitting the phase can be used for the same purpose. A
resistor can be connected in series with the auxiliary winding so that its current
may lead that of the main winding which is more inductive. In other motors, the
starting winding may be constructed to be less inductive than the main winding to
produce the same effect.

The direction of rotation of the magnetic field depends on the order in which the
poles become magnetised.

The direction of rotation of the field can be reversed either by swapping the
supply to one pair of field windings, or by switching the capacitor from one field
winding to the other. The latter method is often used on aircraft motors.
If the supply to both field windings is reversed, the motor will run in the same
direction.

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8.2.2 Bi-directional Single–Phase Motor

Figure 4 shows the circuit arrangement of a bi-directional single-phase motor.

OUTPUT

N
OPEN

CLOSE

MOTOR
GEARBOX

L2
L1
LIMIT CAM
OPEN

C
CAMSHAFT

BA
LIMIT CAM
CLOSE

CLOSE

OPEN
SELECTOR
SWITCH

Bi-directional Single-Phase Motor

Figure 4

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Referring to Figure 4, the single-phase motor has two identical stator windings
(L1 & L2), and a cage induction rotor which drives an output shaft and a camshaft
through an appropriate gearbox. With the control switch in the CLOSE position,
the supply line (L) is broken because contact B is open due to the lobe on the
close limit cam. By putting the control switch to OPEN the supply is connected
through contact A to L1 (main winding) and through the capacitor (C) to L2
(auxiliary winding). The current in L1 lags the current in L2, causing the output
shaft to rotate clockwise and contact B to close (ineffective because of control
switch position). The motor continues to drive clockwise and stops when the lobe
on the open limit cam causes contact A to open.

Putting the control switch to the CLOSE position changes over the roles of L1 and
L2 to auxiliary and main windings respectively. Current through L1 will now lead
the current through L2 and the output shaft rotates anticlockwise causing contact
A to close (ineffective because of control switch position). The motor continues to
rotate anticlockwise and stops when the lobe on the close limit cam opens
contact B. The open and close limits are pre-set by adjusting the positions of the
limit cams on the camshaft.

8.3 TWO-PHASE SUPPLY

To produce a rotating field from a two-phase supply also requires a minimum of

four field poles and two pairs of field windings. A two-phase supply comprises
two voltages phase displaced from one another by 90 degrees. Therefore, no
capacitor is required. Figure 5 shows a two-phase motor circuit.

PHASE A

PHASE
“B”
PHASE B1
PHASE B

PHASE
“A”
PHASE A1

PHASE
A - A1

PHASE
B - B1

Two-Phase Motor Circuit

Figure 5

The only way to reverse the direction of rotation of such a motor is to swap the
power supply connections to one pair of field windings.

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The basic operation is similar to that of the three-phase motor and is
demonstrated in Figure 6.

360°

315°
270°
225°
180°
135°
90°
45°
A

Two Phase Motor Operation

Figure 6

Reversing either phase winding will reverse the direction of rotation. Two-phase
motors may be used with lighter loads, such as in valve operation.

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8.4 THREE-PHASE SUPPLY

To produce a rotating field from a three-phase AC supply requires the use of a

six-pole stator and three pairs of field windings. The stator of a three-phase AC
motor is the same as that of a rotating field AC generator. Figure 7 shows a
three-phase motor.
PHASE A
STATOR A

B1 C1
PHASE B

ROTOR

C
B

PHASE C
A1

Three-Phase Motor
Figure 8

The direction of rotation of the field depends on the order in which the windings
are energised. Figure 9 shows the direction of rotation. To reverse the direction
of rotation, it is only necessary to swap the connection to any two of the field
windings.
A
PRODUCES
ROTATING
MAGNETIC
FIELD C1
B1

B
C

A1

Direction of Rotation
Figure 9

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8.4.1 Three-Phase Motor Operation

When AC is applied to the stator, the polarity of the stator will reverse twice each
cycle. When three-phase currents are applied to the stator windings, a rotating
magnetic field is established within the stator. As the current in each phase
changes direction and magnitude, the combined field of the stator will rotate at
the frequency of the AC. Figure 10 and Figure 11 show the rotating field of a 3-
phase induction motor.

1 2 3 4
CURRENT

A PHASE

B PHASE

C PHASE

Three-Phase AC Curves
Figure 10

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 POSITIO N 1 POSITIO N 2

POSITIO N 3 POSITIO N 4

Rotating Field of an AC Motor

Figure 11

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Referring to Figure 10 & 11, in position 1, the A phase is positive with maximum
current and that stator field is vertical. The current in phase B & C is negative,
with approximately half the current flowing in phase B and the other half flowing
in phase C. This results in the vertical field shown in Figure 11 (Position 1).

When the current has changed through an angle of 30° to position 2, the current
in A phase is still positive but has now decreased, the current in B phase is at
zero, and the current in C phase has increased in the negative direction. This
results in a field produced by the poles of the A and C phases. The field has
rotated 30° clockwise from the vertical.

Position 3 & 4 illustrates that the field is rotating clockwise for each position. If
we were to plot the current values for a complete cycle, we would find that the
field rotates through 360° for each cycle. Figure 12 shows the operation of an AC
motor.

Operation of Induction Motor

Figure 12

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8.5 TYPES OF AC MOTORS

There are four types of AC motor used on aircraft systems:

1. Induction motor.

2. Synchronous motor.

3. Hysteresis motor.

4. Shaded pole motor.

8.5.1 Induction Motor

The induction motor has a wide variety of applications because of its operating
characteristics. It does not require special starting devices or excitation from an
auxiliary source and will handle a wide range of loads. It is adaptable to almost
all loads when an exact and constant speed is not required.

The rotor of an induction motor consists of a number of copper or aluminium bars

connected by two end rings to form a cage. The cage is enclosed in a laminated
iron core to reduce its reluctance. This construction is very simple but very
strong. Figure 13 shows the construction of an induction motor.

END
RING

FIELD
OUTPUT COPPER WINDINGS
SHAFT ROTOR
BARS

Induction Motor Construction

Figure 13

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Figure 14 shows the construction of the induction motor’s rotor.

LAMINATED
IRON CORE STATOR

COPPER
OR ALUMINIUM
COPPER BARS
OR ALUMINIUM
RINGS

SQUIRREL CAGE
ROTOR CONDUCTOR BAR
CORE

SHAFT

SQUIRREL CAGE COOLING

END RING FAN BLADES

Induction Motor’s Rotor Construction

Figure 14

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When the rotor is placed in a rotating magnetic field, the bars are cut by the
rotating flux, causing EMFs to be induced in them. Since the bars are shorted by
the end rings, currents can flow in the bars. Current flow in the bars produces a
magnetic field around them, which reacts with the main field of the machine,
causing the rotor to turn. Figure 15 shows the operation of the induction motor.
ROTATION
OF FLUX

WEAK
MAGNETIC
FIELD STRONG
MAGNETIC
FIELD

FORCE
ON ROTOR

FORCE
ON ROTOR

Induction Motor Operation

Figure 15

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At switch-on, the EMFs induced in the rotor bars are at the same frequency as
the supply voltage and because the circuit is highly inductive the current lags the
voltage by almost 90 degrees. This means that by the time the rotor field has
been produced, the main field has moved on by almost 90 degrees and the rotor
field can only react with the trailing edge of the main field, resulting in a small
starting torque.

As the rotor speed increases, the frequency of the EMFs in the rotor decrease,
reducing the inductive reactance. This brings the current more in-phase with the
induced EMFs, producing a good running torque.

For torque to be produced in an induction motor, there must always be relative

movement between the rotor and the magnetic field, whether the motor is loaded
or not. Therefore, the rotor will always lag the rotating field by a greater or lesser
amount. This lag is called Slip. Slip is usually expressed as a percentage of the
synchronous speed, (speed of the rotating field).

Slip = Synchronous Speed - Rotor Speed x 100%

Synchronous Speed

Example:

A motors synchronous speed is 10000rpm and its rotor speed is 8000 rpm,
calculate the slip.

Slip = 10000 - 8000 x 100%

10000

= 2000 x 100%
10000

= 1 x 100%
5

= 0.2 x 100%

= 20%

Note that the rotor conductors are being cut by alternating north and south
magnetic poles, inducing EMFs in the rotor but at varying frequencies. With high
slip, slow rotor speed, the frequency is high. With low slip, high rotor speed, the
frequency is low.

Note; The direction of rotation of a three-phase induction motor may be changed

by reversing any two phases of the supply.

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8.5.2 Speed Control of the Induction Motor

When running, the field around the rotor bars induces an EMF into the stator
windings. This Back-EMF is almost 180 degrees out of phase with the applied
voltage and therefore opposes it, resulting in a small effective voltage across the
field and a low current drawn from the power supply. If the load on the motor is
increased, it slows down, this causes the phase angle of the Back-EMF to
change, increasing the effective voltage, the current from the supply and the
motor torque. The increase in motor torque accelerates the motor back to its
original running speed.

As stated above, the induction motor is an inherently constant speed machine

when the supply frequency is constant. Reducing supply frequency or increasing
the number of poles may reduce the Induction Motor speed.

Ns = 60ƒ rpm where Ns = synchronous speed, ƒ = frequency

p p = Number of pairs of poles per phase

Neither of the above methods of speed control are practicable for aircraft use, so
three phase induction motors are used in conditions of constant load. i.e. fuel
pumps and hydraulic pumps.

Example:

A 3-phase motor has 12 poles and is connected to a 200V 400Hz supply.

Calculate the motor’s synchronous speed.

12 poles in a 3 phase motor equals 4 poles per phase, which equates to 2 pole
pairs per phase.

60 f
Ns =
p

60 x 400
=
2

24000
=
2

= 12000 rpm

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8.5.3 Starting a Three-Phase Induction Motor

When first started, the Back-EMF is almost at 90 degrees to the applied voltage
and therefore not opposing the supply voltage. The effective voltage is therefore
almost equal to the supply voltage and the current demand is high. To reduce
the starting current, some motors are designed to be started with the field
windings connected in Star and run with them connected in Delta. This increases
the impedance during starting and reduces the current drawn from the supply, but
it does not improve the poor starting torque.

If it is required that an induction motor be started On-Load, the poor starting

torque must be improved. To achieve this, the rotor current must be made to
appear more in phase with the voltage. This can be achieved by increasing the
resistance of the rotor windings, however, if the resistance is left in the rotor
circuit once the motor is running, there will be:

1. An increase in the slip speed.

2. A greater speed variation with load changes.

3. An increase in the current taken from the supply.

A compromise often used on aircraft induction motors is to fit a second, high

resistance, cage into the rotor. This gives an improved starting torque, with
minimal running problems.

8.5.4 Double Slotted Squirrel Cage Motor

The power factor for AC in a purely resistive circuit is 100%. However, AC

flowing in a purely inductive circuit would have a power factor of zero. The
addition of resistance to an inductive circuit will have the effect of improving the
power factor. To add the necessary resistance to a rotor circuit for starting
purposes, two squirrel-cage windings are used.

One of the cages is made of copper and has a low resistance, the other is made
of German silver and has a high resistance. When the starting current is applied
to the motor, the high resistance winding produces the starting torque because of
its high Power Factor. As the rotor gains speed, the effect of the high resistance
winding decreases, and the effect of the low resistance winding increases. When
the motor is operating at normal speed, it has the advantage of a low resistance
rotor winding.

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Figure 16 shows the construction of a double slotted squirrel cage motor.

UPPER BAR IS
OUTER SQUIRREL GERMAN SILVER
CAGE (HIGH RESISTANCE)
ON START UP
LESS INDUCTIVE SO
MOST TORQUE
DEVELOPED

INNER SQUIRREL
CAGE

LOWER BAR IS THE TORQUE FOR

COPPER (LOW RESISTANCE) RUNNING IS DEVELOPED
WHEN ROTOR STATIONARY BY BOTH THE INNER &
THE LOWER BAR IS HIGHLY OUTER BARS
INDUCTIVE

Double Slotted Squirrel Cage Motor

Figure 16

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8.6 SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

The synchronous motor gets its name from the fact that the rotor runs at a
synchronous speed i.e. the speed of the field. For it to do this, the rotor must be
a permanent magnet or an electro-magnet. Figure 17 shows a synchronous
motor.

ROTATING
MAGNETIC
FIELD

DIRECTION
OF ROTOR
ROTATION

Synchronous Motor
Figure 17

The rotating field is the same system as that used in the induction motor. The
rotor acts as a permanent magnet with one pair of poles, or it can be an
electromagnet fed with DC, which would mean the use of slip rings and brushes.
As can be seen from Figure 17, the rotor will act as a bar magnet and will turn to
line up with the rotating field.

8.6.1 Operation

For the magnet to lock-on to the field, it must be brought up to about 75% of
synchronous speed. To achieve this the majority of synchronous motors have the
cage of an induction motor built into them. The motor starts as an induction
motor and when sufficient speed has been attained, the electromagnet is
energised, allowing the rotor to lock-on to the field. Once running, no EMFs are
induced in the rotor bars, however, they are useful in holding the rotor and rotor
windings in place and assisting in smooth running during load changes.
The rotor, although running at synchronous speed, will lag behind the field. The
angle of lag is proportional to the load placed on the motor.

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Figure 18 shows the effect of different loads placed on the motor.

FIELD
ROTATION

EXAGGERATED
AIR GAP

NO LOAD - SMALL TORQUE

ANGLE OF
PULLING

ANGLE OF PULL
EQUALS ZERO

WORKING LOAD - SUFFICIENT TORQUE

OVERLOAD - PULL OUT

Loading a Synchronous Motor

Figure 18

If whilst running the load is increased, the angle of lag increases, Figure 18b,
changing the angle of the Back-EMF and increasing the effective voltage. This
increase in effective voltage increases the current taken from the supply,
producing an increase in torque to cope with the load increase. Should the angle
become too great, Figure 18c, the magnetic link will snap, the motor will run
down, stop, and possibly burn out due to the high current taken from the supply
due to the loss of the Back-EMF.

Note: There are very few uses for synchronous motors in aircraft.

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8.7 SHADED POLE MOTOR

The shaded pole induction motor uses another method of starting. A copper band
surrounds a portion of the pole pieces. As field strength increases, currents are
induced in the copper band opposing the motion producing them. While this is
not a 90° phase shift, it does provide enough distortion to cause the rotor to turn
and therefore allow the motor to start. Figure 19 shows a shaded pole motor.

Φ2 Φ1

COPPER OR
ALUMINIUM COPPER OR
SHADING ALUMINIUM
SHADING

SINGLE-PHASE
AC SUPPLY

ROTOR

SINGLE-PHASE
AC SUPPLY

Shaded Pole Motor

Figure 19

When the field winding is energised, an alternating flux appears across the main
poles. The alternating main field induces EMFs in the shaded ring or shorted
winding and causes a current flow within it that produces a second alternating
magnetic field. The field in the shorted ring lags the main field with the overall
effect of producing a field that moves through an angle determined by the relative
positions of the two sections of each main pole. The field is not fully rotating, only
moving through a small angle, therefore the starting torque is low and the motor
can only be used for small, fixed loads.

There are few applications of this motor for aircraft use and its direction of
rotation cannot be reversed.

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Figure 20 shows the construction of a shaded pole motor.

FIELD
WINDINGS

FIELD WINDING
SUPPLY

SHADED
POLES

Shaded Pole Motor – Construction

Figure 20

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8.8 THE HYSTERESIS MOTOR

The motor is so named because the material used for the rotor has a large
hysteresis loop. This type of motor requires a two-phase AC supply and is often
used as a servomotor, one phase being supplied from a reference source, the
other from a control circuit. The current in the control phase is made to either
lead or lag the reference phase by 90 degrees, depending on the direction of
rotation required. Figure 21 shows the circuit construction of a two-phase
hysteresis motor.

REFERENCE
PHASE

CONTROL
PHASE

Hysteresis Motor
Figure 21

The motor shown employs a cobalt steel ring rotor. When the field is energised,
a North Pole appears at A and a South Pole at A1. Poles B and B1 are not
magnetised. The field across A-A1 induces a South Pole in the rotor at X and a
North Pole in the rotor at Y.

As the supply changes, A and A1 die away as B becomes a North Pole and B1
becomes a South Pole. The retention of flux by the rotor causes the South Pole
at X to be attracted by the North Pole at B and the North Pole at Y to be attracted
by the South Pole at B1. This causes the rotor to rotate. As the rotor moves to
align with the field, the field has moved on, so the rotor moves again to try and
align. The rotor continues to rotate following the field.

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Though the rotor is made up of a high hysteresis material, the stator is made of
material with a small hysteresis. The result is that the flux in the rotor lags that in
the stator. The rotor will then move to an attempt to line up with the stator.
The effect on the rotor of the rotating stator field is that if the rotor is stationary or
turning at a speed less than synchronous speed, every point of the rotor is
subjected to successive magnetising cycles. When the stator field reaches zero
during its cycle, the flux left in the rotor provides the torque which remains
constant. This allows the rotor to accelerate to reach synchronous speed. This
type of motor is used in servomotors fitted within aircraft systems

If the phase of the control supply is reversed (made to lag the reference supply
instead of lead it), the motor will change direction. Figure 22 shows a Hysteresis
motor.

TWO-PHASE
STATOR WINDINGS CASE

ROTATING
AXIS OF
COBALT STEEL ROTATING ROTOR FIELD
AXIS OF
ROTOR STATOR FIELD
ANGLE OF
LAG

(a)

(b)

Hysteresis Motor
Figure 22

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